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Who coined the phrase peculiar institution

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US History Book Essay

W. W. Norton & Company has been independent since its founding in 1923, when William Warder Norton and Mary D. Herter Norton first published lectures delivered at the People’s Institute, the adult education division of New York City’s Cooper Union. The firm soon expanded its program beyond the Institute, publishing books by celebrated academics from America and abroad. By mid-century, the two major pillars of Norton’s publishing program— trade books and college texts—were firmly established. In the 1950s, the Norton family transferred control of the company to its employees, and today—with a staff of 400 and a comparable number of trade, college, and professional titles published each year— W. W. Norton & Company stands as the largest and oldest publishing house owned wholly by its employees.

Copyright © 2014, 2012 by Eric Foner All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America Fourth Edition Editor: Steve Forman Associate Editor: Justin Cahill Editorial Assistant: Penelope Lin Managing Editor, College: Marian Johnson Managing Editor, College Digital Media: Kim Yi Project Editor: Diane Cipollone Copy Editor: Elizabeth Dubrulle Marketing Manager: Sarah England Media Editors: Steve Hoge, Tacy Quinn Assistant Editor, Media: Stefani Wallace Production Manager: Sean Mintus Art Director: Rubina Yeh Designer: Chin-Yee Lai Photo Editor: Stephanie Romeo Photo Research: Donna Ranieri Permissions Manager: Megan Jackson Permissions Clearing: Bethany Salminen Composition and Layout: Jouve Manufacturing: Transcontinental

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data has been applied for.

This edition: ISBN 978-0-393-92033-8 (pbk.)

W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 500 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10110-0017 wwnorton.com

W. W. Norton & Company Ltd., Castle House, 75/76 Wells Street, London W1T 3QT 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0

For my mother, Liza Foner (1909–2005), an accomplished artist who lived

through most of the twentieth century and into the twenty-first

E R I C F O N E R is DeWitt Clinton Professor of History at Columbia University, where he earned his B.A. and Ph.D. In his teaching and scholarship, he focuses on the Civil War and Reconstruction, slavery, and nineteenth-century America. Professor Foner’s publi- cations include Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men: The Ideology of the Republican Party before the Civil War; Tom Paine and Revolutionary America; Nothing but Freedom: Emancipation and Its Legacy; Reconstruction: America’s Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877; The Story of American Free- dom; and Forever Free: The Story of Emancipation and Reconstruction. His history of Recon- struction won the Los Angeles Times Book Award for History, the Bancroft Prize, and the Parkman Prize. He has served as president of the Organization of American Historians and the American Historical Association. In 2006 he received the Presidential Award for Outstanding Teaching from Columbia University. His most recent book is The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery, winner of the Lincoln Prize, the Bancroft Prize, and the Pulitzer Prize.

A B O U T T H E A U T H O R

C O N T E N T S

Contents

vi i

1 . A N E W W O R L D . . . 1

THE FIRST AMERICANS . . . 3

The Settling of the Americas ... 3  Indian Societies of the Americas ... 3

 Mound Builders of the Mississippi River Valley ... 5  Western Indians ... 6

 Indians of Eastern North America ... 6  Native American Religion ... 7

 Land and Property ... 9  Gender Relations ... 10  European Views

of the Indians ... 10

INDIAN FREEDOM, EUROPEAN FREEDOM .. . 11

Indian Freedom ... 11  Christian Liberty ... 12  Freedom and

Authority ... 12  Liberty and Liberties ... 13

THE EXPANSION OF EUROPE . . . 13

Chinese and Portuguese Navigation ... 14  Freedom and Slavery in

Africa ... 14  The Voyages of Columbus ... 16

CONTACT . . . 16

Columbus in the New World ... 16  Exploration and Conquest ... 17

 The Demographic Disaster ... 19

THE SPANISH EMPIRE . . . 20

Governing Spanish America ... 21  Colonists and Indians in Spanish

America ... 21  Justifications for Conquest ... 22  Piety and Profit ... 23

 Reforming the Empire ... 24  Exploring North America ... 25

 Spanish in Florida and the Southwest ... 25  The Pueblo Revolt ... 27

Voices of Freedom: From Bartolomé de las Casas, History of the Indies

(1528), and From “Declaration of Josephe” (December 19, 1681) ... 28

THE FRENCH AND DUTCH EMPIRES . . . 30

French Colonization ... 32  New France and the Indians ... 32  The

Dutch Empire ... 34  Dutch Freedom ... 34  The Dutch and Religious

Toleration ... 35  Settling New Netherland ... 36  Features of European

Settlement ... 36

REVIEW .. . 37

2 . B E G I N N I N G S O F E N G L I S H A M E R I C A , 1 6 0 7 – 1 6 6 0 . . . 3 8

ENGLAND AND THE NEW WORLD . . . 40

Unifying the English Nation ... 40  England and Ireland ... 40  England

and North America ... 40  Motives for Colonization ... 41  The Social

Crisis ... 42  Masterless Men ... 43

A b o u t t h e A u t h o r . . . v

L i s t o f M a p s , T a b l e s , a n d F i g u r e s . . . x v i i i

P r e f a c e . . . x x

vii i

Contents

THE COMING OF THE ENGLISH .. . 43

English Emigrants ... 43  Indentured Servants ... 44  Land and

Liberty ... 44  Englishmen and Indians ... 45  The Transformation

of Indian Life ... 46

SETTLING THE CHESAPEAKE .. . 47

The Jamestown Colony ... 47  Powhatan and Pocahontas ... 48  The

Uprising of 1622 ... 49  A Tobacco Colony ... 50  Women and the

Family ... 50  The Maryland Experiment ... 52  Religion in

Maryland ... 52

THE NEW ENGLAND WAY .. . 53

The Rise of Puritanism ... 53  Moral Liberty ... 53  The Pilgrims at

Plymouth ... 54  The Great Migration ... 55  The Puritan Family ... 55 

Government and Society in Massachusetts ... 56  Church and State in

Puritan Massachusetts ... 58

NEW ENGLANDERS DIVIDED .. . 59

Roger Williams ... 60  Rhode Island and Connecticut ... 60  The Trials

of Anne Hutchinson ... 61  Puritans and Indians ... 61

Voices of Freedom: From “The Trial of Anne Hutchinson” (1637),

and From John Winthrop, Speech to the Massachusetts General Court

(July 3, 1645) ... 62

The Pequot War ... 64  The New England Economy ... 65  A Growing

Commercial Society ... 66

RELIGION, POLITICS, AND FREEDOM ... 67

The Rights of Englishmen ... 67  The English Civil War ... 68 

England’s Debate over Freedom ... 68  The Civil War and English

America ... 69  Cromwell and the Empire ... 70

REVIEW .. . 71

3 . C R E A T I N G A N G L O - A M E R I C A , 1 6 6 0 – 1 7 5 0 . . . 7 2

GLOBAL COMPETITION AND THE EXPANSION OF

ENGLAND’S EMPIRE . . . 74

The Mercantilist System ... 74  The Conquest of New Netherland ... 74 

New York and the Indians ... 75  The Charter of Liberties ... 77  The

Founding of Carolina ... 77  The Holy Experiment ... 78  Land in

Pennsylvania ... 79

ORIGINS OF AMERICAN SLAVERY .. . 80

Englishmen and Africans ... 80  Slavery in History ... 81  Slavery

in the West Indies ... 81  Slavery and the Law ... 82  The Rise of

Chesapeake Slavery ... 83  Bacon’s Rebellion: Land and Labor in

Virginia ... 83  A Slave Society ... 85

Contents

ix

COLONIES IN CRISIS . . . 86

The Glorious Revolution ... 86  The Glorious Revolution in America ... 87 

The Salem Witch Trials ... 89

THE GROWTH OF COLONIAL AMERICA .. . 90

A Diverse Population ... 90  The German Migration ... 91

Voices of Freedom: From Memorial against Non-English Immigration

(December 1727), and From Letter by a Swiss-German Immigrant

to Pennsylvania (August 23, 1769) ... 92

Religious Diversity ... 95  Indian Life in Transition ... 95  Regional

Diversity ... 96  The Consumer Revolution ... 97  Colonial Cities ... 97 

An Atlantic World ... 98

SOCIAL CLASSES IN THE COLONIES . . . 99

The Colonial Elite ... 99  Anglicization ... 100  Poverty in the

Colonies ... 100  The Middle Ranks ... 101  Women and the

Household Economy ... 101  North America at Mid-Century ... 102

REVIEW .. . 103

4 . S L A V E R Y , F R E E D O M , A N D T H E S T R U G G L E F O R E M P I R E , T O 1 7 6 3 . . . 1 0 4

SLAVERY AND EMPIRE . . . 106

Atlantic Trade ... 106  Africa and the Slave Trade ... 107  The Middle

Passage ... 109  Chesapeake Slavery ... 109  The Rice Kingdom ... 110

 The Georgia Experiment ... 111  Slavery in the North ... 112

SLAVE CULTURES AND SLAVE RESISTANCE .. . 113

Becoming African-American ... 113  African Religion in Colonial America

... 113  African-American Cultures ... 114  Resistance to Slavery ... 115

AN EMPIRE OF FREEDOM .. . 116

British Patriotism ... 116  The British Constitution ... 117  Republican

Liberty ... 117  Liberal Freedom ... 118

THE PUBLIC SPHERE . . . 119

The Right to Vote ... 119  Political Cultures ... 120  The Rise of the

Assemblies ... 121  Politics in Public ... 121  The Colonial Press ... 122

 Freedom of Expression and Its Limits ... 122  The Trial of Zenger ... 123

 The American Enlightenment ... 124

THE GREAT AWAKENING .. . 125

Religious Revivals ... 125  The Preaching of Whitefield ... 126  The

Awakening’s Impact ... 126

IMPERIAL RIVALRIES . . . 127

Spanish North America ... 127  The Spanish in California ... 127  The

French Empire ... 129

x

Contents

BATTLE FOR THE CONTINENT .. . 130

The Middle Ground ... 130  The Seven Years’ War ... 130  A World

Transformed ... 131  Pontiac’s Rebellion ... 132  The Proclamation

Line ... 132

Voices of Freedom: From Pontiac, Speeches (1762 and 1763), and

From The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or

Gustavus Vassa, the African (1789) ... 134

Pennsylvania and the Indians ... 136  Colonial Identities ... 137

REVIEW .. . 138

5 . T H E A M E R I C A N R E V O L U T I O N , 1 7 6 3 – 1 7 8 3 . . . 1 3 9

THE CRISIS BEGINS . . . 140

Consolidating the Empire ... 140  Taxing the Colonies ... 142 

Taxation and Representation ... 143  Liberty and Resistance ... 144 

The Regulators ... 145

THE ROAD TO REVOLUTION .. . 145

The Townshend Crisis ... 145  The Boston Massacre ... 146  Wilkes

and Liberty ... 147  The Tea Act ... 148  The Intolerable Acts ... 148

THE COMING OF INDEPENDENCE .. . 149

The Continental Congress ... 149  The Continental Association ... 150

 The Sweets of Liberty ... 150  The Outbreak of War ... 151 

Independence? ... 151  Paine’s Common Sense ... 152  The Declaration

of Independence ... 153  An Asylum for Mankind ... 154  The Global

Declaration of Independence ... 155

Voices of Freedom: From Thomas Paine, Common Sense (1776), and

From Jonathan Boucher, A View of the Causes and Consequences of

the American Revolution (1775) ... 156

SECURING INDEPENDENCE .. . 158

The Balance of Power ... 158  Blacks in the Revolution ... 158  The

First Years of the War ... 159  The Battle of Saratoga ... 161  The War

in the South ... 162  Victory at Last ... 162

REVIEW .. . 166

6 . T H E R E V O L U T I O N W I T H I N . . . 1 6 7

DEMOCRATIZING FREEDOM .. . 169

The Dream of Equality ... 169  Expanding the Political Nation ... 169

 The Revolution in Pennsylvania ... 170  The New Constitutions ... 171

 The Right to Vote ... 171

TOWARD RELIGIOUS TOLERATION .. . 172

Catholic Americans ... 173  Separating Church and State ... 173

 Jefferson and Religious Liberty ... 174  Christian Republicanism ... 175

 A Virtuous Citizenry ... 175

Contents

xi

DEFINING ECONOMIC FREEDOM .. . 176

Toward Free Labor ... 176  The Soul of a Republic ... 176  The Politics

of Inflation ... 177  The Debate over Free Trade ... 178

THE LIMITS OF LIBERTY .. . 178

Colonial Loyalists ... 178  The Loyalists’ Plight ... 179  The Indians’

Revolution ... 181

SLAVERY AND THE REVOLUTION .. . 182

The Language of Slavery and Freedom ... 182  Obstacles to Abolition ... 183

 The Cause of General Liberty ... 183  Petitions for Freedom ... 184

 British Emancipators ... 185  Voluntary Emancipations ... 185

Voices of Freedom: From Abigail Adams to John Adams, Braintree,

Mass. (March 31, 1776), and From Petitions of Slaves to the

Massachusetts Legislature (1773 and 1777) ... 186

Abolition in the North ... 188  Free Black Communities ... 188

DAUGHTERS OF LIBERTY .. . 189

Revolutionary Women ... 189  Republican Motherhood ... 190  The

Arduous Struggle for Liberty ... 190

REVIEW .. . 192

7 . F O U N D I N G A N A T I O N , 1 7 8 3 – 1 7 9 1 . . . 1 9 3

AMERICA UNDER THE CONFEDERATION .. . 195

The Articles of Confederation ... 195  Congress, Settlers, and the West ...

196  The Land Ordinances ... 198  The Confederation’s Weaknesses ...

200  Shays’s Rebellion ... 200  Nationalists of the 1780s ... 201

A NEW CONSTITUTION .. . 202

The Structure of Government ... 202  The Limits of Democracy ... 203

 The Division and Separation of Powers ... 204  The Debate over Slavery

... 205  Slavery in the Constitution ... 205  The Final Document ... 207

THE RATIFICATION DEBATE AND THE ORIGIN OF THE BILL

OF RIGHTS . . . 208

The Federalist ... 208  “Extend the Sphere” ... 208  The Anti-

Federalists ... 209

Voices of Freedom: From David Ramsay, The History of the American

Revolution (1789), and From James Winthrop, Anti-Federalist Essay

Signed “Agrippa” (1787) ... 210

The Bill of Rights ... 214

“WE THE PEOPLE” . . . 215

National Identity ... 215  Indians in the New Nation ... 215  Blacks and

the Republic ... 217  Jefferson, Slavery, and Race ... 218  Principles of

Freedom ... 219

REVIEW .. . 220

xii

Contents

8 . S E C U R I N G T H E R E P U B L I C , 1 7 9 1 – 1 8 1 5 . . . 2 2 1

POLITICS IN AN AGE OF PASSION .. . 222

Hamilton’s Program ... 223  The Emergence of Opposition ... 223  The

Jefferson-Hamilton Bargain ... 224  The Impact of the French Revolution

... 225  Political Parties ... 226  The Whiskey Rebellion ... 226  The

Republican Party ... 226  An Expanding Public Sphere ... 227

Voices of Freedom: From Judith Sargent Murray, “On the Equality of

the Sexes” (1790), and From Address of the Democratic-Republican

Society of Pennsylvania (December 18, 1794) ... 228

The Rights of Women ... 230

THE ADAMS PRESIDENCY .. . 231

The Election of 1796 ... 231  The “Reign of Witches” ... 232  The

Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions ... 233  The “Revolution of

1800” ... 233  Slavery and Politics ... 234  The Haitian

Revolution ... 235  Gabriel’s Rebellion ... 235

JEFFERSON IN POWER .. . 236

Judicial Review ... 237  The Louisiana Purchase ... 237  Lewis and

Clark ... 239  Incorporating Louisiana ... 240  The Barbary Wars ... 241

 The Embargo ... 241  Madison and Pressure for War ... 242

THE “SECOND WAR OF INDEPENDENCE” . . . 243

The Indian Response ... 243  The War of 1812 ... 244  The War’s

Aftermath ... 246  The End of the Federalist Party ... 247

REVIEW .. . 248

9 . T H E M A R K E T R E V O L U T I O N , 1 8 0 0 – 1 8 4 0 . . . 2 4 9

A NEW ECONOMY .. . 251

Roads and Steamboats ... 251  The Erie Canal ... 252  Railroads

and the Telegraph ... 254  The Rise of the West ... 255  The Cotton

Kingdom ... 257

MARKET SOCIETY .. . 259

Commercial Farmers ... 260  The Growth of Cities ... 260  The Factory

System ... 261  The “Mill Girls” ... 262  The Growth of Immigration ...

263  The Rise of Nativism ... 265  The Transformation of Law ... 266

THE FREE INDIVIDUAL .. . 267

The West and Freedom ... 267  The Transcendentalists ... 267  The

Second Great Awakening ... 268  The Awakening’s Impact ... 269

Voices of Freedom: From Ralph Waldo Emerson, “The American

Scholar” (1837), and From “Factory Life as It Is, by an Operative”

(1845) ... 270

The Emergence of Mormonism ... 272

Contents

xi i i

THE LIMITS OF PROSPERITY . . . 273

Liberty and Prosperity ... 273  Race and Opportunity ... 274  The Cult

of Domesticity ... 275  Women and Work ... 276  The Early Labor

Movement ... 277  The “Liberty of Living” ... 277

REVIEW .. . 279

1 0 . D E M O C R A C Y I N A M E R I C A , 1 8 1 5 – 1 8 4 0 . . . 2 8 0

THE TRIUMPH OF DEMOCRACY .. . 281

Property and Democracy ... 281  The Dorr War ... 282  Tocqueville on

Democracy ... 282  The Information Revolution ... 283  The Limits of

Democracy ... 284  A Racial Democracy ... 284

NATIONALISM AND ITS DISCONTENTS . . . 285

The American System ... 285  Banks and Money ... 287  The Panic

of 1819 ... 287  The Missouri Controversy ... 288

NATION, SECTION, AND PARTY .. . 289

The United States and the Latin American Wars of Independence ... 289

 The Monroe Doctrine ... 290  The Election of 1824 ... 291

Voices of Freedom: From President James Monroe, Annual Message

to Congress (1823), and From John C. Calhoun, “A Disquisition on

Government” (ca. 1845) ... 292

The Nationalism of John Quincy Adams ... 294  “Liberty Is Power” ... 294

 Martin Van Buren and the Democratic Party ... 294  The Election

of 1828 ... 295

THE AGE OF JACKSON .. . 296

The Party System ... 296  Democrats and Whigs ... 297  Public and

Private Freedom ... 298  South Carolina and Nullification ... 299

 Calhoun’s Political Theory ... 299  The Nullification Crisis ... 301

 Indian Removal ... 301  The Supreme Court and the Indians ... 302

THE BANK WAR AND AFTER .. . 304

Biddle’s Bank ... 304  Pet Banks, the Economy, and the Panic

of 1837 ... 306  Van Buren in Office ... 307  The Election of 1840 ... 307

REVIEW .. . 310

1 1 . T H E P E C U L I A R I N S T I T U T I O N . . . 3 1 1

THE OLD SOUTH .. . 312

Cotton Is King ... 313  The Second Middle Passage ... 314  Slavery

and the Nation ... 314  The Southern Economy ... 314  Plain Folk

of the Old South ... 316  The Planter Class ... 317  The Paternalist

Ethos ... 318  The Proslavery Argument ... 318  Abolition in the

Americas ... 320  Slavery and Liberty ... 320

xiv

Contents

LIFE UNDER SLAVERY .. . 321

Slaves and the Law ... 321  Conditions of Slave Life ... 322  Free

Blacks in the Old South ... 322  Slave Labor ... 323  Slavery in the

Cities ... 324  Maintaining Order ... 325

SLAVE CULTURE .. . 326

The Slave Family ... 326  The Threat of Sale ... 327  Gender Roles

among Slaves ... 327  Slave Religion ... 328  The Desire for Liberty ... 329

RESISTANCE TO SLAVERY .. . 330

Forms of Resistance ... 330

Voices of Freedom: From Letter by Joseph Taper to Joseph Long

(1840), and From “Slavery and the Bible” (1850) ... 332

The Amistad ... 334  Slave Revolts ... 335  Nat Turner’s Rebellion ... 336

REVIEW .. . 338

1 2 . A N A G E O F R E F O R M , 1 8 2 0 – 1 8 4 0 . . . 3 3 9

THE REFORM IMPULSE .. . 340

Utopian Communities ... 341  The Shakers ... 343  Oneida ... 343 

Worldly Communities ... 344  Religion and Reform ... 345  Critics of

Reform ... 346  Reformers and Freedom ... 346  The Invention of the

Asylum ... 347  The Common School ... 347

THE CRUSADE AGAINST SLAVERY .. . 348

Colonization ... 348  Militant Abolitionism ... 349  Spreading the

Abolitionist Message ... 350  Slavery and Moral Suasion ... 351  A

New Vision of America ... 352

BLACK AND WHITE ABOLITIONISM .. . 353

Black Abolitionists ... 353  Gentlemen of Property and Standing ... 354

THE ORIGINS OF FEMINISM .. . 356

The Rise of the Public Woman ... 356  Women and Free Speech ... 356 

Women’s Rights ... 357  Feminism and Freedom ... 358  Women and

Work ... 358  The Slavery of Sex ... 359

Voices of Freedom: From Angelina Grimké, Letter in The Liberator

(August 2, 1837), and From Frederick Douglass, Speech on July 5,

1852, Rochester, New York ... 360

“Social Freedom” ... 362  The Abolitionist Schism ... 363

REVIEW .. . 365

1 3 . A H O U S E D I V I D E D , 1 8 4 0 – 1 8 6 1 . . . 3 6 6

FRUITS OF MANIFEST DESTINY .. . 368

Continental Expansion ... 368  The Mexican Frontier: New Mexico and

California ... 368  The Texas Revolt ... 370  The Election of 1844 ... 370

 The Road to War ... 372  The War and Its Critics ... 372  Combat

Contents

xv

in Mexico ... 373  Race and Manifest Destiny ... 374  Gold-Rush

California ... 376  Opening Japan ... 377

A DOSE OF ARSENIC . . . 378

The Wilmot Proviso ... 378  The Free Soil Appeal ... 379  Crisis and

Compromise ... 380  The Great Debate ... 380  The Fugitive Slave

Issue ... 381  Douglas and Popular Sovereignty ... 382  The Kansas-

Nebraska Act ... 382

THE RISE OF THE REPUBLICAN PARTY .. . 383

The Northern Economy ... 383  The Rise and Fall of the Know-

Nothings ... 385  The Free Labor Ideology ... 386  “Bleeding Kansas”

and the Election of 1856 ... 387

THE EMERGENCE OF LINCOLN .. . 388

The Dred Scott Decision ... 389  Lincoln and Slavery ... 390  The

Lincoln-Douglas Campaign ... 390  John Brown at Harpers Ferry ... 391

Voices of Freedom: From The Lincoln-Douglas Debates (1858) ... 392

The Rise of Southern Nationalism ... 394  The Election of 1860 ... 395

THE IMPENDING CRISIS . . . 397

The Secession Movement ... 397  The Secession Crisis ... 398  And

the War Came ... 399

REVIEW .. . 401

1 4 . A N E W B I R T H O F F R E E D O M : T H E C I V I L W A R , 1 8 6 1 – 1 8 6 5 . . . 4 0 2

THE FIRST MODERN WAR .. . 403

The Two Combatants ... 404  The Technology of War ... 405  The

Public and the War ... 406  Mobilizing Resources ... 407  Military

Strategies ... 407  The War Begins ... 408  The War in the East,

1862 ... 409  The War in the West ... 410

THE COMING OF EMANCIPATION .. . 410

Slavery and the War ... 410  Steps toward Emancipation ... 413 

Lincoln’s Decision ... 413  The Emancipation Proclamation ... 414 

Enlisting Black Troops ... 416  The Black Soldier ... 416

THE SECOND AMERICAN REVOLUTION .. . 417

Liberty, Union, and Nation ... 418  The War and American Religion ... 419

Voices of Freedom: From Letter of Thomas F. Drayton (April 17,

1861), and From Abraham Lincoln, Address at Sanitary Fair,

Baltimore (April 18, 1864) ... 420

Liberty in Wartime ... 422  The North’s Transformation ... 422 

Government and the Economy ... 423  The War and Native

Americans ... 423  A New Financial System ... 425  Women and

the War ... 425  The Divided North ... 426

xvi

Contents

THE CONFEDERATE NATION .. . 428

Leadership and Government ... 428  The Inner Civil War ... 428 

Economic Problems ... 429  Women and the Confederacy ... 430 

Black Soldiers for the Confederacy ... 431

TURNING POINTS . . . 431

Gettysburg and Vicksburg ... 431  1864 ... 433

REHEARSALS FOR RECONSTRUCTION AND THE END

OF THE WAR .. . 434

The Sea Islands Experiment ... 434  Wartime Reconstruction in the West

... 435  The Politics of Wartime Reconstruction ... 435  Victory at Last ...

436  The War and the World ... 438  The War in American History ... 438

REVIEW .. . 440

1 5 . “ W H A T I S F R E E D O M ? ” : R E C O N S T R U C T I O N , 1 8 6 5 – 1 8 7 7 . . . 4 4 1

THE MEANING OF FREEDOM .. . 443

Families in Freedom ... 443  Church and School ... 444  Political

Freedom ... 444  Land, Labor, and Freedom ... 445  Masters without

Slaves ... 445  The Free Labor Vision ... 447  The Freedmen’s Bureau

... 447  The Failure of Land Reform ... 448  The White Farmer ... 449

Voices of Freedom: From Petition of Committee in Behalf of the

Freedmen to Andrew Johnson (1865), and From A Sharecropping

Contract (1866) ... 450

Aftermath of Slavery ... 453

THE MAKING OF RADICAL RECONSTRUCTION .. . 454

Andrew Johnson ... 454  The Failure of Presidential Reconstruction ...

454  The Black Codes ... 455  The Radical Republicans ... 456  The

Origins of Civil Rights ... 456  The Fourteenth Amendment ... 457

 The Reconstruction Act ... 458  Impeachment and the Election

of Grant ... 458  The Fifteenth Amendment ... 460  The “Great

Constitutional Revolution” ... 461  The Rights of Women ... 461

RADICAL RECONSTRUCTION IN THE SOUTH .. . 462

“The Tocsin of Freedom” ... 462  The Black Officeholder ... 464

 Carpetbaggers and Scalawags ... 464  Southern Republicans in

Power ... 465  The Quest for Prosperity ... 465

THE OVERTHROW OF RECONSTRUCTION .. . 466

Reconstruction’s Opponents ... 466  “A Reign of Terror” ... 467

 The Liberal Republicans ... 469  The North’s Retreat ... 470  The

Triumph of the Redeemers ... 471  The Disputed Election and Bargain

of 1877 ... 472  The End of Reconstruction ... 473

REVIEW .. . 474

Contents

xvii

A P P E N D I X

DOCUMENTS

The Declaration of Independence (1776) ... A-2

The Constitution of The United States (1787) ... A-5

From George Washington’s Farewell Address (1796) ... A-17

The Seneca Falls Declaration of Sentiments And Resolutions (1848) ... A-22

From Frederick Douglass’s “What, To the Slave, Is The Fourth Of July?”

Speech (1852) ... A-25 The Gettysburg Address (1863) ... A-29

Abraham Lincoln’s Second Inaugural Address (1865) ... A-30

The Populist Platform of 1892 ... A-31

Franklin D. Roosevelt’s First Inaugural Address (1933) ... A-34

From The Program For The March On Washington For Jobs And Freedom

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