Zhou jichang lohans giving alms to beggars

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Introduction Traditional Subjects of Western Art What to Consider When Looking at and Analyzing Art Visual/Formal Elements of Art

Introduction

Until the late-twentieth century, the study of art concentrated on Western art, with the exception of art from ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. Scholars of Western pictorial traditions took a linear view of art history, holding that art has undergone a steady process of progression and advancement. In this view, Western artists moved from perfecting the realistic depiction of the natural world, as demonstrated by the High Renaissance artists of the sixteenth century, to expanding upon and experimenting with new techniques and philosophical ideas, as demonstrated by the modernists of the twentieth century. This approach to art history focused on painting, sculpture, and architecture, and the artists studied were largely male.

Art history is now veering away from this linear model and expanding to include non-Western art, such as Asian art; other categories of art, such as design; and the creative production of women. The process of inclusion is a slow and pedagogically disputed one. Art historians wrestle with how to incorporate neglected art into the canon. Most art history surveys still devote the majority of their discussions to Western art while respecting other traditions. As we proceed in this course, we must keep in mind that many cultures, artists, and art forms are still not adequately covered.

In this module, we will go over the main subjects of traditional Western art (these subjects can also be found in non-Western art, as you will see). We will then discuss the basic tools and techniques with which to analyze Western pictorial depictions, and how to apply them.

Traditional Subjects of Western Art

In the world of art, you will find representations of every aspect of life and even of some aspects that lie outside the earthly realm (for example, in Antonio Allegri da Correggio's Assumption of the Virgin [1526–1530]). This diversity of subject matter has caused art historians to establish some basic categories with which to classify artworks. These categories are by no means absolute or perfect, but they nonetheless give us a systematic and organized way in which to discuss the plethora of subjects found in art.

It is important to note that, starting from the beginning of the twentieth century, these subject categories have become less and less relevant. This is due in part to the fact that the subject in art is now often entirely eliminated, as in the case of nonrepresentational art. As we are studying art from the Paleolithic period to the fourteenth century, the majority of the works we will look at fall into the categories listed in table 1.1. Some of the works shown in the example pop-ups are non- Western; we want to give you a feel for different cultures even as we focus on Western art categories.

Table 1.1

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Traditional Subjects of Western Art

Subject Category

Description Example Work of Art

Religious The subject is a person or scene from a sacred tradition, text, or story. In the West, religious subjects are generally taken from the Bible.

Unknown Aztec artist, sculpture of the goddess Coatlicue (1487–1520)

Mythological The subject is taken from a mythological story (such as a Greek or Roman myth).

Antonio Pollaiuolo, Apollo and Daphne (1470–1480)

Historical The subject is an event in history, from either the past or the present.

Unknown French artist, The Coronation of Charlemagne (fourteenth century C.E.)

Portrait The subject is an actual person. Historically, subjects of portraits had to be wealthy or socially important to have their likenesses reproduced. Most of the time, the sitter (subject of the portrait) was alive; however, portraits were also executed posthumously.

Unknown Egyptian artist, Queen Nefertari (thirteenth century B.C.E.)

Genre The subject is a scene of people engaged in everyday life.

Marc Chagall, The Smolensk Newspaper (1914)

Landscape The subject is a natural or contrived scene of the outdoor environment. Figures may be included, but if so, they are small in scale compared with the setting.

Ando Hiroshige, Plum Estate, Kameido (1857)

Still life The subject is an object or arrangement of objects such as fruits.

Unknown Roman artist, Fish and

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Vegetables in a Cupboard (second century B.C.E.)

Spotlight on Subject: Religious Art

Here, we will focus on one subject category. Look at this Christian sculpture:

Annunciation and Visitation

Source: Unknown French artist, ca. 1230–1255; Reims Cathedral, France

This relief depicts four figures in two pairs. The pair on the left shows the scene known as the Annunciation, in which the angel Gabriel tells Mary that she will give birth to the son of God; and the pair on the right depicts the scene known as the Visitation, in which Mary goes to visit her cousin Elizabeth, who will give birth to John the Baptist.

Both events are part of the Christian Biblical narrative: These four figures decorate the doorway of one of the great Gothic cathedrals of Europe.

Art questions: Would you have figured out the subject of this sculptural grouping without the title? Do you think the subject was recognizable to worshipers entering the cathedral at its time of completion? Could the viewers have mistaken this group as representing another type of subject, for example, genre?

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What to Consider When Looking at and Analyzing Art

When we view an artwork, we naturally respond first to the subject. The subject provides the most obvious visual clue as to the meaning of the artwork; however, other aspects of the work can give us a fuller understanding of what it represents.

The analysis of any given piece of art involves the consideration of many factors, some of which will be clearly evident, and others of which will require careful observation and research. Not all the factors we list here will be relevant for every piece of art; however, our aim is to equip you with the basic tools art historians use to examine, study, and analyze art.

In considering a work of art, pay attention to

subject symbolism style visual/formal elements size media patronage location context

We will explore these terms in greater detail:

Subject refers to what the artwork actually shows (see table 1.1 above).

Symbolism refers to the underlying meaning of the artwork and its elements. In Robert Campin's Merode Altarpiece (1425), we see the biblical scene of the Annunciation in the center panel. Many objects in the scene carry symbolic meaning. For example, the white lily placed on the table symbolizes the purity of the Virgin, and the urn in the background symbolizes her womb.

Style refers to the individual stamp of the artist or of the art movement in which the artist participated. Pablo Picasso had a distinct authorship that distinguishes his style from that of other artists, as did Rembrandt van Rijn. Look at any two works by these artists and you will see differences in subject matter, application of paint, color, brushstrokes, and overall composition and treatment. Discerning the key characteristics of an artist's style requires careful scrutiny, and may take years to perfect.

Identifying the period during which an artwork was produced or the painter's or sculptor's school of art may come more easily. For example, Abstract Expressionism, which arose during the 1940s, has traits that distinguish it from other artistic movements, such as the High Renaissance of the 1500s. Abstract Expressionism has no clear subject matter and few recognizable objects or forms, in contrast with the High Renaissance, with its religious subjects and clearly recognizable forms.

Visual/formal elements refers to the purely visual aspects of the artwork. These elements include composition, space, line, light and dark, color, and texture. For sculpted works, visual or formal aspects include form, mass, volume, and the way in which light interacts with the carved images. The term formal refers to the forms in or the structure of the artwork and does not indicate anything pertaining to propriety or function (see table 1.2 for a more detailed discussion of visual/formal elements).

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Size refers to the size of the artwork. The reproductions of artworks that you see in books or online are often highly misleading in terms of size. Look at the dimensions provided in the caption of an artwork, and you will probably be surprised by how large or how small the artwork actually is.

Media refers to the materials the artist used to create the artwork. Media include oil paint on canvas, marble, ink on paper, and bronze. The term also refers to the techniques that artists employ. For example, carving in sculpture indicates the removal of a material such as marble, usually with a chisel and hammer; whereas modeling in sculpture indicates the addition of a material, such as clay.

Patronage refers to the individual or institution that ordered or commissioned the artwork. Knowing the patron of an artwork will help you determine the intent of the artist and to interpret the work itself. Did you know that, up until the mid-nineteenth century, most Western works of art were commissioned? Michelangelo Buonarroti would never have painted the Sistine Chapel ceiling (1508–1512) had it not been for the patronage of Pope Julius II. Consider this: all architecture requires patronage and/or a commission, except in those rare cases where the architect builds his or her own home with his or her own finances.

Location refers to the spot where the artwork is placed. As you will notice, many artworks are now in museums; however, it is important for us to consider where an artwork originally stood (in situ), as this will help us to fully understand the intentions of the artist and the meaning and relevance of the work. The Merode Altarpiece (linked above), currently on display at The Cloisters of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, was originally created for a fifteenth-century Flemish household to adorn an intimate and private space of worship.

Context refers to the time and place at which the artwork was created. What was happening during that time in the artist's life and in society? How might those events have borne on the artwork, and how do they change the way in which we see and interpret it?

For example, in James Whistler's The Peacock Room (1876–1877), a detail of two peacocks in a combative posture symbolizes a struggle over money that took place between Whistler and his patron. The peacocks are mostly rendered in gold leaf, but Whistler used silver to highlight telling details—we can detect the patron based on coins at the dominant peacock's feet and silver feathers indicating a ruffled shirt, and we can detect the impoverished artist based on a silver feather on the other peacock's head suspiciously similar to a lock of Whistler's hair. Knowing the context in which Whistler painted the room helps us to interpret key scenes and enhances our experience as a viewer.

Spotlight on Style: Discerning Style

Here, we will focus on style indicators. Consider how the artworks below differ in terms of style.

Lohans Giving Alms to Beggars

Carpet Page, Lindisfarne Gospels

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Source: Zhou Jichang, ca. 1178; Museum of Fine Arts, Boston

Source: Eadfrith, Bishop of Lindisfarne, ca. 698–721; The British Library, London

The twelfth-century Chinese painting on the left is an attempt at Realism, rendered on a hanging silk scroll. Note how the artist tries to show proper proportions and naturalistic stances and movements in the figures at the top of the scroll.

The medieval British illuminated manuscript page on the right, on the other hand, does not depict an everyday scene or objects as they appear in the real world; it features a flat, elaborately embellished Cross filled in and surrounded by linear patterns that include the abstract shapes of animals.

Art questions: How do these artworks differ from one another in terms of media? Line? Detail? Color? Texture? Form? Purpose? If you saw these works in a museum, would you be able to tell which artistic movement or time period each is from? How?

Visual/Formal Elements of Art

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As stated above, the visual or formal elements of art are the purely visual aspects of an artwork. When we first look at an artwork, we often overlook important visual characteristics that can help us to understand the intentions of the artist and the skills involved in executing the artwork. The table below can help us to more fully appreciate and carefully examine art.

Table 1.2 Visual/Formal Elements of Art

Element Description Questions to Ask Yourself

When Looking at an Artwork

Composition This refers to how the forms (figures and objects) and the visual elements are placed in the overall space of the artwork.

Why did the artist place certain objects on the right side of the painting, and certain objects on the left?

Did the artist leave areas where there are no forms whatsoever? If so, why?

Is the artwork balanced (symmetrical) or off-balance (asymmetrical)?

Space This refers to the area the forms occupy. Is the viewer

looking at the composition directly forward, at an angle, at a distance, from below, or from a bird's eye view?

Line This delineates shape (for flat, two-dimensional objects) and mass (for solid forms that occupy a three- dimensional space). Lines

Do the lines in the figures or form move your eye in a

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define an object and can be expressive (loose and free) or classical (mathematically controlled and organized). Lines can also create the illusion of depth.

particular direction?

Do the objects shown or modeled convey a sense of bulk, or are they flat?

Light and dark

The contrast between light and dark can create the illusion of depth, such as when the artist uses shading (the gradual transition from light to dark, also known as chiaroscuro). Light and dark can also denote expressive characteristics. For example, a figure in darkness may indicate evil, contrasted with a figure in luminous light that may express goodness or purity.

Why is an object or figure in the light, or given more light than other objects or figures?

Why is an object or figure in darkness?

Color Colors can balance a composition, create tension, or focus the viewer's attention on a certain form or feature. Adding white to a color creates a tint; adding black to a color creates a shade. Some colors complement each other, others blend with each other, and others create dissonance.

Did the artist employ a wide color palette, limit the use of color, or reduce the color to one main hue (monotone)?

Texture This refers to the tactile quality of a surface. How was the

paint or medium applied?

Was it applied smoothly and evenly, or thickly?

Can the viewer see the brushwork or toolwork?

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Spotlight on Visual/Formal Elements: Light and Dark

Here, we will focus on light and dark. Look at the use of chiaroscuro in this fresco:

Portrait of Husband and Wife

Source: Unknown Pompeiian artist, ca. 70–79 C.E.; Museo Archeologico Nazionale Napoli, Italy

The painter of this wall fresco found at Pompeii was a master of chiaroscuro. You can see here how he uses light and dark to model the faces and clothing of his subjects,

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transitioning from areas of light to areas of shadow to create the illusion of dimension.

Art questions: How does chiaroscuro convey a sense of depth? Why would an artist use chiaroscuro instead of broad strokes and color? How might chiaroscuro help highlight important elements of an artwork? Study the faces in the fresco above. What does the artist do to emphasize their contours? How does he let us know where the light source is?

Image Credits Chagall, Marc. 1914. The Smolensk newspaper (painting). Philadelphia Museum of Art. In the public

domain. Accessed February 9, 2009. http://www.abcgallery.com/C/chagall/chagall82.html.

Eadfrith, Bishop of Lindisfarne. ca. 698–721. Carpet page, Lindesfarne Gospels (illuminated manuscript page). The British Library, London. In the public domain. Accessed February 16, 2009. http://www.episcopalcafe.com/daily/2007/08/.

Hiroshige, Ando. 1857. Plum estate, Kameido (print). Brooklyn Museum. In the public domain. Accessed February 27, 2009. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:30_-_Plum_Estate,_Kameido.jpg.

Pollaiuolo, Antonio. 1470–1480. Apollo and Daphne (painting). The National Gallery, London. In the public domain. Accessed February 9, 2009. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Apollo_and_Daphne.jpg.

Unknown Aztec artist. 1487–1520. The goddess Coatlicue (sculpture). National Museum of Anthropology, Mexico City. In the public domain. Accessed February 1, 2009. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Coatlicue.jpg.

Unknown Egyptian artist. Thirteenth century B.C.E. Queen Nefertari (painting). Valley of the Queens, Egypt. In the public domain. Accessed February 10, 2009. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Maler_der_Grabkammer_der_Nefertari_004.jpg.

Unknown French artist. ca. 1230–1255. Annunciation and visitation (sculpture). Reims Cathedral, France. In the public domain. Accessed February 20, 2009. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poor_Man%27s_Bible.

Unknown French artist. Fourteenth century C.E. The coronation of Charlemagne (painting). Grandes Chroniques de France. In the public domain. Accessed February 17, 2009. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Karl_den_store_krons_av_leo_III.jpg.

Unknown Pompeiian artist. ca. 70–79 C.E. Portrait of husband and wife (fresco). Pompeii. Museo Archeologico Nazionale Napoli, Italy. In the public domain. Accessed February 4, 2009. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pompeii-couple.jpg.

Unknown Roman artist. Second century C.E. Fish and vegetables in a cupboard (mosaic). Tor Marancia, Italy. In the public domain. Accessed February 9, 2009. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Still_life_Tor_Marancia_Vatican.jpg.

Zhou, Jichang. ca. 1178. Lohans giving alms to beggars (painting). Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. In the public domain. Accessed February 12, 2009. http://www.mfa.org/collections/object/lohans- bestowing-alms-on-suffering-human-beings-24137.

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