Advocacy and opposition rybacki & rybacki 7th edition free pdf

Working in Groups

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330 Hudson Street, NY, NY 10013

Working in Groups Communication Principles and Strategies Seventh Edition

Isa N. Engleberg Prince George’s Community College

Dianna R. Wynn Nash Community College

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Engleberg, Isa N., author. | Wynn, Dianna, author. Title: Working in groups: communication principles and strategies / Isa N. Engleberg, Prince George’s Community College, Dianna R. Wynn, Nash Community College. Description: Seventh edition. | Boston : Pearson Education, Inc., [2017] | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2016009869| ISBN 9780134415529 | ISBN 0134415523 Subjects: LCSH: Group relations training. | Small groups. | Communication in small groups. Classification: LCC HM1086 .E53 2017 | DDC 302/.14--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016009869

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v

1 Introduction to Group Communication 1

2 Group Development 19

3 Group Member Participation 36

4 Diversity in Groups 53

5 Group Leadership 77

6 Verbal and Nonverbal Communication in Groups 99

7 Listening and Responding in Groups 119

8 Conflict and Cohesion in Groups 136

9 Decision Making and Problem Solving in Groups 155

10 Critical Thinking and Argumentation in Groups 178

11 Planning and Conducting Meetings 195

12 Group Presentations 215

Brief Contents

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vii

Theory in Groups: Collective Intelligence 24

2.1.5: Adjourning Stage 24 Virtual Teams: Developmental Tasks 25

2.2: Group Goals 26 2.2.1: Establishing Group Goals 26

Theory in Groups: Goal Theory and Group Work 27

2.2.2: Balancing Group Goals and Hidden Agendas 27 Group Assessment: How Good Is Your Goal? 28

2.3: Group Norms 28 2.3.1: Types of Norms 29

GroupWork: Classroom Norms 29

2.3.2: Categories of Norms 30 2.3.3: Conformity 30

Ethics in Groups: Beware of Unreasonable Norms 30

2.3.4: Nonconformity 31 Groups in Balance . . . Change Norms as Needed 31

2.4: Group Motivation 33 2.4.1: A Sense of Meaningfulness 33 2.4.2: A Sense of Choice 33 2.4.3: A Sense of Competence 34 2.4.4: A Sense of Progress 34

Summary: Group Development 34

3 Group Member Participation 36 Case Study: Taming Tony the Tiger 36

3.1: Group Member Needs 37 3.1.1: Schutz’s Theory of Interpersonal Needs 37

GroupWork: Group Attraction Survey 39

3.1.2: Balancing Individual Needs and Group Needs 40

3.2: Member Roles 40 3.2.1: Group Task Roles 40 3.2.2: Group Social Maintenance Roles 41

Theory in Groups: Belbin’s Team-Role Theory 42

3.2.3: Disruptive Behaviors 43

3.3: Member Confidence 44 3.3.1: Communication Apprehension 44 3.3.2: Strategies for Reducing Communication

Apprehension 45 Group Assessment: Personal Report of Communication Apprehension (PRCA-24) 46

Virtual Teams: Confidence with Technology 47

3.3.3: Strategies for Helping Apprehensive Members 48

3.4: Member Assertiveness 48 Group Assessment: Assertiveness Scale 49

3.4.1: Balancing Passivity and Aggression 49

Preface xiii About the Authors xvii

1 Introduction to Group Communication 1

Case Study: The Study Group Dilemma 2

1.1: The Importance of Groups 2 Group Assessment: Group Communication Competencies Survey 3

1.2: Defining Group Communication 4 1.2.1: Key Elements of Group Communication 4

Theory in Groups: Systems Theory 6

1.2.2: Types of Groups 6 Virtual Teams: Groups in Cyberspace 7

1.3: Advantages and Disadvantages of Working in Groups 8

GroupWork: It Was the Best of Teams, It Was the Worst of Teams 9

1.3.1: Advantages of Working in Groups 9 Groups in Balance . . . Create Synergy 10

1.3.2: Disadvantages of Working in Groups 10

1.4: The Nature of Group Communication 11 1.4.1: Theories, Strategies, and Skills 11 1.4.2: The Group Communication Process 12

1.5: Balance as the Guiding Principle of Group Work 12

1.5.1: Groups in Balance 12 1.5.2: Balancing Group Dialectics 13

Theory in Groups: Relational Dialectics Theory 13

Groups in Balance . . . Enjoy Working Together 15

1.6: Ethical Group Communication 15 1.6.1: Ethics in Balance 16 1.6.2: Credo for Ethical Communication 16

Ethics in Groups: The National Communication Association Credo for Ethical Communication 16

GroupWork: The Ethics Credo in Action 17

Summary: Introduction to Group Communication 18

2 Group Development 19 Case Study: Nice to Meet You, Too 19

2.1: Group Development Stages 20 2.1.1: Forming Stage 21

Groups in Balance . . . Socialize Newcomers 21

2.1.2: Storming Stage 22 2.1.3: Norming Stage 23 2.1.4: Performing Stage 24

Contents

viii Contents

Groups in Balance . . . Know When and How to Say No 50

3.4.2: Assertiveness Skills 50 Ethics in Groups: Managing Manipulators 51

Summary: Group Member Participation 51

4 Diversity in Groups 53 Case Study: Diversity Dilemma 54

4.1: The Value of Group Diversity 54 4.1.1: Culture and Diversity 55 4.1.2: Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Groups 55

Groups in Balance . . . Seek Intellectual Diversity 56

4.2: Obstacles to Understanding Others 56 4.2.1: Ethnocentrism 56 4.2.2: Stereotyping 57 4.2.3: Prejudice 57 4.2.4: Discrimination 57

4.3: Personality Dimensions 58 4.3.1: The Big Five Personality Traits 58 4.3.2: The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator® 58

Groups in Balance . . . Value Both Introverts and Extroverts 59

4.3.3: Motivating Personality Types in Groups 61

GroupWork: Personality Types in Groups 61

4.4: Cultural Dimensions 62 4.4.1: Individualism–Collectivism 62 4.4.2: Power Distance 63 4.4.3: Gender Expectations 65 4.4.4: Time Orientations 65 4.4.5: High Context–Low Context 66

Virtual Teams: Cultural Dimensions and Communication Technology 66

Group Assessment: Cultural Context Inventory 67

4.5: Gender Dimensions 68 4.5.1: Collective Intelligence 68 4.5.2: Amount of Talk 68

Theory in Groups: Muted Group Theory 69

4.6: Generational Dimensions 69 4.6.1: Four Generational Dimensions 70 4.6.2: Ensuring Successful Intergenerational

Interactions 70

4.7: Religious Dimensions 71 Group Assessment: Religious Knowledge Survey 72

4.8: Adapting to Diversity 73 4.8.1: Be Mindful 73 4.8.2: Adapt to Others 73 4.8.3: Actively Engage Others 73

Ethics in Groups: Practice the Platinum Rule 73

Summary: Diversity in Groups 74

5 Group Leadership 77 Case Study: The Leader in Sheep’s Clothing 77

5.1: What Is Leadership? 78 Groups in Balance . . . Value Both Leadership and Followership 79

5.2: Becoming a Leader 80 5.2.1: Designated Leaders 80 5.2.2: Emergent Leaders 80 5.2.3: Strategies for Becoming a Leader 81

Group Assessment: Are You Ready to Lead? 82

5.3: Leadership and Power 82 5.3.1: Types of Power 83 5.3.2: The Power of Power 83

Ethics in Groups: Leadership Integrity 84

5.4: Leadership Theories 84 5.4.1: Trait Leadership Theory 85 5.4.2: Styles Leadership Theory 85

Groups in Balance . . . Cultivate the Two Sides of “Great” Leadership 86

5.4.3: Situational Leadership Theory 86 GroupWork: The Least-Preferred-Coworker Scale 88

Theory in Groups: An Abundance of Leadership Theories 90

5.5: The 5M Model of Leadership Effectiveness 90 5.5.1: Model Leadership Behavior 91 5.5.2: Motivate Members 91 5.5.3: Manage Group Process 92 5.5.4: Make Decisions 92 5.5.5: Mentor Members 92 5.5.6: Balancing the 5 Ms of Leadership

Effectiveness 93 Virtual Teams: Sharing Virtual Leadership Functions 94

5.6: Diversity and Leadership 94 5.6.1: Gender and Leadership 94 5.6.2: Leading Multicultural Groups 96

Summary: Group Leadership 97

6 Verbal and Nonverbal Communication in Groups 99

Case Study: How to Sink the Mayflower 100

6.1: Two Essential Tools 100

6.2: Team Talk 101 6.2.1: The Dimensions of Team Talk 101

Group Assessment: Auditing Team Talk 102

6.2.2: Use I, You, and We Language Appropriately 103

6.3: Language Challenges 103 6.3.1: Abstract Words 103

Contents ix

7.3: Key Listening Strategies and Skills 129 7.3.1: Use Your Extra Thought Speed 129 7.3.2: Apply the Golden Listening Rule 129 7.3.3: “Listen” to Nonverbal Behavior 130 7.3.4: Minimize Distractions 130 7.3.5: Listen Before You Leap 130 7.3.6: Take Relevant Notes 130

Virtual Teams: Listening Online 131

7.4: Listening to Differences 132 7.4.1: Gender Differences 133 7.4.2: Personality Differences 133 7.4.3: Cultural Differences 133

Groups in Balance . . . Learn the Art of High-Context Listening 133

7.4.4: Hearing Ability Differences 133 Ethics in Groups: Self-Centered Listening Sabotages Success 134

Summary: Listening and Responding in Groups 135

8 Conflict and Cohesion in Groups 136 Case Study: Sociology in Trouble 137

8.1: Conflict in Groups 137 8.1.1: Task Conflict 138 8.1.2: Personal Conflict 138 8.1.3: Procedural Conflict 138

8.2: Constructive and Destructive Conflict 139 GroupWork: Conflict Awareness Log 139

Virtual Teams: Conflict in Cyberspace 140

8.3: Conflict Styles 141 8.3.1: Avoiding Conflict Style 141 8.3.2: Accommodating Conflict Style 141

Groups in Balance . . . Know How to Apologize and When to Forgive 142

8.3.3: Competing Conflict Style 142 8.3.4: Compromising Conflict Style 143 8.3.5: Collaborating Conflict Style 143 8.3.6: Choosing a Conflict Style 143

Group Assessment: How Do You Respond to Conflict? 144

8.4: Conflict Management Strategies 145 8.4.1: The 4Rs Method 145

Theory in Groups: Attribution Theory and Member Motives 146

8.4.2: The A-E-I-O-U Model 147 8.4.3: Cooperative Negotiation 147 8.4.4: Anger Management 147

Ethics in Groups: The Group and the Doctrine of the Mean 148

8.5: Conflict and Member Diversity 149 8.5.1: Cultural Responses to Conflict 149

6.3.2: Bypassing 104 6.3.3: Exclusionary Language 104 6.3.4: Jargon 104

Ethics in Groups: Sticks and Stones May Break Your Bones, but Words Can Hurt Forever 105

6.4: Language Differences 106 6.4.1: Language and Gender 106 6.4.2: Language and Culture 106

Theory in Groups: The Whorf Hypothesis 107

6.5: Nonverbal Communication 108 Groups in Balance . . . Speak “Silently” 108

6.5.1: Personal Appearance 108 6.5.2: Facial Expression and Eye Contact 108 6.5.3: Vocal Expression 109 6.5.4: Physical Expression 109

Virtual Teams: Expressing Emotions Online 110

6.6: The Nonverbal Environment 111 6.6.1: Arrangement of Space 111 6.6.2: Perceptions of Personal Space 112

6.7: Nonverbal Differences 113 6.7.1: Nonverbal Communication and Gender 114 6.7.2: Nonverbal Communication and Culture 114

GroupWork: What is Nonverbally Normal? 114

6.8: Creating a Supportive Communication Climate 115

6.8.1: Defensive and Supportive Behaviors 115 6.8.2: Immediacy in Groups 116

GroupWork: How Immediate Are You? 117

Summary: Verbal and Nonverbal Communication in Groups 117

7 Listening and Responding in Groups 119

Case Study: That’s Not What I Said 119

7.1: The Challenge of Listening in Groups 120 7.1.1: The Nature of Listening 121 7.1.2: The Need for Better Listening 121

Group Assessment: Student Listening Inventory 122

7.1.3: The Habits of Listeners 123

7.2: The Listening Process 124 Theory in Groups: The HURIER Listening Model 124

7.2.1: Listening to Hear 125 7.2.2: Listening to Understand 125

Groups in Balance . . . Ask Questions to Enhance Comprehension 126

7.2.3: Listening to Remember 126 7.2.4: Listening to Interpret 126 7.2.5: Listening to Evaluate 127 7.2.6: Listening to Respond 127

GroupWork: Practice Paraphrasing 128

x Contents

Groups in Balance . . . Let Members Save Face 149

8.5.2: Gender Responses to Conflict 150

8.6: Group Cohesion 150 8.6.1: Enhancing Group Cohesion 150 8.6.2: Groupthink 151

Summary: Conflict and Cohesion in Groups 153

9 Decision Making and Problem Solving in Groups 155

Case Study: No More Horsing Around 156 9.1: Understanding Group Decision Making

and Problem Solving 156 9.1.1: Clear Goal 157

Theory in Groups: Asking Single and Subordinate Questions 157

9.1.2: Quality Content 159 9.1.3: Structured Procedures 159 9.1.4: Commitment to Deliberation 159 9.1.5: Collaborative Communication Climate 159

9.2: Group Decision Making 160 9.2.1: Decision-Making Methods 160

Groups in Balance . . . Avoid False Consensus 161

9.2.2: Decision-Making Styles 161 GroupWork: What Is Your Decision-Making Style? 162

9.3: Group Problem Solving 163 9.3.1: Brainstorming 164 9.3.2: Nominal Group Technique (NGT) 165 9.3.3: Decreasing Options Technique (DOT) 166 9.3.4: The Progressive Problem-Solving Method 168

Groups in Balance . . . Avoid Analysis Paralysis 169

Virtual Teams: Mediated Decision Making and Problem Solving 170

9.4: Creativity and Problem Solving 172 9.4.1: Creative Thinking 172 9.4.2: Enhancing Group Creativity 172

Ethics in Groups: The Morality of Creative Outcomes 173

9.5: Problem-Solving Realities 173 9.5.1: Politics 173 9.5.2: Preexisting Preferences 174 9.5.3: Power 174 9.5.4: Organizational Culture 174

Group Assessment: Problem-Solving Competencies in Groups 175

Summary: Decision Making and Problem Solving in Groups 176

10 Critical Thinking and Argumentation in Groups 178

Case Study: Slicing the Pie 178 10.1: The Nature of Critical Thinking and

Argumentation 179 10.1.1: The Value of Argumentation in Groups 180

Theory in Groups: Argumentative Communication 181

10.1.2: Deliberative Group Argumentation 181 Group Assessment: Argumentativeness Scale 182

10.2: Understanding Arguments 183 10.2.1: Claim, Evidence, and Warrant 184 10.2.2: Backing, Reservation, and Qualifier 184

GroupWork: Analyze the Argument 185

10.3: Supporting Arguments 186 Groups in Balance . . . Document Sources of Evidence 186

10.3.1: Types of Evidence 186 10.3.2: Tests of Evidence 187

Virtual Teams: Think Critically about the Internet 187

10.4: Presenting Arguments 188 10.4.1: State Your Claim 188

GroupWork: Clarify Your Claims 188

10.4.2: Support Your Claim 189 10.4.3: Provide Reasons 189 10.4.4: Summarize Your Argument 189

10.5: Refuting Arguments 189 10.5.1: Listen to the Argument 189 10.5.2: State the Opposing Claim 190 10.5.3: Preview Your Objections 190 10.5.4: Assess the Evidence 190 10.5.5: Assess the Reasoning 190 10.5.6: Summarize Your Refutation 190

10.6: Adapting to Argumentation Styles 191 10.6.1: Gender Differences in Argumentation 191 10.6.2: Cultural Differences in Argumentation 191 10.6.3: Argumentation and

Emotional Intelligence 192 Ethics in Groups: Ethical Argumentation 192

Summary: Critical Thinking and Argumentation in Groups 193

11 Planning and Conducting Meetings 195

Case Study: Monday Morning Blues 196 11.1: Meetings, Meetings, Meetings 196

11.1.1: What Is a Meeting? 197 GroupWork: It Was the Best of Meetings; It Was the Worst of Meetings 197

11.1.2: Why Do Meetings Fail? 198

11.2: Planning and Chairing Meetings 198 Theory in Groups: Chaos and Complexity Theories 199

11.2.1: Questions About Meetings 199 11.2.2: Preparing the Agenda 201

Groups in Balance . . . Avoid Meetingthink 202

11.2.3: Chairing the Meeting 203 11.2.4: Preparing the Minutes 204

Ethics in Groups: Use Good Judgment When Taking Minutes 205

Contents xi

11.3: Managing Members in Meetings 205 11.3.1: Adapting to Problematic Behaviors 205 11.3.2: Adapting to Member Differences 207

Virtual Teams: Meeting in Cyberspace 207

11.4: Parliamentary Procedure 208 11.4.1: Who Uses Parliamentary Procedure? 209 11.4.2: The Guiding Principles of Parliamentary

Procedure 209 11.4.3: The Parliamentary Players 210 11.4.4: Making a Motion 211 11.4.5: Making a Main Motion 212

11.5: Evaluating the Meeting 213 Group Assessment: Post-Meeting Reaction (PMR) Form 213

Summary: Planning and Conducting Meetings 214

12 Group Presentations 215 Case Study: Team Challenge 215 12.1: Presentations in and by Groups 216

12.2: Presentation Guidelines 217 12.2.1: Purpose 217 12.2.2: Audience 218 12.2.3: Credibility 219

Theory in Groups: Aristotle’s Ethos 219

12.2.4: Logistics 219 12.2.5: Content 220 12.2.6: Organization 220 12.2.7: Delivery 221

Virtual Teams: Mediated Presentations 222

12.3: Group Presentations 223 12.3.1: Public Group Presentations 223 12.3.2: Team Presentations 224

Groups in Balance . . . Welcome and Encourage Questions 225

Group Assessment: Team Presentation Evaluation 227

12.4: Presentation Aids 227 12.4.1: Presentation Slides 228

Ethics in Groups: Respect Copyrights 229

12.4.2: Delivering Presentation Aids 230 Groups in Balance . . . Know When to Break the “Slide” Rules 230

GroupWork: Re-envision the Visual 232

Summary: Group Presentations 232

Glossary 234

Notes 245

Credits 274

Index 276

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Preface

One central question has always guided our re-search and writing for Working in Groups: What do college students enrolled in a group communi-

cation course really need to know?

Our guiding question led us to include both classic and current theories of group communication that focus on “how groups work” as well as practical group commu- nication strategies and skills that emphasize “how to work in groups.”

Unified Perspective: Balance and Group Dialectics Beginning with the first edition of Working in Groups, we have used the concept of balance as a central metaphor for learning how to work in groups. A group that reaches a decision or completes a task is not in balance if group members dislike or mistrust one another. A group that re- lies on two or three members to do all the work is not in balance. Effective groups balance factors such as task and social maintenance functions, individual and group needs, and leadership and followership.

We further developed the balance metaphor into a unique model of group dialectics—the interplay of op- posing or contradictory forces inherent in group work. A dialectic approach examines how group members negoti- ate and resolve the tensions and pressures they encounter while working together to achieve a common goal. We ap- ply contemporary theories and research to illuminate the nine group dialectics that characterize the delicate balance achieved by effective groups.

Group Dialectics

Individual Goals n Group Goals Conflict n Cohesion Conforming n Nonconforming Task Dimensions n Social Dimensions Homogeneous n Heterogeneous Leadership n Followership Structure n Spontaneity Engaged n Disengaged Open System n Closed System

Comprehensive Topic Coverage The Seventh Edition of Working in Groups strengthens the text’s scholarship and applicability. Review the detailed table of contents to get a feel for the depth and breadth of topic coverage. We include classic and traditional group communication subject matter, such as

• Group Development

• Member Diversity

• Verbal and Nonverbal Communication

• Decision Making and Problem Solving

• Group Norms and Roles

• Leadership Theories and Power

• Group Cohesiveness and Conflict

• Planning and Conducting Meetings

We also include cutting-edge theories, research, and communication strategies, such as

• Group Dialectics and Balance

• “Team Talk” Strategies and Skills

• Communication Apprehension in Groups

• Communication Ethics in Groups

• Group Goal Setting and Motivation

• Adapting to Group Diversity

• Group Deliberation

• Virtual Teams

• Argumentation in Groups

• Brownell’s HURIER Listening Model

• Personality Traits in Groups

• Decision-Making Styles

• 5M Model of Effective Leadership

• The Collective Intelligence of Groups

Pedagogical Features The pedagogical features of this Seventh Edition that link the theories of group communication (how groups work) with related communication strategies and skills (how to work in groups) include the following:

Case Studies Provided at the beginning of every chapter, original case studies and accompanying questions enable students to

xiv Preface

Group Assessment Group Assessment features provide new and revised measures for evaluating student and group understanding of important theories, strategies, and skills.

End-of-Chapter Summary and Quiz Questions Chapter Summary Sections review the major concepts in each chapter. Students should be able to explain and apply summary statements to a variety of group situations and contexts.

End-of-chapter Quiz Questions link to chapter learn- ing outcomes and give students the opportunity to assess their understanding, application, analysis, and evaluation of chapter content.

New to this Edition The Seventh Edition of Working in Groups includes up-to- date research and expanded coverage of contemporary topics that build on our tradition of intellectual rigor, prac- tical focus, and commitment to student learning.

• Updated, contemporary approaches to traditional top- ics such as group roles, listening, leadership, conflict resolution, and problem solving

• Expanded and updated sections on virtual teams and communication technology in every chapter, with an emphasis on applying group theory, strategies, and skills to working in virtual teams

• Greater focus on collaboration and deliberation as vital components of group effectiveness

• Expanded topic coverage focusing on successfully resolving conflict, avoiding groupthink, managing problematic group members, preparing for team pres- entations, and using parliamentary procedure

• Updated sections on adapting to group diversity incor- porated throughout most chapters, with contemporary research on gender and intercultural communication

• New Theories, Research, and Practical Applications: Collective Intelligence; Gender and Leadership; Cul- tural Synergy; Cosmopolitanism and Ethics; The 4Rs of Conflict Management; Group Deliberation and Decision Making; The Progressive Problem-Solving Method; Organizational Culture and Problem Solving; Deliberative Argumentation; A Parliamentary Proce- dure Primer

• Excerpts from text-specific video scenarios appli- cable to specific sections of chapters followed by related questions for group discussion or writing as- signments

anticipate, discuss, and apply chapter content. The case study questions do not offer a single or correct answer; rather, they ask students to apply what they learn in the chapter and to explore what they believe are appropriate responses to the case study questions.

Video Scenarios Incorporated into the first 11 chapters, video scenarios highlight important group communication theories, strate- gies, and skills. Instructors can use these videos to supple- ment classroom lectures and discussions, as the basis for exam questions, or as cases for analysis.

Groups in Balance The Groups in Balance feature calls attention to group dia- lectics and the need to balance the contradictory forces inher- ent in all group work. The feature also examines the ways in which groups negotiate and resolve a variety of tensions using a both/and approach. Many of the Groups in Balance features are new or revised for the Seventh Edition.

Theory in Groups Throughout this edition, we use the Theory in Groups fea- ture to explain why groups succeed or fail and how related strategies and skills in this book can enhance group effec- tiveness. Many of the theories in the Seventh Edition are revised or new to the text.

Ethics in Groups Every chapter includes an Ethics in Groups feature that examines the many ethical issues and dilemmas that fre- quently arise when interdependent group members col- laborate with one another to achieve a common goal.

Virtual Teams In each chapter, the Virtual Teams feature offers strategies and skills to help groups and members achieve common goals both in mediated face-to-face settings and in virtual teams that communicate across time, distance, and organi- zational boundaries.

GroupWork GroupWork features in each chapter demonstrate and apply group communication principles in structured in- dividual and/or interactive activities. This feature offers personal insights and opportunities for critically think- ing about the ways in which related theories, strategies, and skills affect how and why group members collabo- rate with one another to achieve a common goal.

Acknowledgments Although the title page of Working in Groups features our names, this project exemplifies the value of collabo- rating with our talented and creative publishing team. We are particularly grateful to the group of content edi- tors, copy editors, production editors, graphic design- ers, photo editors, behind-the-scenes technicians, and what we describe as our “online transformers” who lit- erally transformed a traditional manuscript into a digi- tal text.

We extend very special thanks to Carly Czech, who became our sounding board, quality-assurance expert, and go-to fixer in the production process.

We also extend our gratitude to the Working in Groups Development Team including Karen Trost, our resource- ful, supportive, and insightful Development Editor, whose professionalism, innovative ideas, and kindness made all the difference. Rashida Patel, our Instructional Designer, for demonstrating the versatility of digital me- dia in transforming flat, linear content into new learn- ing tools that individual and groups of students can ask, answer, interact with, and learn from interactive activi- ties. Marla Sussman, our Assessment Writing Supervisor, taught us more about writing, analyzing, and maximiz- ing quiz questions than we have learned from anyone else in many years of creating tests and exams. Manas Roy, our Digital Publishing Project Manager, demon- strated a perfect combination of the expertise, efficiency, patience, and diplomacy needed to transform our text into digital form.

In addition to our publishing team, we enjoyed, learned a great deal from, and made needed changes based on the advice of our conscientious reviewers, whose excel- lent suggestions and comments enriched every edition of Working in Groups.

We are particularly indebted to the students and faculty members who have shared their opinions and provided valuable suggestions and insights about our teaching and our text. They are the measure of all things.

Isa Engleberg and Dianna Wynn

• Revised learning objectives for every chapter and linked to specific chapter content, as well as the end- of-chapter summary and quiz questions

REVEL™ Educational technology designed for the way today’s stu- dents read, think, and learn.

When students are engaged deeply, they learn more effectively and perform better in their courses. This simple fact inspired the creation of REVEL: an immersive learn- ing experience designed for the way today’s students read, think, and learn. Built in collaboration with educators and students nationwide, REVEL is the newest, fully digital way to deliver respected Pearson content.

REVEL enlivens course content with media interac- tives and assessments—integrated directly within the au- thors’ narrative—that provide opportunities for students to read about and practice course material in tandem. This immersive educational technology boosts student engage- ment, which leads to better understanding of concepts and improved performance throughout the course.

Learn more about REVEL - http://www.pearsonhighered. com/revel

Available Instructor Resources The following instructor resources can be accessed in the left hand navigation of Revel under “Resources” or by vis- iting http://www.pearsonhighered.com/irc

• Instructor Manual: includes chapter summary, learn- ing objectives, handouts and additional resources.

• Test Bank: includes additional questions beyond the REVEL in multiple choice and essay response— formats.

• PowerPoint Presentation: provides a core template of the content covered throughout the text. Can easily be added to customize for your classroom.

• MyTest: Create custom quizzes and exams using the Test Bank questions. You can print these exams for in-class use. Visit: http://www.pearsonhighered.com/mytest

Preface xv

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Dianna Wynn is an adjunct professor at Nash Commu- nity College in North Carolina. Previously, she taught at Midland College in Texas and Prince George’s Commu- nity College in Maryland, where students chose her as the Outstanding Teacher of the Year. She has co-authored three communication textbooks and written articles in academic journals. In addition to teaching, she has many years of ex- perience as a communication and trial consultant, assisting attorneys in developing effective courtroom communica- tion strategies.

Isa Engleberg, professor emerita at Prince George’s Com- munity College in Maryland, is a past president of the National Communication Association. In addition to writ- ing seven college textbooks in communication studies and publishing more than three dozen articles in academic journals, she earned the Outstanding Community College Educator Award from the National Communication As- sociation and the President’s Medal from Prince George’s Community College for outstanding teaching, scholarship, and service. Her professional career spans appointments at all levels of higher education as well as teaching abroad.

About the Authors

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Working in Groups

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1

1.4 Describe how understanding the components of the group communication process can enhance group effectiveness

1.5 Explain how successful groups balance various dialectic tensions by using a collaborative both/and approach

1.6 Practice the ethical principles included in the National Communication Association’s Credo for Ethical Communication

1.1 Explain why employers consistently rank teamwork and the ability to collaborate with others as essential skills

1.2 Explain the importance of the five key elements in the definition of group communication

1.3 Compare the advantages and disadvantages of working in groups

Learning Objectives

Chapter 1

Introduction to Group Communication

Like most successful groups, formation skydiving requires the collaboration of three or more interdependent members working to achieve a common goal.

2 Chapter 1

1.1: The Importance of Groups 1.1 Explain why employers consistently rank

teamwork and the ability to collaborate with others as essential skills

All of us work in groups—at school, on the job, in volun- tary organizations, and in interactive leisure activities. Depending on the situation, group members can be family members, friends, colleagues, and new acquaintances. Meeting locations range from sports fields and battlefields to courtrooms and classrooms, and even from cyberspace to outer space.

Individual performance was once the measure of per- sonal achievement, but success in today’s complex world depends on your ability to work in groups. Researchers Steve Kozlowski and Daniel Ilgen describe our profound dependence on groups:

Teams of people working together for a common cause touch all of our lives. From everyday activities like air travel, fire fighting, and running the United Way drive to amazing feats of human accomplishments like climbing Mt. Everest and reaching for the stars, teams are at the center of how work gets done in modern times.1

Working in groups may be the most important skill you learn in college. A study commissioned by the Asso- ciation of American Colleges and Universities (AAC&U) asked employers to rank essential learning outcomes needed by college graduates entering the workplace. In two of four major categories (“Intellectual and Practical Skills” and “Personal and Social Responsibility”), the top-ranked outcome was “teamwork skills and the abil- ity to collaborate with others in diverse group settings.” Recent graduates ranked the same learning outcomes as top priorities.2 A business executive in the same study wrote that they look for employees who “are good team people over anything else. I can teach the technical.”3 In another major study, employers identified group-related communication skills as more important than written communication, proficiency in the field of study, and computer skills.4

Case Study: The Study Group Dilemma Grace has always wanted to be a pediatric nurse. When she was accepted into the nursing program at a local college, she looked forward to studying for her dream job. How- ever, her first day in Anatomy and Physiology class turned her hopes into fears. Her professor explained that every student must learn and understand the significance of more than 15,000 terms! As she looked around the class- room, she could see that many of the other new nursing majors seemed just as stunned as she was.

After class was over, she walked down the hallway with four classmates. The mood was gloomy. After an uncomfortable period of silence, one of the other students suggested that they form a study group. Grace had her doubts. She thought, “A study group will just take up a lot of my time and energy with no guarantee that it will help me earn a good grade. As much as I’d like to get to know these students better, I can probably learn more by study- ing alone. Besides, what if we don’t get along? What if I end up doing most of the work or the others don’t show up?”

Grace’s concerns—like those of many people—are under- standable. Groups use a lot of time, energy, and resources. In some cases, a single person can accomplish just as much or more by working alone. And even if a study group has the potential to aid learning, it also has the potential for interper- sonal conflicts and long-lasting resentments.

Critical Thinking Questions After reading this chapter, you should be able to answer the following critical thinking questions:

1. Given Grace’s concerns about spending a lot of her valuable time and energy in a study group, what would you say to encourage her to join?

2. What communication strategies should a study group use to ensure that members are satisfied with the group experience?

3. Which dialectic tensions are most likely to affect how well Grace and her study group achieves its goal?

4. Is it ethical for a study group to work together in order to improve their chances of earning a good grade when other students in the same class study alone? If yes, why? If not, why not?

Introduction to Group Communication 3

Group Assessment Group Communication Competencies Survey5 What are the critical group communication skills identified by employers? Fortunately, there are many research-based competencies that characterize effective group member behavior. As a way of introducing you to the theories, strategies, and skills in this text, assess the importance of each of the competencies presented in the Group Communication Competencies Survey.

Directions: On a 5-point scale, where 5 is “Extremely Important” and 1 is “Not at All Important,” rate the following group competencies in terms of their importance for becoming an effective group member. Select only one number for each item. When you are finished, ask yourself this question: How competent am I in the “Extremely Important” areas?

Group Competencies

5 Extremely Important

4 Very

Important

3 Somewhat Important

2 Not Very

Important

1 Not at All Important

1. Reduce your nervousness when speaking in a discussion or meeting.

2. Understand, respect, and adapt to diverse group members.

3. Communicate openly and honestly.

4. Assume critical task roles (ask questions and analyze ideas) and social maintenance roles (motivate and support members).

5. Influence group members to change their attitudes and/or behavior.

6. Correctly interpret and appropriately respond to members’ feelings.

7. Develop clear group goals.

8. Listen appropriately and effectively to other members.

9. Intervene appropriately to resolve member and group problems.

10. Develop positive interpersonal relationships with group members.

11. Manage and resolve interpersonal conflicts.

12. Develop and follow a well-organized meeting agenda.

13. Actively contribute to group discussions.

14. Use gestures, body language, facial expressions, and eye contact effectively.

15. Demonstrate effective leadership skills.

16. Research and share important ideas and information with group members.

17. Use presentation aids and presentation software (PowerPoint) effectively.

18. Plan and conduct effective meetings.

19. Use appropriate procedures for group decision making and problem solving.

20. Ask questions to clarify ideas and get needed information.

21. Motivate group members.

22. Use assertiveness strategies and skills confidently and effectively.

23. Respect and adapt to group norms (standards of behavior).

24. Promote equal participation in discussions by all members.

25. Prepare and deliver an effective presentation or oral report.

26. Use appropriate and effective words in a group discussion.

27. Use effective technologies and skills to communicate in virtual teams.

28. Develop and present valid arguments and opinions in a group discussion.

29. Provide appropriate emotional support to group members.

30. Other strategies or skills:

a. b. c.

4 Chapter 1

1.2: Defining Group Communication 1.2 Explain the importance of the five key elements in

the definition of group communication

When does a collection of people become a group? Do people talking in an elevator or discussing the weather at an airport constitute a group? Are the members of a church congregation listening to a sermon or fans cheering at a baseball game a group? Although the people in these examples are groups, they are not necessarily working for or with other members.

There are two basic uses of the word group. The first describes people brought together by a circumstance, such as a group of fans at a sporting event or concert, a group of people waiting in line for a bus or at airport check-in, or a group assembled at a political rally or a wedding. The sec- ond use of the word identifies a group as people who interact with one another to accomplish something. (Table 1.1) In this textbook, we concentrate on the second meaning in which group members are highly focused and dependent on communication. We define group commu- nication as the collaboration of three or more interdepen- dent members working to achieve a common goal.

Although people frequently assemble in a variety of circumstances and settings, group members who actively collaborate with one another to achieve a shared goal have the most influence and impact on their own lives and the lives of others. When describing group communication, we use the terms group and team interchangeably. Thus, a group of friends organizing an annual block party can be just as diligent and productive as a corporate team organizing and conducting a stockholders’ meeting. Although we don’t call a football team a football group or family members a team (unless they’re playing a sport or game together), we can

Table 1.1 Shared Goals OR Shared Circumstances Examples Classification

People who work with their neigh- bors to pick up trash on Earth Day

People who interact with one another to accomplish a shared goal

People discussing the weather at an airport

People brought together by a shared circumstance

People who are members of a church congregation listening to a sermon

People brought together by a shared circumstance

People who get together to choose a scholarship winner from among high school honors students

People who interact with one another to accomplish a shared goal

People who get together to watch a Presidential candidates’ debate on television

People brought together by a shared circumstance

1.2.1: Key Elements of Group Communication

The Green Bay Packers have won more championships than any other team in National Football League history. How do the Packers exemplify the definition of group communication: the collaboration of three or more interdependent members working to achieve a common goal?

Now, let’s break down our definition into the five essential components of group communication shown in Figure 1.1.

Interdependence

C ollaboration

Goals Me

mb ers

Group Communication

W or

ki ng

Figure 1.1 Components of Group Communication

ThrEE or MorE MEMbErs The saying “Two’s com- pany, three’s a crowd” recognizes that a conversation between two people is fundamentally different from a three- person discussion. If two people engage in a conversation, Jill communicates with Jack and Jack communicates with Jill.

safely say that all of these people are working together in order to achieve a common goal.

Introduction to Group Communication 5

But if a third person is added, the dynamics change: A third person can be the listener who judges and influences the con- tent and style of the conversation. While two group members talk, support, or criticize one another, a third person can offer alternatives and make a tie-breaking decision if the other two people can’t agree. We do not identify two people as a group because researchers note that two people working together perform at about the same level as the same two people working alone.6

As the size of a group increases, the number of possi- ble interactions (and potential misunderstandings) increases exponentially. For example, a group with five members has the potential for 90 different interactions; if you add just two members, a group of seven has the poten- tial for 966 different interactions.7

At this point, you may wonder whether there is an ideal group size.

The answer is: It depends. It depends on members’ knowledge, attitudes, and skills; on the nature and needs of the task; and—most importantly—on the group’s com- mon goal. Fortunately, researchers have looked at the group-size question and given us some useful guidelines:

• Most group members and leaders prefer groups of three to nine members.

• Groups larger than nine members are generally less productive.8

• Groups of five to seven members are generally more effective for problem-solving discussions.

• To avoid tied votes, an odd number of members is usu- ally better than an even number.

Smaller groups are generally more effective than larger groups. As group size increases, cohesion and effective col- laboration decreases, and members tend to divide into sub- groups. In large groups, members are more argumentative, less unified, and more competitive than cooperative. Some members may feel left out or inconsequential, and as a result, member satisfaction decreases as group size increases.9 The best advice is the simplest: limit “group size to the smallest number of members necessary to accomplish group goals.”10

Many organizations have learned the importance of creating groups in a size most likely to achieve specific goals. For example, successful megachurches in the United States may have thousands of members in their congrega- tions, but small groups are often the key to their success. Church members are encouraged to create or join tightly knit groups of five to seven people who meet in a mem- ber’s home to pray and support one another in times of need. Worshipers match their interests with those of other group members—new parents, retired accountants, moun-

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WRITING PROMPT

Key Elements of Group Communication

Think about the task groups in which you’ve been a member. Choose one or two examples and explain how the size of the group and the nature of the task affected its ability to achieve a common goal.

CollaboraTion Collaboration is a fairly common word that encompasses such behaviors as coordination, coopera- tion, interaction, and teamwork. In groups, collaboration is characterized by coordinated group interaction in which members share a common goal, respect others’ perspectives and contributions, and work together to create a successful group experience.

Effective collaboration ensures that members share relevant information and opinions, make responsible deci- sions, and develop positive interpersonal relationships. The way in which group members communicate does more than reveal group dynamics; it creates them.12 Mem- bers learn which behaviors are appropriate, and which are inappropriate. Whether members meet face to face or in cyberspace, effective group communication requires col- laboration.

inTErdEpEndEnCE interdependence refers to the influ- ence of each group member on the thoughts and actions of other members. A successful group with interdependent members functions as a cohesive team in which all members feel responsible for doing their part. The failure of a single group member can adversely affect the entire group. For example, if one student in a study group fails to read and explain an important section of an assigned chapter, the entire group will be unprepared for questions related to the material covered in that chapter. Few tasks can be accomplished by a group without information, advice, support, and assistance from its interdependent members.

Working Working describes the physical and/or mental effort group members expend when trying to accomplish something. That “something” can be a social goal, such as getting friends together for a surprise party;

tain bike riders—and use their commonalities as the basis for religious discussions, member support, and volunteer projects. Thus, although successful megachurches boast large congregations that share a common belief system, they rely on the motivation, comfort, and work of small groups to sustain religious faith and church membership.11

6 Chapter 1

a family goal, such as deciding jointly where to go on vacation; a medical team’s goal of planning training ses- sions for improving patient care; or a management goal, in which group members develop a strategic plan for their organization.

Working in a group is not about hard labor. Rather, when we work effectively in groups, we join others in a productive and motivating experience in which members combine their talents and energy to achieve a worthy goal.

CoMMon goal Group members come together for a reason. Their collective reason defines and unifies the group. A group’s common goal represents the shared pur- pose or objective toward which group work is directed. A group’s goal guides its actions, sets standards for measur- ing success, provides a focus for resolving conflict, and motivates members. Large-scale studies have found that a clear common goal is the most significant factor separating successful groups from unsuccessful groups.13

It doesn’t matter whether you call it a goal, an objec- tive, a purpose, a mission, an assignment, or a vision. With- out a common goal, group members would have difficulty answering several critical questions: Why are we meeting? Why should we care or work hard? Where are we going? How will we know when we get there?

Some groups have the freedom to develop their own goals. For example, a gathering of neighbors may meet to discuss ways of reducing crime in the neighborhood, or nursing students may form a study group to prepare for and do well on an upcoming exam. Other goals are assigned. A marketing instructor may require a semester- long project to assess a student group’s ability to develop a marketing campaign. An industrial company may assem- ble a group of employees with the purpose of developing recommendations for safer storage of hazardous chemi- cals. Whatever the circumstances, effective groups work to accomplish a common goal.

Theory in Groups Systems Theory

Objective: Provide an example that shows how the Input-Process- Output Model of Systems Theory demonstrates the complex nature of group communication.

Systems Theory (Figure 1.2) encompasses a group of theo- ries that examines how interdependent factors affect one another in a complex environment. In communication studies, Systems Theory recognizes that “communication does not take place in isolation, but rather necessitates a communica- tion system.”14

Every group we describe in this textbook is a system, a collection of interacting and interdependent elements work-

1.2.2: Types of Groups Like their individual members, groups have diverse char- acteristics and goals. Although a basketball team, a study group, a corporate board of directors, and a homecoming

Example: Typical Work

Group

Example: Professional

Football Team

Components of Systems

Theory

Planning; leadership; cohesiveness; conflict resolution; decision making and problem solving

OUTPUTPROCESSINPUT

Wins or losses and point spread (group performance); individual player performance records (member performance); player health and attitudes, and fan jubilation or misery (member satisfaction)

Group Output Becomes New Input

Group Process Becomes New Input

Practice, including how to deal with various field/weather conditions (planning); choice and execution of specific plays during a game (leadership); support or lack of support from fans (unified or conflicting); team players/substitutes on game days and adaptation to opponents (decision making and problem solving)

Game rules, team composition, and player skills (task requirements); the personal traits and attitudes of owners, coaches, players, and referees (interpersonal factors)

Group performance; decisions; achieving the common goal; member satisfaction

Task requirements; member characteristics, skills, expertise, attitudes

Figure 1.2 Components of Systems Theory

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WRITING PROMPT

Systems Theory

Identify the input, process, and output of a college study group, and explain how the group’s process and output can affect input.

ing together to form a complex whole that adapts to a changing environment. However, groups are not the only systems in our lives. In biology, we study the digestive sys- tem, the nervous system, and the immune system, and rec- ognize that when one of these biological systems fails, it can affect the others with serious or even deadly consequences. We embrace the democratic system of government, marvel at our solar system, and hope that our computer system doesn’t crash.

One way of looking at groups and systems is through Input-Process-Output (I-P-O) models. Inputs come from both outside the group and within the group. Process takes place within the group as it works to achieve its common goal. Out- put, the results of input and process, can influence future input and processes. Understanding how your group functions as a system is just as important as doing your personal best in helping your group succeed.

Introduction to Group Communication 7

Table 1.2 Types of Groups Type of Group

Purpose

Examples of Membership

Primary To provide members with affection, support, and a sense of belonging

Family, best friends

Social To share common interests in a friendly setting or participate in social activities

Athletic team, college sororities and fraternities

Self-Help To support and encourage members who want or need help with personal problems

Therapy groups, Weight Watchers

Learning To help members gain knowledge and develop skills

Study groups, ceramics workshops

Service To assist worthy causes that help other people outside the group

Kiwanis, charity or volun- teer groups

Civic To support worthy causes that help people within the group

Parent Teacher Associa- tions (PTA), neighborhood associations

Organizational To achieve specific goals on behalf of a business or organization

Management teams, committees

Public To discuss important issues in front of or for the benefit of the public

Open-to-the-public panel discussions, governance groups

The eight types of groups are not absolute categories. Many of them overlap. A Girl Scout belongs to both a social group and a learning group, and their scout leaders, who operate under the direction of the national association, belong to both a service group and an organizational group. The last two types of groups in Table 1.2—organiza- tional groups and public groups—serve the interests of rec- ognized organizations and public audiences.

Organizational groups may have goals as complex as reengineering a global corporation or as simple as sharing relevant information at a weekly staff meeting. Most organizational groups work within a system that has its own rules, vocabulary, levels of power, and member responsibilities. If you are employed, you probably

Virtual Teams Groups in Cyberspace

Objective: List the fundamental requirements of an effective vir- tual team, regardless of the medium or media members use to collaborate with one another.

Today, regardless of when or where you work in groups, you already do or inevitably will participate as the member of a vir- tual team. Virtual teams rely on one or more mediated tech- nologies to collaborate, often across time, distance, and organizational boundaries.

Thousands of miles and several time zones may separate virtual team members, whereas others work in the same room using technology to collaborate on a group project. Diverse and geographically distributed teams are now the model for businesses and governments around the world. In fact, research concludes that “with rare exceptions all organiza- tional teams are virtual to some extent.”15

Virtual teams are everywhere. At least 75 percent of U.S. companies allow employees to work remotely—and that num- ber is expected to increase significantly.16 Surveys of multina- tional corporations reported that 80 percent of the respondents were part of a virtual team; 63 percent indicated that about half of these teams were located in other countries. In one survey of major corporations, 52 percent reported that virtual teams are used by top management, and 79 percent are used for project teams.17 Some companies—with names such as Art & Logic, Automattic, Basecamp, and peopleG2—operate com- pletely or mostly in virtual teams.18

The increasing prevalence of virtual teams creates new challenges: Employees rated tasks such as managing conflict, making decisions, expressing opinions, and generating inno- vative ideas as more difficult in virtual teams than in face-to- face meetings. In addition, 95 percent reported that their greatest challenge was overcoming the inability to read non- verbal behavior in text-only contexts. And 90 percent said they don’t have enough time during virtual meetings to build rela- tionships. The top-rated characteristics of an effective virtual teammate include:

1. a willingness to share relevant information,

2. active engagement and interaction with others, and

3. the ability to collaborate.

committee are groups in which interdependent members collaborate with one another to achieve a common goal, each one has unique features and functions.

The most common types of groups fall into eight cat- egories that span a wide range of groups, from the most personal and informal types of groups to more formal, structured types. You can identify each type of group (primary, social, self-help, learning, service, civic, orga- nizational, and public) by observing its purpose (why the group meets) and examples of membership (who is in the group), as shown in Table 1.2.

belong to several organizational groups. You may be a member of a production team or a work crew. You may belong to a sales staff, service department, management group, or research team.

As noted in Table 1.2, public group members interact in front of or for the benefit of the public. Although public groups may engage in information sharing, decision mak- ing, or problem solving, they are also concerned with mak- ing a positive impression on a public audience.

8 Chapter 1

These are also essential communication competen- cies needed by the members of all groups—whether meet- ing face to face or via cyberspace with members across the globe.19

Groups must balance the advantages and disadvan- tages of using technology. On the one hand, organizations spend billions of dollars on technology that allows employ- ees to communicate with one another, collaborate on proj- ects, and participate in virtual meetings. On the other hand, “hundreds of millions of those dollars will be wasted chasing fads and installing technology that people will use to work the same way they worked before the technology was installed.”20

Virtual teams are complex. Members may come from a variety of organizations, cultures, time zones, and geo- graphic locations, not to mention the many technologies they can use. For example, their levels of experience and expertise in using a particular virtual medium may vary. They may also have computer systems with different capabilities, such as older or newer versions of the software being used for group communication. As a result, virtual teams develop distinct group dynamics compared to groups that meet face to face.21

In addition to the ones you know best (email, social media tools, instant messaging, and frequently-used video and audio conferencing systems), hundreds of commercially available tools help virtual teams manage their work in differ- ent time/space configurations. Table 1.3 provides examples of virtual team products by function. By the time you read this list, there are sure to be new, improved, and more innovative tools for groups to use. Have you used any of these tools? Did they help or hinder your group? What other products would you add to the list?

Table 1.3 Virtual Tools for Virtual Teams22

Function Sample Products

Collaboration Redbooth, Slack, Blackboard Collaborate

Project Management Microsoft Project, Basecamp, Primavera

Document Storage/File Sharing

Dropbox, Google Drive, Share Point

Electronic Meetings WebEx, GoToMeetings, Google Hangouts

High-End Video Confer- encing

Cisco Telepresence, Polycrom Telepres- ence, Logitech LifeSize

Meeting Schedulers Doodle, Timebride, ScheduleOnce

Document Co-Creation Google Docs, Prezi, Conceptboard

Whether you welcome the benefits of working in virtual teams or not, they are here to stay. These powerful tools will become increasingly prevalent in all types of groups. Cer- tainly, in organizational environments, virtual teams will become “the norm in conducting business.”23 To help you succeed in these groups, we offer strategies and skills throughout this textbook that focus on working effectively and

1.3: Advantages and Disadvantages of Working in Groups 1.3 Compare the advantages and disadvantages of

working in groups

If you’re like most people, you probably have suffered through at least one long, boring meeting run by an unskilled and incompetent leader. Perhaps you have lost patience with a group that couldn’t accomplish a simple task that you could do easily by yourself. Even so, the potential advantages of working in effective groups far outweigh the disadvantages.

Let’s begin by acknowledging several certainties about group work. There is no question that some tasks are impossible for one person to complete alone. Prehistoric people joined together in groups to hunt large, ferocious animals and to protect their families and clan. Today, we form groups to build skyscrapers and rocket ships, to per- form life-saving surgery and classical symphonies, and to play football games and clean up oil spills.

In our daily lives, we also rely on smaller groups such as mobile emergency medical teams, study groups, neigh- borhood safety committees, coaching staffs, and our fami- lies to make decisions and solve problems. Do these groups do a better job than one person can? If the group is poorly organized, lacks a clear goal, and includes unmotivated members with limited or inappropriate knowledge and skills, the answer is no. However, when groups work effec- tively, efficiently, and ethically, they have the potential to outperform individuals working alone and can make sig- nificant contributions to the quality of our lives. The criti- cal question is not, “Are groups better than individuals?” Rather, ask yourself this: “How can we become a more effective group?”25

efficiently in virtual environments. The following are fundamen- tal requirements for an effective virtual team:

• adequate resources (funding, people, skills, etc.) to achieve a group’s common goal,

• appropriate and effective information technology and support,

• members with adequate and appropriate electronic com- munication skills,

• members with adequate and appropriate collaboration skills suited to a mediated environment, and

• members who serve as role models for others in virtual interactions.24

Introduction to Group Communication 9

• Better Decision Making • Superior Resources • Member Satisfaction • Enhanced Learning • Greater Creativity

• More Time, Energy, and Resources • Potential for Conflicts • People Problems

A d

va nt

ag es

D isad

vantag es

Figure 1.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Working in Groups

GroupWork It Was the Best of Teams, It Was the Worst of Teams

Directions: This activity is designed to help you identify some of the advantages and disadvantages of working in groups based on your own experiences and the experiences of others. Consider one of the groups in which you have worked. Then think about what you liked and disliked about working in that group. Now you should be able to identify characteristics unique to the best groups and worst groups.

The Best of Teams

Example: One member kept track of everyone’s birthday. On the meeting day closest to a birthday, we presented a card signed by everyone and shared a cake or cookies.

1.

2.

3.

4.

The Worst of Teams

Example: The boss or leader refused to explain her decisions. When we’d ask why we could or couldn’t do something, she’d say, “Because I said so.”

1.

2.

3.

4.

Advantages

Greater Creativity

Enhanced Learning

Member Satisfaction

Superior Resources

Better Decision Making

Figure 1.4 Advantages of Working in Groups

considered are the ways in which group communication can enhance member satisfaction, learning, and creativity.

bETTEr dECision Making Do groups or individuals perform better and make better decisions? The answer is: It depends. When a task is fairly simple and routine (e.g., write a memo, total the day’s receipts), an individual work- ing alone may perform it as well as or better than a group. A simple, routine task such as putting stamps on envelopes does not require a group because collaboration and inter- dependence are unnecessary. Even a more difficult task or problem that has one right answer may be solved more easily by a smart person or expert working alone than by a group. However, when a task is complex and the answers or solutions are unclear or require an understanding of multiple perspectives, a group has the potential to do a bet- ter job than individuals working alone.

Once researchers understood the types of jobs that groups do best, their findings were nearly universal: groups usually outperform the average of their members’ individual judgments.26 Of course, there are exceptions. In a “bad” group of poorly chosen or too-busy members lack- ing sufficient information, motivation, and structured tech- niques, failure is likely.

supErior rEsourCEs Every group member brings a wide variety of resources, including different life experi- ences, special expertise, and unique perspectives as well as ideas, information, and opinions about a variety of issues. When group members share what they know and what they believe, it broadens and enriches the group’s knowledge base. These collective ideas, information, and perspectives are likely to result in better-informed, more meaningful, and more effective group decision making and problem solving. With rare exceptions, a group has more and better resources to call upon than an individual working alone.

MEMbEr saTisfaCTion The social benefits of group work can be just as important as task achievement. People belong to and work in groups because groups give them the opportunity to make friends, socialize, receive peer support, and feel part of a unified and successful team. Not surprisingly, the more opportunities group members have to communicate with one another, the more satisfied they are with the group experience.

Figure 1.3 notes that, in most cases, the potential advantages of group collaboration far outweigh the poten- tial disadvantages.

1.3.1: Advantages of Working in Groups The advantages of working in groups (Figure 1.4) outweigh the disadvantages when group members collaborate effec- tively with one another in pursuit of a common goal. The first two advantages—Better Decision Making and Superior Resources—are the most obvious. What you may not have

10 Chapter 1

EnhanCEd lEarning Working in groups is a collec- tive learning experience in which members share ideas, information, and opinions relevant to a common goal. Research comparing cooperative, group-based learning with traditional approaches in college courses indicates that collaborative learning promotes higher individual achievement in knowledge acquisition, retention, accuracy, creativity in problem solving, and higher-level reasoning.27 New members learn from veterans, and amateurs learn from experts. In addition to learning more about the topics under discussion, members also learn more about how to work as a group.

grEaTEr CrEaTiviTy In addition to performing bet- ter than individuals working alone, groups also gener- ate more innovative ideas and creative solutions. As MIT management professor Peter Senge writes, “If you want something really creative done, you ask a team to do it—instead of sending one person off to do it on his or her own.”28

Lee Towe, author of Why Didn’t I Think of That? Creativ- ity in the Workplace, writes that the “key to creativity is the mental flexibility required to mix thoughts from our many different experiences.”29 When you combine your thoughts with those of other group members, you increase the group’s creative potential. In addition to providing a cre- ative multiplier effect by tapping more information, more brainpower, and more insights, groups have “awesome superiority” when trying to unleash creativity and solve challenging problems.30

1.3.2: Disadvantages of Working in Groups The advantages are clear when groups are working effi- ciently and effectively. The disadvantages (Figure 1.5) are more likely to occur when working in a group is not the best way to achieve a goal, when members don’t work to their full potential, or when problems interfere with group members’ willingness and ability to communicate. The most common complaints about working in groups concern the amount of time, energy, and resources expended by groups and the conflicts and people prob- lems that can arise.

Groups in Balance . . . Create Synergy When three or more interdependent group members collab- orate and work toward achieving a common goal, they have the potential to create a synergy. The term synergy, often expressed as the whole is greater than the sum of its parts, comes from the Greek word synergos, meaning “working together.” Synergy does not occur when people work alone; it only occurs when people work together. In terms of group communication, synergy is a state in which the effective collaboration of group members produces better results than what would be expected given the sum of skills and abilities of individual members working alone. A sports team of good players may, by the virtue of synergy, defeat a team with several superstars. A design team at a high-tech com- pany may surprise the world with new technological break- throughs that the individuals on the team could not have developed alone.

Effective groups are synergistic. Baseball teams without superstars have won the World Series. Companies with execu- tives who earn modest salaries have surpassed other companies

MorE TiME, EnErgy, and rEsourCEs Working in groups costs time, energy, and resources. Nonproductive meetings, poor communication, and vague group objec- tives can gobble up as many as two of every five workdays. Workers report spending an average of 5.6 hours a week in meetings, and rate 69 percent of those meetings as ineffec- tive.31 The wasted psychic and physical energy expended in poorly run meetings can lead to counterproductive stress and indifference. We spend a lot of time and energy in groups; if that time and effort are wasted, we are throw- ing away valuable resources.

poTEnTial for ConfliCT Very few people enjoy or seek out conflict, but when group members work together to achieve a common goal, there is always the potential for dis- agreement. Members who habitually disagree may be seen as aggressive or disruptive. As a result, some people will do almost anything to avoid conflict and confrontation. They may go out of their way to avoid working in groups, even though discussing different perspectives and exploring alternative options promote better group problem solving and decision

Disadvantages

People Problems

Potential for Conflicts

More Time, Energy, and Resources

Figure 1.5 Disadvantages of Working in Groups

in which CEOs are paid millions of dollars. Ordinary groups have achieved extraordinary results. Synergy occurs when the knowledge, talents, and dedication of group members merge into a force that surpasses anything group members could have produced without collaboration.

Introduction to Group Communication 11

Watch The Group Project

Watch a clip of the video “The Group Project,” which illustrates several disadvantages of working in groups as well as questions about member ethics.

The response entered here will appear in the performance dashboard and can be viewed by your instructor.

Submit

WRITING PROMPT

Advantages and Disadvantages of Working in Groups

1. The chapter text identifies several types of groups. Which type or types would best describe the group in the video?

2. To what extent did one member’s gossip about Sarah influence the group leader? How would a comment like this influence you in a similar group?

1.4: The Nature of Group Communication 1.4 Describe how understanding the components of

the group communication process can enhance group effectiveness

Now that you have learned the basic components and types of groups, two concepts can help you to better understand the complex nature of group communication: (1) the critical functions of communication theories, strategies, and skills; and (2) the nature of the group communication process.

1.4.1: Theories, Strategies, and Skills Throughout this textbook, we examine the theories, strate- gies, and skills needed to promote and balance group pro- ductivity and member satisfaction.32

• A theory is a clear, systematic, and predictive explana- tion of a phenomenon.

Unlike the personal hunches or guesses you may have about how effective groups work, who will win Dancing with the Stars, or the impact of climate change, valid the- ories are based on the interpretation of knowable and verifiable facts. Group communication theories help us understand what is occurring in a group as well as why groups succeed or fail.

• A strategy is a method, guideline, or technique for deal- ing with the issues and problems that arise in groups.

Effective strategies are based on theories. Without the- ories, you won’t know why a particular strategy works in one situation yet fails in another. If, contrary to lead- ership theory, you believe that a domineering leader- ship style is more effective than a democratic one, you may find yourself at odds with group members and even out of your leadership job.

• A skill is a specific ability that helps a group engage in collaborative work to achieve its common goal.

Communication skills are the most important skills available to group members. Like strategies, skills are most effective when their use is based on theories. For example, although active and empathic listening skills are difficult to master, theories and research demonstrate they are well worth the effort because they enhance the quality of group collaboration.

A group member may know what strategies and skills to use, but may have no idea why the strategies work or how to perform the required skills. Eager to solve prob- lems or achieve a common goal, a group may use inappro- priate skills or hunches that don’t address the true causes of a problem or help achieve the goal. Using strategies and

making. Some group members avoid meetings in which con- troversial issues are scheduled for discussion; others are unwilling to express their opinions when they do attend.

PeoPle Problems As much as we may want others to share our interests, viewpoints, and willingness to work, there is always the potential for individual group members to create problems. Like anyone else in our daily lives, group members can be stubborn, lazy, and even cruel. The presence of certain members can even influence decisions about whether to participate in a particular group.

To avoid conflict or extra work, some members may go along with the group or play “Follow the leader” rather than search for the best solution to a problem. Strong, domineer- ing members can put so much pressure on others that they effectively stifle productive discussion and constructive dis- sent. Although no one wants to work with a group of unpleasant members, there may be circumstances in which people problems cannot be avoided. Fortunately, this text- book provides a wide range of effective strategies and skills for conducting successful and efficient meetings, managing the inevitable conflicts that arise in groups, and coping with and overcoming inappropriate member behavior.

12 Chapter 1

Table 1.4 Basic Elements of Group Communication Basic Elements of Group Communication

Description

Group Examples

Members People with distinct knowledge, experiences, personality traits, attitudes, skills, and cultural backgrounds who are rec- ognized as belonging to the group

A surgical team includes one or more surgeons, an anesthesi- ologist, and function-specific surgical nurses.

Messages The ideas, information, opinions, claims, and/or feelings expressed by group members that generate meaning in others

Group members ask for and share relevant ideas, information, and opinions.

Context The physical and psychological environment in which a group communicates, including factors such as group size, working conditions, and the relationships among members

A study group meeting in the college cafeteria communicates in a different context than a corporate marketing team holding a video conference with international clients.

Channels The media through which group members share messages using one or more of their five senses in face-to-face or medi- ated settings

Group members express themselves verbally (words), nonver- bally (facial expressions, body language, vocal cues) and/or through various mediated channels.

Feedback Verbal and/or nonverbal responses from members that indicate how well others received and interpreted a message

Group members noticeably respond verbally, nonverbally, and/or through mediated channels to the meaning of others’ messages.

Noise Any external (sounds, room conditions) or internal (attitudes, beliefs, and values) factors that interfere with how well mem- bers express themselves or interpret the messages of others

External Noise: Hallway sounds, hot/cold room, poor lighting, uncomfortable seating Internal Noise: Biases, worried thoughts, anger, fatigue, hunger, headaches

Communication is complex enough when just two people interact, and becomes even more complicated when addi- tional people are involved. At its most fundamental level, the group communication process includes six basic ele- ments common to all forms of human communication: members, messages, context, channels, feedback, and noise. These elements are described in Table 1.4.

1.5: Balance as the Guiding Principle of Group Work 1.5 Explain how successful groups balance various

dialectic tensions by using a collaborative both/ and approach

At the heart of this textbook is an important guiding prin- ciple: An ideal group succeeds because it achieves balance, a state of equilibrium in which extreme approaches neither dominate nor interfere with the group’s ultimate ability to achieve its common goal.

In group communication, the group’s common goal is the point on which members must balance many factors. A group that makes a decision or completes an assigned task is not in balance if group members end up hating one another. A group that relies on one or two members to do all of the work is not in balance. Effective groups weigh factors such as the group’s task and social functions, individual and group needs, and the responsibilities of leadership and follower- ship. Achieving balance requires an understanding of the interplay of the contradictory forces that operate in all groups.

1.5.1: Groups in Balance All of us balance competing options every day. Should you work or play? Should you spend or save? Should you eat a

Channels

Channels

= Noise

M es sa ge /F ee db ac k

Ch an ne ls

M essage/Feedback

Channels

M essage/Feedback

Channels M es sa ge /F ee db ac k

Ch an ne ls

MEMBER #2

CONTEXT CONTEXT

CONTEXT CONTEXT

MEMBER #4

M E

M B

E R

# 1 ME

M B

E R

#3

C ha

nn el s

C hannels

Message/ Feedback

Figure 1.6 The Group Communication Process

skills without an understanding of appropriate theories can make the process of working in groups inefficient, inef- fective, and frustrating for all members.

1.4.2: The Group Communication Process Figure 1.6 illustrates the interactions among the six basic elements of group communication.

Effective communication helps group members create a worthy common goal, share relevant information and opinions, make sound decisions, effectively solve prob- lems, and develop supportive interpersonal relationships.

Introduction to Group Communication 13

Theory in Groups Relational Dialectics Theory

Objective: Evaluate the different methods groups use to balance the dialectic tensions that arise when members collaborate to achieve a shared goal.

Communication scholars Leslie Baxter and Barbara Montgom- ery use the term dialectics to describe the complex and con- tradictory nature of personal relationships. Their Relational Dialectics Theory claims that relationships are characterized

by ongoing, dialectic tensions among the multiple contradic- tions, complexities, and changes in human experiences.33 The following pairs of common folk proverbs illustrate such contra- dictory, dialectic tensions:

“Opposites attract,” but “Birds of a feather flock together.”

“Two’s company; three’s a crowd,” but “The more, the merrier.”34

Rather than trying to prove that one of these contradic- tory proverbs is truer than the other—an either/or response— relational dialectics takes a both/and approach. Unlike relational dialectics and more narrow in scope, group dialec- tics are the inevitable, contradictory tensions group members experience as they collaborate with one another to achieve a common goal. Researchers describe several ways in which groups try to resolve such dialectic tensions. We have consoli- dated these options into four categories, each of which is fol- lowed by an example. The first three are usually less effective than the fourth, which is both the most effective and (not sur- prisingly) the most difficult.35

• Do Nothing

A group and its members ignore, deny, or pretend to fix dialectic tensions. In other words, they do nothing. If the tensions are trivial or diminish with time, this strategy can work. Suppose a person invited to join the group because of a specialized expertise or talent dominates discussions and belittles less-informed group members; the group may tolerate the resulting tension, hoping that group pres- sure eventually will modify the new member’s behavior.

• Select Only One and Ignore the Other

A group chooses only one of the dialectic behaviors, such as stick to a strict agenda or rely on creativity. Or even though a group knows that two absent members would vote against a proposal, they go ahead and make the decision anyway—all in the name of avoiding tensions.

• Choose Different Options for Different Situations

Say that a group’s monthly meeting usually adheres to a highly structured agenda. When group members have dif- ficulty coming up with new ideas or a range of solutions to a problem, they may choose a dissimilar approach: set aside the agenda and do some unstructured brainstorm- ing. Switching back and forth may work when the group carefully chooses techniques compatible with the group’s task and member traits.

• Collaborate

In our definition of group communication, we use the term collaboration to describe coordinated group inter- action in which interdependent members share a com- mon goal, respect others, and work together. Effective collaboration also occurs when a group recognizes dia- lectic tensions and attempts to work out creative, both/ and responses to it.36 Depending on the nature of the problem—be it the potential for conflict between mem- bers, a domineering member, tension between structure and spontaneity, or any other tension—the group may choose any of the above three options, or collaborate with one another by balancing a both/and approach.

big bowl of ice cream or a piece of fresh fruit for dessert? Such tensions are best resolved by taking a both/and approach rather than the either/or perspective just described. For example, if you’re lucky, you may have both a job that pays well and one in which you enjoy working. If you both spend wisely and save more, you can look forward to a more secure financial future. If you eat both small portions of ice cream and fresh fruit, the result is a more balanced diet. Even in close personal relationships, a couple may both cherish their time together and respect each other’s need for time apart. As you will see, a both/and approach helps group members collaborate with one another in pursuit of a com- mon goal.

1.5.2: Balancing Group Dialectics The term dialectics, a method for examining and resolv- ing two contradictory or opposing ideas, may be new to you. Linked to the notion of dialectics is the need for bal- ance as a means of maintaining equilibrium between the competing pressures in groups. It may help you to remem- ber that the prefix di- means two, as in diagonal (joining two opposite points) or dialogue (a conversation between two people). Effective groups engage in a cooperative effort to balance group dialectics through effective com- munication strategies.

Successful groups learn to balance the competing and contradictory forces that operate in all groups.

14 Chapter 1

Table 1.5 Group Dialectics Group Dialectics Balancing Group Dialectics

Individual Goals m Group Goals

Members’ personal goals are balanced with the group’s common goal.

A group will not function well—or at all—if members focus entirely on their individual goals rather than on the group’s common goal. When a group agrees on a clear and important goal, members can pursue both individual and group goals as long as their personal goals do not undermine the common goal. For example, if you join a group because you’re interested in forming a romantic attachment with another member, your support of the group’s common goal may impress the person you desire, allowing you to attain your individual goal.

In the best of groups, your personal goals support the group’s common goal. If you do not share the group’s goal, you may become frustrated or even try to undermine the group. In ideal groups, members negotiate their personal needs and interests to achieve a balance between the dialectic tension of being an independent member of an interdependent group.