Which child described below exhibits unexpected underachievement

Chapter 11 Specific Learning Disabilities

11

Specific Learning Disabilities

C H A P T E R

Chapter Outline

Definitions

Causes

Incident rates

Common characteristics

General educational approaches

Guidelines for teaching physical education and sport

Assisting Calvin in PE

Read the scenario of Calvin at the start of chapter 11.

Identify behaviors and list key challenges that Calvin faces in Mr. Santos’ class.

Based on these challenges, list and discuss teaching methods and programming strategies that Mr. Santos can use to help Calvin have a positive PE experience.

What Is Learning Disability?

A disorder with these primary characteristics:

Problems with written language and in mastering academic areas, particularly reading

Can’t be caused by cultural differences, lack of educational opportunities, poverty, or other disabilities

Inability to store, process, and produce information in the central nervous system

Can’t be the result of other conditions but might coexist with other conditions, such as ADHD and DCD

Learning Disability Defined

“Specific learning disability” means a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, that might manifest itself in an imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or do mathematical calculations. The term includes such conditions as perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. The term does not include a learning problem that is primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities; of mental retardation; or of environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage. (IDEA, 2004)

Unexpected Underachievement

Educationally significant discrepancy exists between measured intellectual potential and actual academic achievement.

Discrepancy means a difference between ability and actual achievement and is sometimes referred to as unexpected underachievement.

Individual has normal intelligence (IQ).

(continued)

Unexpected Underachievement (continued)

Academic performance lags behind peers; does not perform at grade level.

Difficulty learning in traditional ways.

Summary: Influences how individuals learn and not how well they learn.

(Kavale & Forness, 2000; Smith, 2007)

Learning Disability: The Hidden Disability

No easily identifiable physical signs exist.

Based on dysfunction to the CNS that is not visible.

(continued)

Learning Disability: The Hidden Disability (continued)

Difficulty with the following is a possible indication of a learning problem:

—Remembering newly learned information

—Expressing thoughts orally or in writing

—Understanding information presented

—Following directions and routines

—Moving from one activity to the next

Summary: Learning disabilities cannot be cured or go away and can present lifelong challenges to children and their families.

Individuals With Learning Disability and Coexisting Disabilities

Many children with LD display comorbidity, meaning the disability coexists with other conditions:

Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

Developmental coordination disorder (DCD)

ADHD and DCD alone are not recognized as distinct disability categories under IDEA; they do not qualify for special education services.

What Is ADHD?

Children with ADHD are easily distracted by irrelevant stimuli and frequently shift from one incomplete activity to the next. Inattention occurs in academic, occupational, or social situations and is more difficult to observe than hyperactivity (APA, 2000).

The condition is divided into three subtypes:

Combined type

Predominantly inattentive type

Predominantly hyperactive–impulsive type

What Is DCD?

An individual’s performance in daily activities is substantially below that expected of age and IQ.

The motor deficiency interferes with academic achievement activities of daily living.

Motor deficiency can’t be caused by a general medical condition such as CP, MD, or PDD.

If mental retardation is present, the motor difficulties must be in excess of those associated alone with this disability (APA, 2000).

Summary: DCD is often operationalized as an individual being two standard deviations below age norms on a standardized motor test.

Suspected Causes of LD, ADHD, and DCD

Complex, multidimensional, and the culmination of many problems:

LD: The most common theory is that it is a neurological condition, such as the existence of CNS dysfunction in producing, processing, and storing information.

ADHD: Many believe it to be primarily an interaction of neurological, genetic, and psychosocial factors (CHAAD, 2008).

Incidence of LD, ADHD, and DCD

Learning disability (LD)

Affects 40%-50%, or the largest special education category; 5%, or 2.9 million students.

State-to-state and district-to-district statistics can vary, ranging from 1.7% to 5.8%.

High percentage of children with LD, ranging from 25% to 50%, also display ADHD (CHADD, 2008).

(continued)

Incidence of LD, ADHD, and DCD (continued)

Attention deficit/hyperactive disorder (ADHD)

Affects 3% to 7% of school-aged children, with estimates reported as high as 20% (APA, 2000).

Developmental coordination disorder (DCD)

Affects as many as 6% of children aged 6 to 11 years (APA, 2000).

Teaching Physical Education to Children With a Specific LD, ADHD, or DCD

Characteristics Presenting Unique Challenges to LD, ADHD, and DCD

Heterogeneous group.

Movement characteristics or behaviors vary from skilled movers to developmental delays.

Exhibit a wide range of physical, cognitive, and social behaviors that affect movement.

Common physical, cognitive, and social characteristics are described on page 222.

Unique Behaviors and Programming

Consider the wide spectrum of behaviors for individuals with LD, ADHD, and DCD with implications for teaching.

For example, ask yourself the following:

What are the student’s strengths, and how does this individual learn best?

Why does the student have difficulty performing certain skills, and what can I do to help?

How would you teach based on these behaviors?

Physical Characteristics That Affect Movement

Marked developmental delay

Difficulty with motor planning

Skill sequencing difficulty

Spatial difficulties

Extraneous movements not performed in a smooth and efficient manner

Inability to control movements

Inconsistency in skill performance

Cognitive Characteristics That Affect Movement

Information-processing difficulties

Perceptual and sensory difficulties

Language and thinking delays

Uneven academic achievement

Difficulty completing and solving tasks in allotted time

Failure to pay attention to details

Social Characteristics That Affect Movement

Poor self-concept

Impulsive—acting before thinking

Hyperactive

Easily distracted

Short attention span

Easily frustrated

General Educational Approaches

Physical educators can support and collaborate effectively with other professionals to meet student needs.

No universally supported approach but rather several that can include these:

Multisensory

Behavior management

Multifaceted

Specific Recommendations for Physical Education and Sport

Safety

Medication

Behavior management

Ecological task analysis

Perceptual–motor development

Inclusion

Learning through movement

Relaxation

Youth sport

Safety First and Foremost

Be aware of any potentially harmful activities; periodically check all facilities and equipment.

Use developmentally appropriate equipment (age, body type, and skill level).

Avoid unstructured physical activity designed to blow off steam.

(continued)

Safety First and Foremost (continued)

Allow time to motor plan; perform skills under control and at a slower rate.

Identify students taking medication.

Safeguard against physical and psychological harm.

Design the program to promote cooperation and positive interaction among students.

Medication

Identification

Schedule

Type, dosage, and side effects

Rebound effect

Drug holidays

See also medication sidebar in the text (page 225).

Behavior Management

Emphasize student success and provide a positive experience by organizing the environment with instructional strategies.

Class structure: Use consistent rules, routines, and clear transitions.

Class organization: Eliminate irrelevant stimuli; keep students active and on task.

Teaching prompts or cues: Keep directions simple; avoid providing too much information.

Give positive feedback for student’s efforts and for staying on task.

Ecological Task Analysis (ETA)

The movement skill, form, and performance

outcome are all the results of the dynamic

interactions or constraints among the

task,

conditions or environmental situation, and

performer.

Summary: Be a careful observer of movement and be able to task analyze skills.

Inclusion

The majority of students with LD, ADHD, and DCD are taught in a general physical education class with peers without disabilities.

Peer-tutor programs

Reciprocal teaching

Learning Through Movement or Interdisciplinary Teaching

Movement activities taught in physical education can be integrated into other subject areas throughout the school curriculum (Cone, Werner, Cone, & Woods, 1998).

Helps in learning abstract concepts.

Movement promotes active rather than passive involvement in learning.

Movement is a natural medium for kinesthetic learners.

Movement can be used to stimulate expression and communication.

Learning is reinforced in a fun and meaningful way.

Helps to foster collaboration among professionals.

Relaxation

Socially appropriate way to control emotions when upset or to handle stressful situations.

Use when students lose focus, become too excited, or encounter a stressful situation.

End class with relaxation in the form of a cool-down or closure activity.

Methods used in physical education can include progressive relaxation, yoga, tai chi, static stretching, imagery, or impulse-control games.

Youth Sport

Students with learning disabilities can experience the same benefits as their peers without disabilities.

Find a developmentally age-appropriate sport the student enjoys.

An individual sport such as dance, karate, tennis, or swimming might be a better selection than a team sport.

Proper coach selection is critical.

Parents can assist the coach by providing such information as the child’s

unique behaviors and strategies for overcoming them,

unique medical considerations,

reinforcements that motivate, and

learning strategies that work best.

Important Questions to Ask

To enhance instruction, physical educators can ask the following questions:

What are the student’s strengths and needs?

How does this student best learn?

How can I as the teacher change the environment and the task to help this student learn?

What approaches and programs are already in place for this student at school and at home?

What support systems will I need, and how will I work to get them?

How can I collaborate with others to ensure this student’s success?

Helpful Organizations

Children and Adults with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (CHADD): www.chadd.org

Council for Learning Disabilities (CLD): www.cldinternational.org

Division on Learning Disabilities (DLD) within the Council for Exceptional Children (CEC): www.cec.sped.org; see also www.teachingld.org