What makes army leaders successful when exercising mission command

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Level of legal and ethical ambiguity. Rules of engagement. Level of unit cohesion. Level of training. Level of trust. Level of shared understanding.

(See figure 1-1 for a sample of the considerations for determining the appropriate level of control.)

1-25. Different operations and phases of operations may require tighter or more relaxed control over subordinate elements than other phases. Operations that require the close synchronization of multiple units, or the integration of effects in a limited amount of time, may require more detailed coordination, and be controlled in a more centralized manner. Examples of this include combined arms breaches, air assaults, and wet gap crossings. Conversely, operations that do not require the close coordination of multiple units, such as a movement to contact or a pursuit, offer many opportunities to exercise initiative. These opportunities may be lost if too much emphasis is placed on detailed synchronization. Even in a highly controlled operation, subordinates must still exercise initiative to address unexpected problems and achieve their commander's intent when existing orders no longer make sense in the context of execution.

Figure 1-1. Levels of control

PRINCIPLES OF MISSION COMMAND 1-26. Mission command requires competent forces and an environment of mutual trust and shared understanding among commanders, staffs, and subordinates. It requires effective teams and a command climate in which subordinates are required to seize opportu intent. Commanders issue mission orders that focus on the purpose of an operation and essential coordination measures rather than on the details of how to perform assigned tasks, giving subordinates the latitude to accomplish those tasks in a manner that best fits the situation. This minimizes the number of decisions a

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single commander makes and allows subordinates the greatest possible freedom of action to accomplish tasks. Finally, when delegating authority to subordinates, commanders set the necessary conditions for success by allocating appropriate resources to subordinates based on assigned tasks. Successful mission command is enabled by the principles of

Competence. Mutual trust. Shared understanding. Mission orders. Disciplined initiative. Risk acceptance.

COMPETENCE

1-27. Tactically and technically competent commanders, subordinates, and teams are the basis of effective using mission command relates directly to the

competence of its Soldiers. Commanders and subordinates achieve the level of competence to perform assigned tasks to standard through training, education, assignment experience, and professional development. Commanders continually assess the competence of their subordinates and their organizations. This assessment informs the degree of trust commanders have orders in a decentralized fashion at acceptable levels of risk.

1-28. Training and education that occurs in both schools and units provides commanders and subordinates the experiences that allow them to achieve professional competence. Repetitive, realistic, and challenging training creates common experiences that develop the teamwork, trust, and shared understanding that commanders need to exercise mission command and forces need to achieve unity of effort. (See ADP 7-0 for doctrine on individual and collective training.)

1-29. Leaders supplement institutional and organizational training and education with continuous self-development. Self-development is particularly important for the skills that rely on the art of command, which is further developed by reading and studying the art of war. These skills can also be developed through coursework, simulations and experience. (See chapter 2 for discussion on the art of command.)

MUTUAL TRUST

1-30. Mutual trust is shared confidence between commanders, subordinates, and partners that they can be relied on and are competent in performing their assigned tasks. There are few shortcuts to gaining the trust of others. Trust is given by leaders and subordinates, and built over time based on common shared experiences. It is the result of upholding the Army values, exercising leadership consistent with Army leadership principles, and most effectively instilled .

1-31. Mutual trust is essential to successful mission command, and it must flow throughout the chain of command. Subordinates are more willing to exercise initiative when they believe their commander trusts them. They will also be more willing to exercise initiative if they believe their commander will accept and support the outcome of their decisions. Likewise, commanders delegate greater authority to subordinates who have demonstrated tactical and technical competency and whose judgment they trust.

1-32. At the lowest tactical levels the ability to trust subordinate formations to execute their collective tasks and battle drills is essential. Building that trust is critical to rapid decision making in high pressure situations; commanders should be focused more on the problem to be solved when giving guidance than the methods that their subordinates might use. Subordinates must trust that commanders will employ mission orders to the maximum extent possible once they have demonstrated the attributes and competencies expected.

1-33. Commanders must also trust their colleagues who are commanding adjacent and supporting forces, and they must earn their trust as well. When a commander exercises initiative, trust gives other commanders the same level of confidence to synchronize their actions with those of that commander. Such actions synchronize operations without requiring detailed instructions from higher echelons. Once established and

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sustained, trust allows each echelon to focus on operations as a whole instead of on the actions of individual subordinates.

1-34. Trust is based on personal qualities, such as professional competence, character, and commitment. Soldiers must see values in action before such actions become a basis for trust. Trust is built through shared experiences and training deliberately developed by commanders or through the conduct of operations. During shared experiences, two-way communication and interaction among the commander, subordinates, and Soldiers reinforces trust. Soldiers expect to see members of the chain of command accomplishing the mission while taking care of their welfare and leading by example through shared hardships and danger.

1-35. Trust is also a product of a common background, education, understanding of doctrine, and a common language for operations. In some situations, trust may be based solely on a common understanding of an approach to operations. This understanding creates a basic level of trust that, until proven otherwise, new team members or adjacent units will conduct operations to a common standard. During large-scale ground combat operations where task organizations are likely to change rapidly and often, commanders and staffs must assume a basic level of trust regarding the level of competence among new teams.

SHARED UNDERSTANDING

1-36. A critical challenge for commanders, staffs, and unified action partners is creating shared understanding of an operational environment s, and approaches to solving problems. Unified action partners are those military forces, governmental and nongovernmental organizations, and elements of the private sector with whom Army forces plan, coordinate, synchronize, and integrate during the conduct of operations (ADP 3-0). Shared understanding of the situation, along with the flow of information to the lowest possible level, forms Effective decentralized execution is not possible without shared understanding.

1-37. Shared understanding starts with th ry education that instills a common approach to the conduct of operations, a common professional language, and a common understanding of the principles of mission command. Army professionals understand the most current Army doctrine to ensure a minimum level of shared understanding for the conduct of operations. It is this shared understanding that allows even hastily task-organized units to operate effectively.

1-38. Commanders and staffs actively create shared understanding throughout the operations process (planning, preparation, execution, and assessment). They collaboratively frame an operational environment and its problems, and then they visualize approaches to solving those problems.

1-39. Collaboration is more than coordination. It is multiple people and organizations working together towards a common goal by sharing knowledge and building consensus. It requires dialogue that involves the candid exchange of ideas or opinions among participants and encourages frank discussions in areas of disagreement. Throughout the operations process, commanders, subordinate commanders, staffs, and unified action partners collaborate by sharing and questioning information, perceptions, and ideas to understand situations and make decisions.

1-40. Through collaboration, commanders create a learning environment that allows participants to think critically and creatively and share their ideas, opinions, and recommendations without fear of reproach. Effective collaboration requires candor and a free, yet mutually respectful, exchange of ideas. Participants must feel free to make viewpoints based on their expertise, experience, and insight. This includes sharing ideas that contradict the opinions held by those of higher rank. Successful commanders listen to novel ideas and counterarguments. Effective collaboration is not possible unless commanders enable it.

1-41. Commanders establish a culture of collaboration in their organization. They recognize that they do not know everything, and they recognize that they may have something to learn from even the most junior subordinate. Commanders establish a command climate by their personal example, coaching, counseling, and mentoring where collaboration routinely occurs throughout their organization. Successful commanders invest the time and effort to visit with Soldiers, subordinate leaders, and unified action partners to understand their issues and concerns. Through such interactions, subordinates and partners gain insight into their

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1-42. Shared understanding both supports and derives from trust. However, like trust, it requires time to establish, and commanders cannot assume shared understanding. Shared understanding is perishable, and commanders and their subordinates must adequately communicate to maintain shared understanding of the situation, problems, and potential solutions. Commanders can develop shared understanding in their organizations through training and by creating an environment of collaboration and dialogue.

1-43. An important source of shared understanding is open and clear communications between leaders and Soldiers. Commanders can also aid shared understanding by exhibiting a demeanor and personal mannerisms that reinforce, or at least do not contradict, their spoken message. Units develop the ability to communicate through familiarity, trust, a shared philosophy, and experiences. Sharing a common perception of military problems also leads to shared understanding.

1-44. There is a hierarchical component of shared understanding. At each echelon of command, commanders will have a slightly different understanding of the situation. Having a common perception of military problems does not imply any requirement to come to identical solutions; under mission command, understanding what outcome to achieve is more important than agreement on how to achieve it. Activities that can lead to shared understanding include collaboration among commanders and staffs, professional development meetings, terrain walks, and professional discussions.

Command Based on Shared Understanding and Trust: Grant’s Orders to Sherman, 1864

In a letter to MG William T. Sherman, dated 4 April 1864, LTG Ulysses S. Grant outlined

by writing, design, if the enemy keep quiet and allow me to take the initiative in the spring campaign, to work all parts of the army together, and somewhat towards a common

far as you can, inflicting all the damage you can against their War resources. I do not propose to lay down for you a plan of campaign, but simply to lay down the work it is desirable to have done and leave you free to execute it in your own way. Submit to me, however, as early as you can, your plan of

MG Sherman responded to LTG Grant immediately in a letter dated 10 April 1864. He sent LTG Grant, as requested, his specific plan of operations, demonstrating that he

t:

plan, converging on a common center, looks like enlightened war.... I will not let side issues draw me off from your main plan, in which I am to Knock Joe [Confederate GEN Joseph E.] Johnston, and do as much damage to the resources of the enemy as possible....I would ever bear in mind that Johnston is at all times to be kept so busy that he cannot, in any event, send any part

COMMANDER S INTENT I suppose dozens of operation orders have gone out in my name, but I never, throughout the war, actually wrote one myself. I always had someone who could do that better than I could. One part of the order I did, however, draft myself the intention. It is usually the shortest of all paragraphs, but it is always the most important, because it states or it should just what the commander intends to achieve. It is the one overriding expression of will by which everything in the order and every action by every commander and soldier in the army must be dominated. It should, therefore, be worded by the commander, himself.

Field Marshall William Joseph Slim

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1-45. The is a clear and concise expression of the purpose of the operation and the desired military end state that supports mission command, provides focus to the staff, and helps subordinate

when the operation does not unfold as planned (JP 3-0). The hi

ing ts within which a subordinate may exercise initiative.

1-46. The commander's intent succinctly describes what constitutes success for the operation. Commanders convey their intent in a format they determine most suitable to the situation. It may include the operation's purpose, key tasks, and conditions that define the end state. When describing the purpose of the operation,

, it describes the broader purpose of the unit's operation in relationship to the higher commander's intent and concept of operations. Doing this allows subordinates to gain insight into what is expected of them, what constraints apply, and, most importantly, why the mission is being conducted. If it is longer than a brief paragraph it is probably too long.

1-47. Key tasks are those significant activities the force must perform as a whole to achieve the desired end state. Key tasks are not specified tasks for any subordinate unit; however, they may be sources of implied tasks. During execution when significant opportunities present themselves or the concept of operations no longer fits the situation subordinates use key tasks to keep their efforts focused on achieving the desired end state. Examples of key tasks include terrain the force must control or an effect the force must have on the enemy. Commanders include the purpose of each associated key task to facilitate subordinate decision making and disciplined initiative.

1-48. The end state is a set of desired future conditions the commander wants to exist when an operation ends. Commanders may describe the operation's end state by stating the desired conditions of the friendly force in relationship to desired conditions of the enemy, terrain, and civil considerations. A clearly defined end state promotes unity of effort among the force and with unified action partners.

1-49. h staffs and subordinate leaders develop plans and orders. A well- rpose and desired end

r subordinates to coordinate their separate efforts. ent. When possible, they deliver it in person.

Face-to-face delivery ensures shared understanding of what the commander wants by allowing immediate clarification of specific points. Individuals can then exercise initiative within the overarching guidance p

1-50. which subordinates may exercise initiative while maintaining unity of effort. A clear and succinct

-level leaders can remember and understand, even without an order, is key to maintaining unity of effort. Soldiers two echelons down should easily remember and clearly understand the

intent. Subordinates who are far more likely to exercise disciplined initiative in unexpected situations.

1-51. Mission command requires that subordinates use their judgment and initiative to make decisions that

statement and concept of the operation, to accomplish the mission. Empowered with trust, shared they can develop the situation, adapt, and act decisively in uncertain

conditions.

MISSION ORDERS An order should not trespass upon the province of a subordinate. It should contain everything that the subordinate must know to carry out his mission, but no order must be simple and understandable, being framed to suit the intelligence and

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understanding of the recipient. Above all, it must be adapted to the circumstances under which it will be received and executed.

FM 100-5, Tentative Field Service Regulations, Operations (1939)

1-52. An order is a communication verbal, written, or signaled that conveys instructions from superiors to subordinates. The five-paragraph format (situation, mission, execution, sustainment, and command and signal) is the standard for issuing Army orders. Army commanders issue orders to give guidance, assign tasks, allocate resources, and delegate authority.

1-53. Mission command requires commanders to issue mission orders. Mission orders are directives that emphasize to subordinates the results to be attained, not how they are to achieve them. Mission orders enable subordinates to understand the situation, their Subordinate commanders decide how to accomplish their own miss of operations set guidelines that provide unity of effort while allowing subordinate commanders to exercise initiative in planning, preparing, and executing their operations.

1-54. A mission order is not a separate type of order; rather, it is a technique for writing orders that allows subordinates maximum freedom of action in accomplishing missions. Mission orders should succinctly state

nt and concept of operations, tasks to subordinate units, and minimum essential coordinating instructions. Tasks to subordinate units include all the standard elements (who, what, when, where, and why) with particular emphasis on the purpose (why).

1-55. Mission orders should focus on the essential tasks a subordinate is to accomplish and not an extended list of every task a unit may be required to accomplish. It should never repeat items that are part of the standard operating procedures or are commonly understood by the force. Mission orders should not contain directives to a subordinate that dictate how a task is to be accomplished. That is the province of the subordinate.

1-56. Mission orders contain the proper level of detail in the context of a particular situation; they are neither so detailed that they stifle initiative nor so general that they provide insufficient direction. The proper level of detail is situationally dependent. Some phases of operations require tighter control over subordinate elements than other phases and landing phases, for example, require precise synchronization. Its ground maneuver plan requires less detail. As a rule, the base plan or order contains only the specific information required to provide the guidance to synchronize combat power at the decisive time and place while allowing subordinates as much freedom of action as possible. Commanders

operations.

1-57. Graphics that accompany mission orders should be drawn in a manner that allows maximum flexibility during execution. They should provide enough control for those activities requiring synchronization, but they

freedom of action within their areas of operation. Ideally graphics provide enough references such as checkpoints and phase lines for subordinate leaders to use them as a basis of shared understanding when deviation from the base order becomes necessary. Inherently flexible graphics and mission orders together create conditions for initiative and rapid decision making.

1-58. Using mission orders does not mean commanders do not supervise subordinates during operations. Subordinates are accountable to their commanders for the use of delegated authority, but commanders remain solely responsible and accountable for the actions over which subordinates exercise delegated authority. Thus, commanders have the responsibility to check on their subordinates and provide directions and guidance as required to focus their activities. Commanders should emphasize mission orders during training when actual consequences are low, allowing subordinates to develop their own solutions to problems, and intervening only when necessary to avoid a serious problem. This is valuable both for subordinates to gain experience in problem solving and confidence in exercising initiative and for commanders to develop an understanding of the capabilities of subordinates.

DISCIPLINED INITIATIVE Every individual from the highest commander to the lowest private must always remember that inaction and neglect of opportunities will warrant more severe censure than an error

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of judgment in the action taken. The criterion by which a commander judges the soundness of his own decision is whether it will further the intentions of the higher commander.

FM 100-5, Tentative Field Service Regulations, Operations (1941)

1-59. Disciplined initiative refers to the duty individual subordinates have to exercise initiative within the Simply put, disciplined initiative is

when subordinates have the discipline to follow their orders and adhere to the plan until they realize their orders and the plan are no longer suitable for the situation in which they find themselves. This may occur because the enemy does something unforeseen, there is a new or more serious threat, or a golden opportunity emerges that offers a greater chance of success than the original course of action. The subordinate leader then takes action on their own initiative to adjust to th reporting to the commander about the new situation when able to do so.

1-60. Leaders and subordinates who exercise disciplined initiative create opportunity by taking action to develop a situation without asking for further guidance. Commanders rely on subordinates to act to meet their

initiative may be the starting point for seizing, retaining, and exploiting the operational initiative by forcing an enemy to respond to friendly action.

1-61. Operational initiative is the setting of tempo and terms of action throughout an operation (ADP 3-0). Under mission command, subordinates are required, not just permitted, to exercise disciplined initiative in the absence of orders, when current orders no longer apply, or when an opportunity or threat presents itself. The collective effect of multiple subordinates exercising disciplined initiative over time sets the conditions for friendly forces to seize the operational initiative in chaotic and ambiguous situations.

1-62. ive. It gives

purpose and desired end state. They can, on their own responsibility, take actions that they think will best accomplish the mission when communication with higher echelons is intermittent or decisions must be made immediately.

1-63. When exercising initiative, neither commanders nor subordinates are independent actors. Subordinates consider at least two factors when deciding when to exercise initiative:

Whether the benefits of the action outweigh the risk of desynchronizing the overall operation.

1-64. The main consideration in exercising initiative is the urgency of the situation. If time permits, subordinates attempt to communicate their new situation and recommended course of action to their commander. When subordinates communicate their intentions to their commander, their commander can assess the implications for the overall force, and for other operations, and set in motion supporting actions. However, subordinates must depart from their orders when they are unable to contact their commander or when there is a limited amount of time to seize a fleeting opportunity. If doubt exists about whether to contact their commander or depart from orders and act to seize a fleeting opportunity, subordinates should act, if they

1-65. Fostering a command climate that encourages initiative requires commanders to accept risk and underwrite the good faith mistakes of subordinates in training, before the unit is committed to combat. Commanders set conditions for subordinates to learn and gain the experience they need to operate on their own. Subordinates learn to trust that they have the authority and responsibility to act, knowing their commander will back their decisions. Because mutual trust and shared understanding constitute the foundation of subordinate initiative, commanders train subordinates to act within the uncertain situations.

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Initiative: U.S. Paratroopers in Sicily When paratroopers assaulted Sicily during the night of July 9-10, 1943, they suffered some of the worst weather that could affect that kind of a mission. The men were supposed to conduct two airborne assaults and form a buffer zone ahead of the 7th

t winds of up to 40 knots blew them far from their intended drop zones. The 3,400 paratroopers in the assault took heavy losses before a single pair of boots even touched the ground. But what happened next would become airborne legend. It

paratroopers did not find cover or spend hours trying to regroup. They rucked up wherever they were and immediately began attacking everything nearby that happened to look like it belonged to the German or Italian militaries. They tore down communications lines, demolished enemy infrastructure, set up both random and planned roadblocks, ambushed Axis forces, and attacked enemy positions. A group of 16 German pillboxes that controlled key roads was neutralized despite the attacking force having only a fraction of their planned strength. This mischief had a profound effect on the defenders. The Axis forces assumed that the paratroopers were attacking in strength at each spot where a paratrooper assault was reported. So, while many little groups of paratroopers had only a few men, German estimates reported much stronger formations. The worst reports stated that there were 10 times as many attackers as were actually present. German commanders were hard-pressed to rally against what seemed to be an overwhelming attack. Some conducted limited counterattacks at what turned out to be ghosts while others remained in defensive positions or, thinking they were overrun, surrendered to American forces that were a fraction of their size. The operation was a success, thanks in large part to the actions of little groups of paratroopers acting on their own initiative across the island until they could find a unit to form up with. Axis forces began withdrawing from the island on July 25 and Lt. Gen. George S. Patton took Messina, the last major city on Sicily, on August 17.

RISK ACCEPTANCE Given the same amount of intelligence, timidity will do a thousand times more damage in war than audacity.

Carl von Clausewitz

1-66. In general terms, risk is the exposure of someone or something valued to danger, harm, or loss. Because risk is part of every operation, it cannot be avoided. Commanders analyze risk in collaboration with subordinates to help determine what level of risk exists and how to mitigate it. When considering how much risk to accept with a course of action, commanders consider risk to the force and risk to the mission against the perceived benefit. They apply judgment with regard to the importance of an objective, time available, and anticipated cost. Commanders need to balance the tension between protecting the force and accepting and managing risks that must be taken to accomplish their mission.

1-67. The greatest opportunity may come from the course of action with the most risk. An example of this would be committing significant forces to a potentially costly frontal attack to fix the bulk of enemy forces in place to set the conditions for their envelopment by other forces. Another would be taking a difficult but unexpected route in order to achieve surprise.

1-68. While each situation is different, commanders avoid undue caution or commitment of resources to guard against every perceived threat. An unrealistic expectation of avoiding all risk is detrimental to mission

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accomplishment. Waiting for perfect intelligence and synchronization may increase risk or close a window of opportunity. Mission command requires that commanders and subordinates manage accepted risk, exercise initiative, and act decisively, even when the outcome is uncertain.

1-69. Reasonably estimating and intentionally accepting risk is not gambling. Gambling is making a decision in which the commander risks the force without a reasonable level of information about the outcome. Therefore, commanders avoid gambles. Commanders carefully determine risks, analyze and minimize as many hazards as possible, and then accept risk to accomplish the mission.

THE ROLE OF SUBORDINATES IN MISSION COMMAND 1-70. The mission command approach to command and control requires active participation by personnel of all ranks and duty positions. Subordinate officers, noncommissioned officers, and Soldiers all have important roles in the exercise of mission command. During operations, subordinates are delegated authority, typically through orders and standard operating procedures, to mak Commanders expect subordinates to ex in the situation render orders irrelevant, or when communications are lost with higher echelon headquarters.

1-71. Because mission command decentralizes decision-making authority and grants subordinates significant freedom of action, it demands more of subordinates at all levels. Commanders must train and educate subordinates so they demonstrate good judgment when exercising initiative. Subordinates must be competent in their respective fields, and they must be make and implement decisions. They must embrace opportunities to assume responsibility for achieving the c

1-72. Subordinates do not wait for a breakdown in communications or a crisis situation to learn how to act for every opportunity to demonstrate and exercise

initiative. To the greatest extent possible, they report what they intend to do and then execute unless their commander specifically denies them permission.

1-73. As subordinates realize their commander will support sound decisions, their trust increases, and they become more willing to exercise initiative. As commanders see subordinates perform in uncertain situations,