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CENGAGE ADVANTAGE EDITION

BUILDING A SPEECH Eighth Edition

Sheldon Metcalfe Community College of Baltimore County

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Building a Speech, Eighth Edition, Advantage Edition Sheldon Metcalfe

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ISBN-13: 978-1-111-34837-3

ISBN-10: 1-111-34837-5

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To my mother, who gave me the values, and my father, who gave me the vision

to write this book.

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Brief Contents

Preface xxi

Unit One SURVEYING THE LANDSCAPE

Chapter 1 Introducing the Study of Public Speaking 2

Chapter 2 Understanding and Reducing Your Apprehension 15

Chapter 3 Building Your First Speech 28

Chapter 4 Analyzing Your Audience 43

Chapter 5 Improving Your Listening Skills 64

Chapter 6 Considering the Ethics of Public Speaking 81

Unit Two PREPARING THE FOUNDATION

Chapter 7 Selecting the Topic and Purpose 102

Chapter 8 Conducting Research 116

Chapter 9 Choosing Supporting Materials 141

Unit Three CREATING THE STRUCTURE

Chapter 10 Organizing the Body of the Speech 160

Chapter 11 Selecting the Introduction and Conclusion 179

Unit Four REFINING THE APPEARANCE

Chapter 12 Using Audiovisual Aids 206

Chapter 13 Considering Language 229

Chapter 14 Developing the Delivery 247

v

Unit Five CONSIDERING DIFFERENT TYPES OF STRUCTURE

Chapter 15 Speaking to Inform 270

Chapter 16 Speaking to Persuade 292

Chapter 17 Speaking to Persuade: Motivating Audiences 324

Chapter 18 Speaking for Special Occasions 340

Chapter 19 Speaking in Groups 357

v i Brief Contents

Contents

Preface xxi

Unit One Survey ing the Landscape

Chapter 1 Introducing the Study of Public Speaking 2 COMMUNICATION IN THE MODERN WORLD 3

THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS 4

A Communication Model 5

The Sender: Encoding Ideas into Symbols 5

The Message 6

The Channel 6

The Receiver: Decoding Symbols into Ideas 6

Feedback 7

Setting 7

Noise 8

UNDERSTANDING THE TOOLS OF COMMUNICATION 10

APPLYING THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS 12

DESIGNING A PLAN FOR SUCCESS 13

SUMMARY 14

SKILL BUILDERS 14

BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE 14

Chapter 2 Understanding and Reducing Your Apprehension 15 SPEECH ANXIETY IS COMMON 16

RESEARCH INTO STRESS AND COMMUNICATION APPREHENSION 17

REDUCING COMMUNICATION APPREHENSION 19

Face Anxiety Honestly and Overcome It 19

Develop a Positive Attitude 21

Adopt Constructive Behaviors 23

Maintain a Healthy Body 23

Be Thoroughly Prepared 24

Reward Yourself 24

Learn from Mistakes 25

Accept Constructive Criticism 25

vii

TAKING RESPONSIBILITY TO REDUCE APPREHENSION 26

SUMMARY 27

SKILL BUILDERS 27

BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE 27

Chapter 3 Building Your First Speech 28 EXTEMPORANEOUS DELIVERY AND SPEAKING STYLES 29

CREATING A BLUEPRINT 30

Step 1: Choose an Interesting, Well-Defined Topic 30

Step 2: Understand the General Purpose 31

Step 3: Conduct Extensive Research 31

Step 4: Write Specific Purpose and Thesis Statements 32

Step 5: Write a Comprehensive Outline 32

Step 6: Be Sensitive to Audience Members 33

Step 7: Understand Your Ethical Responsibilities 33

Step 8: Choose Extemporaneous Delivery 33

Step 9: Practice the Speech 33

Step 10: Be Confident and Prepared 35

THE CAREER SPEECH 36

Researching the Career Speech 36

Developing the Career Speech 37

SAMPLE SPEECH: CAREERS IN ANTHROPOLOGY 37

SUMMARY 41

SKILL BUILDERS 42

BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE 42

Chapter 4 Analyzing Your Audience 43 THE IMPORTANCE OF AUDIENCE ANALYSIS 44

Audience Perception of the Speaker 45

Audience Perception of the Topic 46

Motivations of the Audience 49

Physiological Needs 50

Safety Needs 50

Love Needs 50

Esteem Needs 50

Self-Actualization Needs 50

Impact of Social Groups on Listeners 51

Age 51

Gender 52

Religion 53

Cultural and Ethnic Origin 53

Educational Level, Occupation, and Interests 55

Income Level 56

v i i i Contents

Geographic Location 56

Social Organizations 56

Targeting Specific Groups 57

Impact of the Occasion on Listeners 58

The Purpose of the Occasion 58

The Physical Location of the Event 59

The Expectations of the Speaker 59

CONDUCTING AN AUDIENCE ANALYSIS 60

Collecting Demographic Data about the Audience 60

Informal Assessments 60

Surveys 60

Questionnaires 61

Interviews 61

Processing the Data with a Computer 62

Evaluating the Audience Profile 62

SUMMARY 62

SKILL BUILDERS 62

BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE 63

Chapter 5 Improving Your Listening Skills 64 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF LISTENING 65

THE PROCESS OF LISTENING 66

KINDS OF LISTENING 68

Discriminative Listening 68

Evaluative Listening 69

Appreciative Listening 69

Empathic Listening 70

Active and Passive Listening 70

BARRIERS TO LISTENING: THE LACK OF BEING “PRESENT” 70

Yielding to Distractions 71

Blocking Out Communication 72

Listening Selectively 73

Overcriticizing the Speaker 74

Faking Attention 74

Avoiding Difficult or Unpleasant Listening Situations 74

HOW TO BECOME AN ACTIVE LISTENER AND SPEAKER 75

Withhold Judgment 75

Avoid the Appearance Trap 75

Don’t Be Easily Swayed by Delivery and Style 76

Give All Topics a Fair Hearing 76

Avoid Extraneous Mental Activity During the Speech 76

Give Honest, Attentive Feedback 76

Contents ix

Eliminate Distractions 78

Evaluate the Communication When It Is Finished 78

SUMMARY 79

SKILL BUILDERS 80

BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE 80

Chapter 6 Considering the Ethics of Public Speaking 81 THE NEED FOR ETHICS IN SOCIETY 83

EVALUATING A SPEAKER’S ETHICS 84

Honesty and the Speaker 84

The Speaker’s Reliability 87

The Speaker’s Motivations 87

The Speaker’s Policies 88

APPLYING ETHICAL STANDARDS 90

Be Honest 91

Direct Quotation 91

Paraphrased Passage 91

Plagiarized Passage 91

Advocate Ideas That Benefit Others 92

Evaluate Your Motives for Speaking 92

Develop a Speaking Code of Ethics 93

SAMPLE SPEECH: PRACTICE, PRACTICE, PRACTICE: KNOWING IS NOT THE SAME THING AS DOING 95

SUMMARY 99

SKILL BUILDERS 99

BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE 99

Unit Two Prepar ing the Foundat ion

Chapter 7 Selecting the Topic and Purpose 102 GETTING IDEAS 103

Your Own Knowledge and Experience 103

Brainstorming 104

Library Databases and the Internet 104

Ask for Help 104

SELECTING THE TOPIC 104

It Should Interest You, the Speaker 104

It Should be Sufficiently Narrow and Conform to the Time Limit 105

It Should Provide New Information 106

It Should be Appropriate 106

It Should Conform to the General Purpose 107

Speeches to Inform 107

Speeches to Persuade 107

Speeches to Entertain 108

x Contents

WRITING THE SPECIFIC PURPOSE 108

Be Clear, Concise, and Unambiguous 108

Include Only One Major Idea 109

Use a Declarative Statement 110

WORDING THE THESIS STATEMENT 110

Problems with the Thesis Statement 112

PUTTING IT TOGETHER 113

SUMMARY 114

SKILL BUILDERS 114

BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE 115

Chapter 8 Conducting Research 116 PREPARING FOR RESEARCH 117

ESTABLISHING CREDIBILITY 117

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SOURCES 118

ACCESSING THE LIBRARY 119

The Online Catalog 119

Databases 119

GUIDELINES FOR SEARCHING THE INTERNET 121

RESEARCHING REFERENCE SOURCES 123

Biographies 123

Directories and Handbooks 124

The Dictionary and Thesaurus 124

Encyclopedias 124

Almanacs, Yearbooks, and Statistical Publications 125

Collections of Quotations 125

Books 125

Magazines, Journals, and Newspapers 125

Legal Research 126

Audiovisual Aids 126

Interviews with Authorities 127

Legislative and Governmental Research 129

Institutional and Organizational Research 129

Specialized Libraries and Museums 130

KEEPING ACCURATE NOTES 130

INTERVIEWING 132

Preparing for the Interview 132

Conducting the Interview 133

Taking Notes During the Interview 134

THE BIBLIOGRAPHY: HOW TO RECORD AN ENTRY 134

AVOIDING PLAGIARISM 136

THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT SPEECH RESEARCH AND CONSTRUCTION 136

Contents xi

Be Willing to Test Information 136

Be Organized 138

View Ideas from Different Perspectives 138

Think for Yourself 139

SUMMARY 140

SKILL BUILDERS 140

BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE 140

Chapter 9 Choosing Supporting Materials 141 MAKING THE APPROPRIATE SELECTION 142

STATISTICS, POLLS, AND SURVEYS 142

Using Statistics 142

Poll 143

Study 143

Startling Statistics 143

EXAMPLES, ILLUSTRATIONS, CASE STUDIES, AND NARRATIVES 144

Using Examples 144

Example 144

Hypothetical Example 145

Illustration 145

Case Study 146

Narrative 147

QUOTATIONS AND TESTIMONY 147

Using Quotations and Testimonies 148

Quotation 148

Expert Testimony 148

Prestige Testimony 149

Personal Testimony 149

VISUAL EVIDENCE 149

COMPARISONS AND CONTRASTS 149

Using Comparisons and Contrasts 150

PERSONAL EXPERIENCE AND OBSERVATION 151

Using Experience and Observation 151

HUMOR AND ANECDOTES 152

Using Humor and Anecdotes 152

ROLE-PLAYING 153

Using Role-Playing Techniques 153

SAMPLE SPEECH: THE FLAG RAISINGS ON IWO JIMA 154

SUMMARY 157

SKILL BUILDERS 157

BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE 157

xi i Contents

Unit Three Creat ing the Structure

Chapter 10 Organizing the Body of the Speech 160 APPROACHING ORGANIZATION LOGICALLY 161

PRINCIPLES OF OUTLINING 161

Building Block One: The Body Should Contain Between Two and Four Main Points or Numerals in a Five- to Seven-Minute Speech 162

Building Block Two: Main Points in the Body Should be Structured in an Organizational Sequence that is Logical, Interesting, and Appropriate to the Topic 162

Chronological Sequence 162

Spatial Sequence 163

Cause-Effect Sequence 164

Topical Sequence 164

Other Sequences 165

Building Block Three: A System of Roman Numerals, Letters, and Arabic Numbers Should be Combined with Indentation to Identify Main and Subordinate Levels 166

Building Block Four: The Outline Should Include Supporting Materials That are Coordinated and Subordinated in a Logical Manner 167

Building Block Five: Every Subdivision must Contain at Least Two Items 169

Building Block Six: Each Point Should Include Only One Topic or Idea 170

Building Block Seven: Main Points (Numerals) and Supporting Items Should be Linguistically Parallel 171

Building Block Eight: The Outline Should be Expressed in Either Sentences or Topics 172

Building Block Nine: The Outline Should Identify Sources for Major Supporting Materials 173

Building Block Ten: The Outline Should Include External Transitions Between Main Numerals 174

YOUR SPEAKING NOTES 175

SUMMARY 177

SKILL BUILDERS 177

BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE 178

Chapter 11 Selecting the Introduction and Conclusion 179 PURPOSE OF THE INTRODUCTION 180

THE INADEQUATE INTRODUCTION 180

PLANNING AN EFFECTIVE INTRODUCTION 181

Examples, Stories, and Illustrations 182

Shocking Statement or Situation 183

Statistics 184

Questions 185

Quotation 186

Suspense 186

Contents xi i i

Personal Reference, Compliment, or Reference to the Occasion 187

Humor 188

The Flexible Introduction 189

Combination of Strategies 190

OUTLINING THE INTRODUCTION 190

PURPOSE OF THE CONCLUSION 191

THE INADEQUATE CONCLUSION 191

PLANNING THE EFFECTIVE CONCLUSION 192

Summary of Main Points 192

Quotation 193

Reference to the Introduction 194

Challenge or Appeal 194

Humor 195

Question 196

Story, Illustration, and Example 197

Statistics 197

OUTLINING THE CONCLUSION 198

SPEAKING NOTES FOR THE INTRODUCTION AND CONCLUSION 199

SAMPLE OUTLINE: RAISING THE MONITOR 200

SUMMARY 203

SKILL BUILDERS 203

BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE 203

Unit Four Ref in ing the Appearance

Chapter 12 Using Audiovisual Aids 206 TYPES OF AUDIOVISUAL AIDS 207

Electronic Media 207

The Data Projector and Computer 207

Devices for Capturing Text and Media 208

The Document Camera 208

The Touch Screen Monitor or Whiteboard 209

Audience Response Systems 209

Older Technologies 209

Graphs 213

Illustrations, Photographs, and Pictures 214

Posters, Flipcharts, and Chalkboards 218

Models and Objects 220

You as a Visual Aid 220

Copyright Cautions 223

xiv Contents

SAMPLE SPEECH: HOW DO AIRPLANE WINGS PRODUCE LIFT? 223

SUMMARY 227

SKILL BUILDERS 228

BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE 228

Chapter 13 Considering Language 229 DEVELOPING CLARITY 230

Avoiding Euphemisms 231

USING CONCRETE LANGUAGE 232

Denotation and Connotation 233

BUILDING A UNIQUE STYLE 234

Similes 234

Metaphors 235

Alliteration 236

Amplification 236

Antithesis 236

Repetition 237

Mnemonic Phrases 237

BEING APPROPRIATE 238

Be Aware of Cultural Differences 238

Recognize Differences Due to Gender 240

Avoid Offensive Terms 241

Eliminate Irrelevant Language 241

Avoid Trite Expressions 242

Eliminate Grammatical Errors 242

Build Vocabulary Skills 243

MAKING IDEAS MEANINGFUL AND INTERRELATED 243

Personal Pronouns 243

Transitions 244

SUMMARY 245

SKILL BUILDERS 246

BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE 246

Chapter 14 Developing the Delivery 247 DELIVERING THE SPEECH 248