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Phonological Change 491 Phonological Rules 492 The Great Vowel Shift 493

Morphological Change 494

Syntactic Change 496

Lexical Change 500 Change in Category 500 Addition of New Words 500

Word Coinage 501

xii CONTENTS

CHAPTER 11

Writing: The ABCs of Language 540

The History of Writing 541 Pictograms and Ideograms 541 Cuneiform Writing 543 The Rebus Principle 545 From Hieroglyphics to the Alphabet 546

Modern Writing Systems 547 Word Writing 548 Syllabic Writing 549 Consonantal Alphabet Writing 551 Alphabetic Writing 551

Writing and Speech 553 Spelling 556 Spelling Pronunciations 560

Summary 561 References for Further Reading 562 Exercises 563

Glossary 569

Index 601

Words from Names 502 Blends 503 Reduced Words 504 Borrowings or Loan Words 504

Loss of Words 507 Semantic Change 508

Broadening 508 Narrowing 509 Meaning Shifts 509

Reconstructing “Dead” Languages 509 The Nineteenth-Century

Comparativists 510 Cognates 511

Comparative Reconstruction 514 Historical Evidence 516

Extinct and Endangered Languages 518

The Genetic Classification of Languages 520 Languages of the World 523

Types of Languages 525

Why Do Languages Change? 528

Summary 530 References for Further Reading 531 Exercises 532

xiii

The ninth edition of An Introduction to Language continues in the spirit of our friend, colleague, mentor, and coauthor, Victoria Fromkin. Vicki loved lan- guage, and she loved to tell people about it. She found linguistics fun and fasci- nating, and she wanted every student and every teacher to think so, too. Though this edition has been completely rewritten for improved clarity and currency, we have nevertheless preserved Vicki’s lighthearted, personal approach to a com- plex topic, including witty quotations from noted authors (A. A. Milne was one of Vicki’s favorites). We hope we have kept the spirit of Vicki’s love for teaching about language alive in the pages of this book.

The first eight editions of An Introduction to Language succeeded, with the help of dedicated teachers, in introducing the nature of human language to tens of thousands of students. This is a book that students enjoy and understand and that professors find effective and thorough. Not only have majors in lin- guistics benefited from the book’s easy-to-read yet comprehensive presentation, majors in fields as diverse as teaching English as a second language, foreign lan- guage studies, general education, psychology, sociology, and anthropology have enjoyed learning about language from this book.

Highlights of This Edition This edition includes new developments in linguistics and related fields that will strengthen its appeal to a wider audience. Much of this information will enable students to gain insight and understanding about linguistic is