Anthology of world scriptures van voorst pdf

ANTHOLOGY OF WORLD SCRIPTURES

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gS I X T H E D I T I O N ANTHOLOGY OF WORLD

SCRIPTURES

ROBERT E. VAN VOORST Western Theological Seminary

Holland, Michigan

AUSTRALIA � BRAZIL � CANADA � MEXICO � SINGAPORE

SPAIN � UNITED KINGDOM � UNITED STATES

Anthology of World Scriptures, Sixth Edition Robert E. Van Voorst

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g To James and Genevieve Bos

My parents-in-law In gratitude for your friendship

gC O N T E N T S

PREFACE xix

1 Scripture Among the World’s Religions 1 A Brief History of Scripture Scholarship 2

The Nature and Definition of Scripture 4

The Uses of Scripture 8

Advantages and Disadvantages of Studying Religions Through their Scriptures 10

World Scriptures and Modern Scholarship 13

Scriptures and the World Wide Web 16

The Plan of This Book 16

Suggestions on How To Read Scriptures 17

Glossary 19

Questions for Study and Discussion 19

Suggestions for Further Reading 20

Companion Website 20

2 Hinduism 21 Introduction 22

Overview of Structure 22

Contemporary Use 25

Historical Origin and Development 26

TEACHING 28

Aditi and the Birth of the Gods (Rig-Veda 10.72) 28

Two Philosophical Views of Creation (Rig-Veda 10.129; Brihad-Aranyaka Upanishad 1.4.1–7) 29

The God Indra (Rig-Veda 2.12) 30

Rudra and Shiva (Shvetashvatara Upanishad 3.1–13) 31

‘‘That You Are’’ (Chandogya Upanishad 6.1–2, 9–11) 32

– vi –

ETHICS 34

Sin and Forgiveness (Rig-Veda 7.86) 34

The Three Da’s (Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 5.2) 34

The Way of Asceticism (Mundaka Upanishad 2.1–3, 5–8, 10–13) 35

Stages of Life for a Twice-Born Man (Laws of Manu 2.69–74, 191–201; 3.1–19; 6.1–9, 33–49) 36

The Life of Women (Laws of Manu 3.55–60; 5.147–165) 39

ORGANIZATION 40

Creation and the Caste System (Rig-Veda 10.90) 40

The Four Castes (Institutes of Vishnu 2–1.17) 41

The Outcastes (Laws of Manu 10.51–57) 42

RITUAL AND MEDITATION 43

The Gayatri Mantra (Rig-Veda 3.62.10) 43

Devotion to Agni in Prayer and Sacrifice (Rig-Veda 1.1; Agni-Brahmana 1.1–19) 43

Soma (Rig-Veda 8.48) 44

Marriage (Rig-Veda 10.85.20–47) 45

Cremation (Rig-Veda 10.16) 47

Charms and Spells (Atharva-Veda 6.20; 7.70; 6.9; 3.16) 48

Chanting of Om (Chandogya Upanishad 1.1.1–10) 49

The Practice of Yoga (Shvetashvatara Upanishad 2.8–15) 49

SELECTIONS FROM THE BHAGAVAD GITA 50

TWO TAMIL POETS, APPAR AND TUKARAM 60

[Appar:] Confession of Sin 60

The Presence of God 60

[Tukaram:] Waiting 61

The Burden of the Past 61

Glossary 62

Questions for Study and Discussion 62

Scriptures in Film 62

Suggestions for Further Reading 63

Companion Website 64

3 Buddhism 65 Introduction 66

Overview of Structure 67

Contemporary Use 71

Historical Origin and Development 72

Contents vii

HISTORY 73

The Past Lives of Siddhartha Gotama (Jataka 190, Birth-Story of the Blessing of the Commandments) 73

The Life of Siddhartha Gotama (Buddhacarita 1.1–2, 9–10, 15–17, 19–21, 23–25, 34, 54, 59, 62, 72–74, 83; 2.24–26, 28–32; 3.1–8, 26–33, 40–44, 53–61; 5.7–20; 12.88–104; 14.1–9, 35–37, 64–68, 79–81) 74

The Death of Gotama Buddha (Mahaparinibbana Sutta 6.1–12, 33–35, 45–48) 79

TEACHING 80

The Sermon on the Four Noble Truths (Dhammacakkapparattana Sutta 1–8) 80

The Noble Eightfold Path (Dhammacakkapparattana Sutta 9–20) 82

The Skandhas and the Chain of Causation (Buddhacarita 16.1, 28–50) 83

The Essence of Buddhism (The Heart Sutra) 84

A Mahayana View of the Buddha (Saddharma-Pundarika Sutra 2.36; 10.1) 85

The Blessings of the Pure Land (Array of the Joyous Land Sutra) 86

ETHICS 88

Conduct of the Monk (Dhammapada 25, 360–382) 88

Admonition to Laity (Cullavagga, Dammikasutta 18–27) 89

The Wisdom of the Buddha (Dhammapada 1–20) 89

ORGANIZATION 91

Founding of the Monastic Order (Mahavagga 1.6.10, 11–16, 27–30, 32, 34, 37) 91

Founding of the Order of Nuns (Cullavagga 10.1.1–6) 92

The Rules of Defeat for Monks and Nuns (Patimokkha, Parajika Dhamma 1–4) 94

Rules Requiring Formal Meetings of Monks (Patimokkha, Samghadisesa Dhamma 1–13) 96

RITUAL 97

The Relics of the Buddha (Mahaparinibbana Sutta 6.58–60) 97

Mindfulness in Meditation (Majjhima-nikaya, Satipatthanasutta 10.1–9) 98

A Mahayana View of the Merit of Making Images (Taisho Shinshu Daizokyo 16.694) 100

Tibetan Scripture to Guide the Soul after Death (Bardo Thodol 1.1–2) 102

A Zen Koan, ‘‘What Is Extraordinary?’’ (The Blue Cliff Record 26) 103

viii Contents

The Main Characteristics of the Falun Gong Movement (Li Hongzhi, Zhuan Falun, Lecture 1, Conclusion) 104

Glossary 106

Questions for Study and Discussion 107

Scriptures in Film 107

Suggestions for Further Reading 107

Companion Website 108

4 Jainism 109 Introduction 110

Overview of Structure 110

Contemporary Use, Historical Origin, and Development 111

HISTORY 112

The Life of Mahavira (Acaranga Sutra 2.15.6–9, 14, 16–20, 22–25, 27) 112

TEACHING 114

The Causes of Sin (Acaranga Sutra 1.1–2) 114

The Road to Final Deliverance (Uttaradhyayana Sutra 28) 115

ETHICS 117

Ahimsa (Sutrakritanga 1.7.1–9) 117

Rules for Monastic Life (Uttaradhyayana Sutra 35) 117

ORGANIZATION 118

The Five Great Vows (Acaranga Sutra 2.15.i–v) 118

Glossary 119

Questions for Study and Discussion 119

Suggestions for Further Reading 120

Companion Website 120

5 Sikhism 121 Introduction 122

Overview of Structure 122

Contemporary Use 123

Historical Origin and Development 124

TEACHING 125

Selections from the Japji (Japji 1–3, 5–6, 9, 12–13, 15, 17–18, 20–22, Epilogue) 125

Remembering God (Gauri Sukhmani, Mahala 5) 127

Dancing for Krishna (Rag Gurji, Mahala 3) 128

The Hindu Thread (Asa Ki Var, Mahala 1) 129

Contents ix

ETHICS 130

Prayer for Forgiveness (Rag Bihagra, Mahala 5) 130

Against the Use of Wine (Rag Bihagra, Mahala 1) 131

ORGANIZATION 131

The Guru (Rag Gauri, Mahala 3) 131

God’s Power in the Sikh Community (Rag Gauri, Mahala 5) 132

RITUAL 133

Hymn for the Installation of the Guru Granth (Rag Devgandhari, Mahala 5) 133

A Marriage Hymn (Rag Asa, Mahala 5) 133

SELECTIONS FROM THE DASAM GRANTH 134

Guru Gobind Singh’s Story (Dasam Granth, Vichitar Natak 6) 134

God as the Holy Sword (Dasam Granth, Vichitar Natak 6) 135

Glossary 136

Questions for Study and Discussion 137

Suggestions for Further Reading 137

Companion Website 137

6 Confucianism 138 Introduction 139

Overview of Structure 139

Contemporary Use 141

Historical Origin and Development 142

HISTORY 143

The Character of Confucius (Analects 2.4; 7.1–9, 19–24; 10.1–3, 8–12) 143

TEACHING 145

The Way (Analects 16.2) 145

The Goodness of Human Nature (Mencius 6.1.1–4, 6) 145

ETHICS 147

The Virtues of the Superior Man (Analects 1.1–4, 6–9, 14; 15.17–23) 147

Benevolence (Analects 4.1–6) 148

The Actions and Attitudes of Filiality (Classic of Rites 10.1, 4, 7, 10–11, 13–15; Analects 2.5–7; 4.18–21; 13.18) 149

Propriety (Analects 3.3–4, 8, 12–14, 17–19) 151

The Love of Learning (Analects 17.8–9) 152

The Basis of Good Government (Great Learning 1, 3–7; 9.1, 3–5) 152

Confidence and Prosperity in Government (Mencius 4.3, 9; 1.6.20–24) 153

x Contents

RITUAL 154

Divination (Classic of Changes 1, 47, 54) 154

Songs for Sacrifice (Classic of Poetry: Kau 7; Minor Odes 10.1, 3; Minor Odes 5) 156

Music and Morality (Classic of Rites 17.2.10–11, 15–16, 18) 158

Attack on Buddhism (Ch’ang-li hsien-sheng wen-chi 39.2b–42) 159

Glossary 160

Questions for Study and Discussion 160

Scriptures in Film 160

Suggestions for Further Reading 161

Companion Website 161

7 Taoism 162 Introduction 163

Overview of Structure 163

Contemporary Use, Historical Origin, and Development 164

TEACHING 166

The Nature of the Tao (Tao Te Ching 1, 6, 25, 34; Chuang-tzu 29) 166

The World (Tao Te Ching 7, 42, 52) 168

The Relationship of Taoism to Confucianism (Pao-p’u Tzu 7.5a) 169

ETHICS 170

Nonaction (Chuang-tzu 7) 170

Individual Life in Harmony with the Tao (Tao Te Ching 16, 22, 33, 44) 171

The Superior Man (Chuang-tzu 12) 172

Government (Tao Te Ching 3, 18, 57, 64) 173

On Death (Chuang-tzu 18) 174

Reward and Retribution (T’ai-Shang 1) 175

RITUAL 176

Methods of Prolonging Life (Pao-p’u tzu 15.6b–7a; 19.6b–7a) 176

The Origins of Feng Shui (Zang Shu 1.1–4, 7–25, 30–43) 177

Glossary 179

Questions for Study and Discussion 179

Scriptures in Film 180

Suggestions for Further Reading 180

Companion Website 180

Contents xi

8 Shinto 181 Introduction 182

SELECTIONS FROM THE KOJIKI 183

Preface to the Kojiki 183

The Creation of Japan (Kojiki 1–5, 33) 185

The Story of Emperor Yuryaku and the Woman Akawi-ko (Kojiki 154) 188

Glossary 188

Questions for Study and Discussion 189

Scriptures in Film 189

Suggestions for Further Reading 189

Companion Website 189

9 Zoroastrianism 190 Introduction 191

Overview of Structure 192

Contemporary Use 193

Historical Origin and Development 193

HISTORY 194

The Call of Zarathushtra (Yasna 29) 194

A Hymn of Praise to Zarathushtra (Yasht 24:87b–94) 195

TEACHING AND ETHICS 196

Hymn to Ahura and the Purifying Fire (Yasna 36) 196

Hymn to Ahura Mazda the Creator (Yasna 37:1–5) 197

The Choice Between Good and Evil (Yasna 30) 197

Judgment of the Soul on Chinvat Bridge (Menok I Khrat 2.110–195) 198

RITUAL 200

The Place of the Gathas (Yasna 55:1–3) 200

The Zoroastrian Confession (Yasna 12) 201

The Four Great Prayers (From the Yasna) 202

Disposal of the Dead (Vendidad, Fargard 65, 44–51) 203

Glossary 203

Questions for Study and Discussion 204

Suggestions for Further Reading 204

Companion Website 204

xii Contents

10 Judaism 205 Introduction 206

Names 207

Overview of Structure 207

Contemporary Use 210

Historical Origin and Development 213

HISTORY 214

The Call of Abraham (Genesis 12:1–9) 214

The Call of Moses (Exodus 3:1–20) 215

Crossing the Red Sea (Exodus 14:1–31) 216

The Covenant with Israel (Exodus 19:1–8) 217

A Psalm for David (Psalm 132) 218

Ezra’s Enforcement of Torah Observance (Ezra 9:1–7, 13–15; 10:1–12) 219

TEACHING 220

The Oneness of God (Deuteronomy 6:1–9) 220

God’s Creation of the World (Genesis 1:1–31; 2:1–9, 15–25) 221

The Revolt of Humanity (Genesis 3:1–24) 223

Prayer for Divine Deliverance (Psalm 5) 224

The Messianic King (Isaiah 11:1–9) 225

The Final Judgment of the World (Daniel 7:1–14) 225

Resurrection of the Dead (Daniel 12:1–3) 226

ETHICS 227

The Ten Commandments (Exodus 20:1–14) 227

Laws on Slaves, Violence, and Property (Exodus 21:1–36; 22:15–26) 228

Justice for All (Exodus 23:1–9) 230

Holy War (Deuteronomy 20:1–20) 230

Sexual Love (Song of Songs 1:1–2:17) 231

God’s Call to an Unfaithful People (Amos 4:1–13) 233

Two Views of Wisdom (Proverbs 1:1–9, 20–33; Ecclesiastes 1:1–9) 234

The Virtuous Wife (Proverbs 31:10–31) 235

ORGANIZATION 236

Sacrifice at the Ordination of Priests (Exodus 29:1–37) 236

A Call to Be a Prophet (Isaiah 6:1–13) 237

Women as Judges and Prophets (Judges 4:4–10, 12–16; II Kings 22:11–20) 238

Contents xiii

RITUAL 239

The Establishment of Circumcision (Genesis 17:9–14, 23–27) 239

The Establishment of the Passover (Exodus 12:1–19, 24–27) 240

The Observance of the Sabbath (Exodus 31:12–17) 241

The Day of Atonement (Leviticus 16:1–5, 11–19, 29–34) 242

Kosher and Nonkosher Foods (Leviticus 11:1–31, 41–45) 243

RABBINIC LITERATURE 244

The Chain of Rabbinic Tradition: ‘‘The Sayings of the Fathers’’ (Mishnah, Aboth 1.1–18) 244

An Example of Rabbinic Debate: The Duty to Marry and Have Children (Babylonian Talmud, Yebamoth 61b–63) 246

Glossary 247

Questions for Study and Discussion 248

Scriptures in Film 248

Suggestions for Further Reading 248

Companion Website 249

11 Christianity 250 Introduction 251

Names 251

Overview of Structure 252

Contemporary Use 253

Historical Origin and Development 255

HISTORY 257

The Birth of Jesus the Messiah (Matthew 1:18–25) 257

Jesus’ Miracles (Luke 8:26–56) 258

The Arrest, Trial, and Death of Jesus (Mark 14:43–50, 53–65; 15:1–41) 259

The Resurrection of Jesus (Mark 16:1–8) 261

The Ascension of Jesus (Acts 1:6–11) 262

The Coming of the Holy Spirit (Acts 2:1–21) 262

Persecution of the Apostles (Acts 5:27–42) 263

The Council at Jerusalem (Acts 15:1–21) 264

TEACHING 265

The Parables of Jesus (Mark 4:1–34) 265

The Divine Word Became Human (John 1:1–18) 266

Nicodemus Visits Jesus (John 3:1–21) 267

A Sinful Woman Forgiven (Luke 7:36–50) 268

xiv Contents

Results of Justification (Romans 5:1–11) 269

The End of Time (Matthew 25:31–46; Revelation 20:1–21:4) 269

ETHICS 271

The Sermon on the Mount (Matthew 5–7) 271

Directions Concerning Marriage (I Corinthians 7:1–16, 25–40) 274

Love (I Corinthians 13:1–13) 276

Ethics in the Christian Household (Ephesians 5:21–6:9) 276

Being Subject to Authorities (Romans 13:1–10) 277

The Fall of Rome (Revelation 17:1–18:5) 278

ORGANIZATION 279

The Twelve Apostles and their Mission (Matthew 10:1–15) 279

Matthew’s Church Order (Matthew 18:1–10, 15–22) 280

Peter as the Rock (Matthew 16:13–20) 281

Qualifications of Bishops and Deacons (I Timothy 3:1–13) 281

Women in the Early Church (Luke 10:38–42; I Corinthians 11:2–16; Galatians 3:25–28; I Timothy 2:8–15) 282

RITUAL 283

Baptism (Matthew 28:16–20; Romans 6:1–14) 283

The Eucharist (Matthew 26:17–19, 26–29; John 6:25–40, 52–59) 284

Confession and Anointing (James 5:13–18) 285

EARLY NONCANONICAL JESUS TRADITION 286

The Gospel of Thomas (Gospel of Thomas 1–2, 13–14, 18, 22, 29, 49–50, 53, 83–84, 99, 101) 286

Glossary 287

Questions for Study and Discussion 287

Scriptures in Film 288

Suggestions for Further Reading 288

Companion Website 288

12 Islam 289 Introduction 290

Name 290

Overview of Structure 291

Contemporary Use 293

Historical Origin and Development 294

HISTORY 295

The Call of Muhammad (Qur’an 96:1–19; 53:1–18) 295

The Mission of Muhammad (Qur’an 11:1–16; 93) 296

Contents xv

Opposition to Muhammad (Qur’an 52:30–49; 63) 297

The Night Journey (Qur’an 17:1–2) 298

The Flight to Medina (Qur’an 9:40) 299

The Wives of Muhammad (Qur’an 33:28–33, 37–40, 48–49) 299

The Death of Muhammad (Qur’an 21:34–36) 300

TEACHING 301

God’s Absolute Oneness (Qur’an 6:100–103; 112) 301

God’s Names (Qur’an 59:22–24) 301

God’s Power (Qur’an 24:41–46; 6:95–99) 302

Predestination (Qur’an 42:8–13; 7:177–179) 302

Jinn (Qur’an 72:1–15) 303

Creation (Qur’an 15:16–48) 304

Adam, Eve, and the Fall (Qur’an 2:29–37) 305

The Holy Qur’an (Qur’an 42:50–53; 46:1–13; 2:87–91) 305

On Unbelievers, Jews, and Christians (Qur’an 9:1–7, 3:38–50; 2:111–121, 132–137) 307

Resurrection and Judgment (Qur’an 75:1–15; 69:14–35) 309

Heaven and Hell (Qur’an 76:1–22; 56:1–39; 77:1–39) 310

ETHICS 311

The Conduct of Believers (Qur’an 17:23–38) 311

Women (Qur’an 4:19–22, 34–39; 2:220–223, 227–233) 312

Against Evil Magic (Qur’an 113; 114) 314

The Different Dimensions of Struggle (Jihad ) (Qur’an 6:16, 19–20; 48:11–21; 2:190–194, 216–218) 314

Law Codes (Qur’an 4:1–10) 316

RITUAL 317

The Opening of the Qur’an (Qur’an 1) 317

Confession of Faith (Qur’an 57:1–7; 37:32–39) 317

Prayer (Qur’an 2:142–149) 318

Alms (Qur’an 107; 9:53–60) 319

The Fast (Qur’an 2:183–186) 319

Pilgrimage (Qur’an 2:125–129; 106; 2:196–199) 320

The Mosque (Qur’an 24:36–38; 9:15–18) 321

SELECTIONS FROM THE HADITH 322

On Innovations 322

On Ritual Washings 322

On Prayer 323

xvi Contents

On Alms 323

On God 323

On the Power of Reading the Qur’an 324

On the Martyr in Jihad 324

On Plunder in Jihad 324

On Women and Children in Jihad 324

On the Steps for Jihad Against Enemies 324

Glossary 325

Questions for Study and Discussion 325

Scriptures in Film 326

Suggestions for Further Reading 326

Companion Website 326

13 New Religious Movements 327 Introduction 328

Names 329

Overview of Structure 330

Contemporary Use 332

Historical Origins and Development 332

THE SCRIPTURE OF BAHA’I 334

The Essence of Baha’i Teaching and a Sketch of the Life of Baha’u’llah (Shoghi Effendi, The Promised Day Is Come, Preface) 334

Baha’i, Islam, and Christianity (The Bab, Qayyumu’l-Asma 1, 61–62) 335

Baha’i Laws (Baha’u’llah, Kitab-I-Aqdas 1–2, 12–14, 16, 30–34, 45, 49, 56, 63–65, 149–150, 189) 336

Baha’i Prayers (Short Obligatory Prayer, Medium Obligatory Prayer, Prayer for America) 338

THE SCRIPTURE OF THE CHURCH OF JESUS CHRIST OF LATTER-DAY SAINTS 340

Joseph Smith’s Story (Pearl of Great Price, ‘‘Joseph Smith—History 1’’ 1–22, 25–35, 40–47, 59–62, 67–74) 340

The First Description of the Book of Mormon (Book of Mormon, original title page) 343

The Coming of Jesus Christ in 34 C.E. to the New World (Book of Mormon, 3 Nephi 11.1–41) 344

Destruction of the Nephites and Burial of the Golden Plates (Book of Mormon, ‘‘Mormon’’ 6:1–3, 6–11, 16–22) 345

Contents xvii

Preparations for the Trek to Utah (Doctrine and Covenants 136.1–11, 17–24, 30–42) 346

The Essence of Latter-day Saint Teaching (Pearl of Great Price, ‘‘Articles of Faith’’ 1–13) 347

Church Pronouncements on Polygamy and Men of African Descent (Doctrine and Covenants, Official Declarations of 1890 and 1978) 348

THE SCRIPTURE OF CHRISTIAN SCIENCE 351

Introduction to Christian Science Scripture and to the Work of Mary Baker Eddy (Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures, Preface) 351

The Essence of Christian Science Teaching (Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures, ‘‘Recapitulation’’) 352

Prayer and Its Role (Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures, ‘‘Prayer’’) 353

Interpretation of Genesis 1 (Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures, ‘‘Genesis’’) 354

Two Testimonials to Healing (Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures, ‘‘Fruitage’’) 354

THE SCRIPTURE OF THE UNIFICATION CHURCH 356

Dual Characteristics of the Universe and of Human Beings (Divine Principle 1.1.1.1) 356

The Purpose of the Creation of the Universe (Divine Principle 1.1.3.1) 357

The Spiritual and Physical Falls of Adam and Eve (Divine Principle 1.2.2.1–2) 358

The Restoration of Humanity (Divine Principle 1.3, Introduction) 359

Salvation Through the Second Messiah, the True Parent (Divine Principle 2, Introduction) 360

The Advent of the Second Messiah as a Korean (Divine Principle 2.6, Introduction; 2.6.3.2–3) 361

Glossary 362

Questions for Study and Discussion 362

Scriptures in Film 362

Suggestions for Further Reading 362

Companion Website 363

INDEX 364

xviii Contents

gP R E F A C E

The major living religions of the world have all expressed their teachings and practices in writing. Over the course of time, some of these writings gained unique standing in their traditions and became scriptures. As scriptures, they continue to influence the course of their religions. To read the scriptures of the world, therefore, is to encoun- ter world religions in a direct and meaningful way.

This book is designed to facilitate this encounter for the general reader and espe- cially for the student of religion. Its pages contain the most notable and instructive sacred texts of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism, Confucianism, Taoism, Shinto, Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Christianity, Islam, and four new religious move- ments: Baha’i, the Christian Science Church, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter- day Saints, and the Unification Church.

This anthology not only presents scripture readings but also sets them in the context of their application in the traditions themselves, taking into account recent scholarship on the role of scriptures in religion. Moreover, it does this in one volume and in one format. Designed to be used as a secondary textbook, the anthol- ogy has an organization that is easily adaptable to a range of primary textbooks and most of the current methods of teaching comparative religion.

This sixth edition incorporates, in addition to dozens of smaller changes, the fol- lowing significant revisions:

� Many opening vignettes and the closing sections on ‘‘Scriptures in Film’’ have been revised and updated to keep them fully contemporary. A new section on film has been added to the chapter on Taoism.

� About a dozen new scripture readings have been added on the recommenda- tion of adopters and peer reviewers. Included in these new readings, for exam- ple, are treatments of ‘‘outcastes’’ in Hinduism; Buddhist teachings on the Pure Land, Zen, and Falun Gong; a Confucian critique of Buddhism; Taoist teachings on feng shui; Zoroastrian views of the last judgment; and the early noncanonical Jesus tradition in the Gospel of Thomas.

– xix –

� The organization of the scripture readings has been made more consistent. Each chapter now follows as fully as possible the same order of history, teach- ing, ethics, organization, and ritual.

� All scholarship is updated throughout.

Anthology of World Scriptures is organized as follows: The first chapter examines the general phenomenon of scripture in the world’s religions, its nature, use, and place in modern scholarship. Chapter 1 also introduces the reader to the art of reading scrip- ture with practical suggestions.

Chapters 2 through 12 present the scripture of a single religion and are organized as follows: Vignettes about scripture and its usage draw the reader’s interest and imag- ination. Then an introduction sets the context by explaining the overall structure, use, origin, and development of the scripture in its religion. (If the name of the scripture poses a problem for students, this is given a brief treatment before Overall Structure.) The first grouping of scripture passages concerns the history of the religion, especially the founder (if any) and early history of the tradition. The second grouping covers main doctrinal teachings, including divine or ultimate reality, creation and the environ- ment, human nature, and human fulfillment. The third grouping deals with ethical sys- tems, both personal and social; topics such as war and peace, justice, and the role of women are anthologized as fully as possible here. The fourth grouping focuses on or- ganization, both the ways that religion orders itself and seeks to order its wider culture. The fifth grouping includes worship, devotion, ritual, and meditation. Chapters 8 (Shinto) and 13 (New Religious Movements) have a different internal order that is explained at the beginning of these chapters. As stated earlier, the final grouping deals with later, postscriptural developments of scriptural themes. Each chapter has full pedagogical aids, such as concise introductions to each passage, tables listing scrip- ture canons, full annotations in footnotes to explain difficult items in the readings, questions for study and discussion, a glossary with pronunciations, a brief treatment of recent films that deal with scriptures, and suggestions for further reading. On the website for this book, students and professors will find interactive resources for learning and teaching, such as glossary lists, flashcards of glossary terms, tutorial quizzes, Inter- net exercises, and Microsoft PowerPoint1 slides for lecture and review.

The translations used here have been selected for their accuracy and readability. I have been fortunate to receive permission to reprint many of the finest and most current English translations of many world scriptures. Where recent English transla- tions are incomplete or too technical for undergraduate students, I have relied on a few older translations that have proven their worth over time. I have edited these to update vocabulary, spelling, and occasionally, syntax.

The scriptures presented here come from the religions commonly understood to be the major living world religions, both old and new. By ‘‘world religion,’’ scholars generally mean those religions that have had an impact on the world’s leading cul- tures, not necessarily religions that are spread throughout the world. But why not include here the writings of other important contemporary religions, such as those of Africa or North America or the ancient religions of Egypt, Greece, or Central America? The main reason is that, with a few possible exceptions (e.g., the Mayan Popol Vuh), these religions do not have scriptures as this term is commonly defined today. Ancient religions had comparatively little writing, and this writing was not used in religious practice in a way that qualifies it as scriptural. The tribal/primal

xx Preface

religions of Africa and North America rely on oral traditions, which, though powerful and important, are not written scriptural traditions. Those that are written down have been compiled and used as texts mainly by anthropologists, not by the believers themselves. That these religions do not have scriptures does not, of course, imply that they are any the less religious.

I am very grateful for the strong reception this book has received. I trust that this edition will continue to stimulate its readers to explore the world of religion more deeply.

Acknowledgments The editorial staff at Wadsworth continues to be a fine partner in developing and pro- ducing this book. I especially want to thank religion editor Worth Hawes and assistant editor Patrick Stockstill, as well as Aaron Downey of Matrix Productions and my copyeditor, Frank Hubert.

Scholars at numerous institutions offered detailed, insightful critiques at many points along the way. I thank those who reviewed the content of these chapters in earlier editions of this book: David W. Aiken, Ferris State University; Vivodh J. Z. Anand, Montclair State University; Paul Bernadicou, University of San Francisco; Anne Birdwhistell, Richard Stockton College of New Jersey; James Cook, Oakland Community College, Orchard Ridge; Dell deChant, University of South Florida; Marianne Ferguson, Buffalo State College; Roger Keller, Brigham Young University; Richard Mahon, Riverside Community College; William K. Mahony, Davidson Col- lege; Michael McKale, Saint Francis College; Anne Monius, University of Virginia; Vivian-Lee Nyitray, University of California at Riverside; Patrick S. O’Donnell, Santa Barbara City College; Richard Penaskovic, Auburn University; Christopher Queen, Harvard University; Stephen J. Reno, Southern Oregon State College; Philip Riley, Santa Clara University; Roger L. Schmidt, San Bernardino Valley Col- lege; Philip Schmitz, Eastern Michigan University; Daniel Sheridan, Loyola Univer- sity of New Orleans; Robert Smith, Trenton State College; Gail Hinich Sutherland, Louisiana State University; Donald Swearer, Swarthmore College; James Whitehill, Stephens College; Boyd Wilson, Hope College; and Glenn Yocum, Whittier College. For their careful review for this new edition, I thank William Harman, University of Tennessee at Chattanooga; Harry Hight, Virginia Highlands Community College; Keith Kendall, Northern Michigan University; Frank Klapak, Seton Hall University; Tori Lockler, University of South Florida; Richard Mahon, Riverside Community College; Rebecca Norris, Merrimack College; Bryan Polk, Pennsylvania State Uni- versity at Abington; and Alban Urbanas, Wesley College.

All those people made this a better book, but any errors that remain are mine alone. I would be most grateful if users of this book and its Wadsworth website resources would send me comments and suggestions for improvements. You can reach me at my postal address (Western Theological Seminary, 101 East 13th Street, Holland, MI 49423-3622) or by e-mail (bob.vanvoorst@westernsem.edu).

Finally, this sixth edition gives me the happy opportunity to renew my expression of gratitude to my family: to my wonderfully supportive wife, Mary; to our son Nich- olas; and to our son Richard and the newest member of our family, his wife, Bonnie.

Preface xxi

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ANTHOLOGY OF WORLD SCRIPTURES

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gC H A P T E R O N E Scripture Among

the World’s Religions

� In North Carolina, a controversy brews over a book about Muslim scripture selected for the freshman orientation seminar at The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill—Michael Sells’s Approaching the Qur’an: The Early Rev- elations. In the shadow of September 11, 2001, some North Carolina citizens charge that ‘‘impressionable freshmen’’ will think that Islam is a harmless faith and perhaps be drawn to it. Even the American Civil Liberties Union enters the controversy, warning that teaching this book might be a violation of the con- stitutional separation of church and state.

� In an Indian city, Hindu priests and Sanskrit-language scholars call a news con- ference to criticize a song, ‘‘Shanti,’’ by American pop singer Madonna. The crit- icism focuses on Madonna’s pronunciation of that ancient divine name. Reflecting Hindu spoken use of scripture, the priests and scholars state that the spiritual power of this name is not effective unless it is pronounced correctly.

� Near the federal prison in Terre Haute, Indiana, demonstrators gather at the ex- ecution of Timothy McVeigh. He is being punished for the 1995 bombing of the federal office building in Oklahoma City in which 169 people died. Some people protest his execution by carrying signs with words from the Bible of both Judaism and Christianity: ‘‘You shall not kill.’’ Counterprotesters also carry signs with biblical words: ‘‘You shall not allow a murderer to live.’’ In 2004, similar scenes played out at the state trial of Terry McNichols, who was convicted of participating with McVeigh in this crime but did not receive the death penalty.

� Outside a movie theater in Utah, crowds gather, waiting for the director, pro- ducers, and actors of a film to arrive for the premiere. Although the scene is similar to most premieres, this film is not like most movies. It is a feature- film adaptation of the Book of Mormon, officially sanctioned by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Besides its general release to theaters and

– 1 –

then to video-rental outlets, it will be used in the missionary activities of the church.

The influence of world scripture is felt throughout the world in ways both ex- traordinary and commonplace. Not all contemporary examples of scripture usage are as dramatic or controversial as these vignettes suggest. They do indicate, though, that the scriptures of world religions have a continuing profound impact on life and culture. This anthology introduces these scriptures and encourages a deep encounter with them in all their variety. Scriptures of the world are so vast in size that some sort of sampling is necessary for all but the most expert specialist. This anthology thus offers excerpts from each tradition that faithfully reflect the his- tory and continuing life of the tradition.

A BRIEF HISTORY OF SCRIPTURE SCHOLARSHIP In the last 150 years, the scholarly study of world scriptures has passed through three distinct stages that have strongly influenced how we read scriptures.1 In the first stage, at the middle of the nineteenth century, European scholars began a vast enter- prise of making critically reliable translations. They focused on the little-translated sacred literature of Asia and the scriptures of Islam and Zoroastrianism. Their con- cern was to translate individual texts, not to examine the general religious features of scripture. They treated scripture as a mine out of which to dig the history and doc- trine of religions, with little regard for the different ways scripture functioned in religious communities.2

The academic movement known as the ‘‘History of Religions school’’ domi- nated religious studies in the second stage but led to neglect of scriptures. This school, which continues to exert a strong influence today, analyzes the development of each religion using historical and social-scientific methods.3 Perhaps in reaction to the earlier methodological reliance on world scriptures, scholars like Joachim Wach and Mircea Eliade relied on the study of ritual, myth, symbols, and other nontextual elements of religion. Scripture, both Eastern and Western, was largely neglected at this stage. Such a respected treatment of comparative religion as Gerardus van der Leeuw’s Religion in Essence and Manifestation contains only a brief discussion of

1For an excellent comprehensive discussion of the history of the academic study of world religions, with some detailed comments on scripture study, see E. Sharpe, Comparative Religion: A History, 2d ed. (LaSalle, IL: Open Court Press, 1987). The best succinct presentation of this topic is by S. Cain, ‘‘History of the Study of Religion,’’ in M. Eliade, ed., Encyclopedia of Religion (New York: Macmillan, 1987), vol. 14, pp. 64–83. 2A continuing feature of this first stage is a number of popular anthologies of world scriptures that use world scriptures as a mine for enlightenment and pay little or no attention to how scripture functions in world religious communities. For example, Robert Ballou’s The Bible of the World (New York: Viking, 1939) and its abridgment in World Bible (New York: Viking, 1944) have remained in print con- tinually, although never revised. Selwyn Gurney Champion and Dorothy Short compiled Readings from World Religions (Boston: Beacon, 1952; reprinted most recently as The World’s Great Religions: An Anthology of Sacred Texts (Mineola, NY: Dover, 2003). The Unification Church has publishedWorld Scrip- ture: A Comparative Anthology of Sacred Texts, ed. Andrew Wilson (New York: Paragon House, 1991). Philip Novak has edited The World’s Wisdom: Sacred Texts of the World’s Religions (San Francisco: Harper- SanFrancisco, 1994). 3The German name of this movement, ‘‘Religionswissenschaft,’’ means ‘‘science/scholarship of religion,’’ indicating a wider method of study than simply historical scholarship.

2 CHAPTER 1 � Scripture Among the World’s Religions

scripture as a feature of world religions.4 Also, as social-scientific methods increas- ingly entered the field of religious scholarship in this second stage, researchers turned away from studying literary sources from the past in favor of the study of present-day living communities of faith.5

Although this second stage is still very influential, a third stage has emerged in which scholars have rediscovered the value of scripture. The overreliance on scripture characteristic of the first stage and the neglect of scripture in the second stage are now being corrected as scholars increasingly view scripture as an important feature among the religions of the world. Now scripture is correctly seen as one religious facet among many and therefore not to be isolated from the others. Another new element is an emphasis on the actual ways in which scripture is viewed and used in world religions. To understand scripture, according to this view, we must know not just the scriptural text but also how it comes alive in the total life of the religion.

Recent research gives evidence of this emerging third stage. Large-scale studies such as Geo Widengren’s Phenomenology of Religion and Friedrich Heiler’s Manifes- tations and Essence of Religion deal extensively with the nature and use of scripture among the world’s religions.6 Ninian Smart’s Sacred Texts of the World uses scripture to approach several different religious phenomena in each world religion.7 Five recent books deal with scripture and its role in religion: The Holy Book in Compara- tive Perspective, by Frederick Denny and Roderick Taylor; Sacred Word and Sacred Text, by Harold Coward; Rethinking Scripture: Essays from a Comparative Perspec- tive, by Miriam Levering; Sacred Texts and Authority, by Jacob Neusner; and What Is Scripture? A Comparative Approach, by Wilfred Cantwell Smith.8 As a result of the research in this stage, the comparative study of scripture is today one of the leading features in the study of world religions. Smith, of Harvard University, and some of his students have had a strong influence on current scripture study. They argue for scripture study centered on the actual reception and use of scriptures. The work of William Graham on the oral dimensions of scripture has been especially in- fluential.9 A measure of the strength of this stage is that it is now appearing in text- books, and several works are notable.10 As a representative of this third stage of

4Gerardus van der Leeuw, Religion in Essence and Manifestation (London: Allen & Unwin, 1938; German original, 1933). One short chapter, 64, deals almost exclusively with scripture. 5For example, the widely used Reader in Comparative Religion: An Anthropological Approach, ed. W. A. Lessa and E. Z. Vogt, 4th ed. (New York: Harper & Row, 1997), has excellent readings in all the basic topics in the cultural-anthropological study of religion—symbol, myth, ritual, shamanism, magic—but not one essay on scripture and its uses. 6Geo Widengren, Religionsphänomenologie (Berlin: de Gruyter, 1969); Friedrich Heiler, Erscheinungsformen und Wesen der Religion, 2d ed. (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1979). 7Ninian Smart, Sacred Texts of the World (London: Macmillan, 1982). 8F. M. Denny and R. L. Taylor, eds., The Holy Book in Comparative Perspective (Charleston: University of South Carolina Press, 1985); Harold Coward, Sacred Word and Sacred Text (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 1988); Miriam Levering, ed., Rethinking Scripture (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1989); Jacob Neusner, ed., Sacred Texts and Authority (Cleveland: Pilgrim, 1998); Wilfred Cantwell Smith, What Is Scripture? A Comparative Approach (Philadelphia: Augsburg Fortress, 1993). 9See especially William Graham’s Beyond the Written Word: Oral Aspects of Scripture in the History of Religion (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983). 10T. W. Hall, R. B. Pilgrim, and R. R. Cavanagh, Religion: An Introduction (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1985); Kenneth Kramer, World Scriptures: An Introduction to Comparative Religion (New York: Paulist, 1986); Roger Schmidt, Exploring Religion, 2d ed. (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1988); Jean Holm and John Bower, Sacred Writings (London: Pinter, 1994); Richard Viladesau and Mark Massa, World Religions: A Sourcebook for the Student of Christian Theology (New York: Paulist,

A Brief History of Scripture Scholarship 3

scripture study, this text offers a wide range of scripture selections from the religions of the world, with introductions and annotations to set the readings in the context of their actual usage.

THE NATURE AND DEFINITION OF SCRIPTURE At first glance, defining scripture seems easy enough. We think of scripture as the holy writing, the sacred text of a religion. All religions seem to have scriptures, and all appear to use them in the same way. As a phenomenon among religions, scrip- ture seems on the surface to be a constant. On closer examination, however, these simple notions vanish.

Books that are traditionally regarded as scriptures vary in several important aspects. The first variation among scriptures is in literary form. People who come from religious traditions that include scriptures tend naturally to assume that the sacred texts of other religions look and function exactly like theirs. Scriptures, how- ever, are as varied as the religions and cultures from which they come.

� Some scriptures, especially those of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, promi- nently feature historical narratives. They tell an event in story form. Scriptures from other religions, especially Asian faiths, have few narratives or none at all.

� Some scriptures enshrine their religion’s vision of a moral life in law codes, some feature more loosely bound moral precepts, and still others do not seem concerned about ethics.

� Poetry is the leading literary form of some scriptures; others feature prose. � Some scriptural books have metaphysical philosophy (for example, the Hindu

Upanishads), some have moral philosophy (for example, the Confucian Ana- lects, the wisdom literature of the Jewish and Christian Bible), but many have no explicit philosophy at all.

� Some scriptures contain directions and songs for sacrifice (the Hindu Vedas, the Jewish Bible), whereas others have no developed prescriptions for rites and ceremonies (the Qur’an).

� Also present in scriptures are myth, legend, prophecy, sermons, love poems, divination, and magic, among many other genres, or literary forms.

Even this brief overview shows that world scriptures do not take a fixed literary form. Therefore, we cannot open a book, browse through it, and pronounce it scrip- tural. Scripturalness is primarily a relational, not a literary, quality. As William Graham has written, the holiness of a book is not automatically accepted when the text is first written, but it is ‘‘realized historically in the life of communities who re- spond to it as something sacred or holy.’’11 Communities shape and receive scrip- ture, and scripture shapes the life of faith. The relation between scripture and religion is reciprocal and dynamic.

The second variation among scriptures has to do with their number. Within any one religion, they can range from one book to an entire library. Like the Qur’an, scriptures can be one unified text of moderate size between two covers. Like the

1994); Ian S. Markham, ed., A World Religions Reader (Oxford: Blackwell, 1996); Terry D. Bilhartz, Sacred Words (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2006). 11W. A. Graham, ‘‘Scripture,’’ Encyclopedia of Religion, vol. 13, p. 134.

4 CHAPTER 1 � Scripture Among the World’s Religions

Jewish and Christian scriptures, they can be collections of many short books between two covers. In Asian religions, they range in number from one book (the Adi Granth of Sikhism), to the dozen or so texts of Confucianism, to the hundred or more texts of Hinduism, to the more than a thousand texts of Taoism and some forms of Buddhism.

The third variation in scriptures lies in function. In some religions, scripture is so central—or appears so to outsiders—that the lives of believers seem almost dictated by scripture. Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Christianity, Islam, and Sikhism are all prop- erly called ‘‘religions of the book’’ because of the high place and powerful function of their scriptures. New religious movements that originate from some of these reli- gions are also scripture-centered. In contrast, most Asian religions often have a more informal relationship to their scriptures, which lay devotees consult mainly for general guidance and inspiration. (Monks and nuns, however, have a more formal and developed relationship to their scriptures.)

The varying oral and textual dimensions of scripture also lead to differences in function. Some religions view the spoken word of scripture as primary. In other reli- gions, especially in the Western world, the power and function of the book seem to depend on its written, textual nature. Muslims, for example, believe the Qur’an is a transcription of a book already written in heaven. Like most Western scripture, it ori- ginated in a process of oral tradition, but its use and authority in its religion come from its written, textual nature. A later section of this chapter deals more fully with the uses of scriptures, but enough has been said here to suggest that they func- tion in significantly different ways.

Given all this variety, is it possible to define the word scripture in a way that takes variety into account yet applies to all world religions? Although some scholars answer in the negative,12 most argue that a comprehensive definition is possible and neces- sary. The definition we use here is this: Scripture is writing that is accepted and used in a religious community as especially sacred and authoritative. By looking closely at the key words and implications of this definition, we can discuss formal and func- tional aspects of scriptures—what they are and how people use them.

First, every scripture is a writing. Scriptures exercise much of their authority as books, and we encounter them as books. Some scholars argue that oral tradition, the passing down of material by word of mouth only, can be ‘‘scriptural.’’13 Al- though oral and written traditions do have some similar characteristics and functions, strictly speaking ‘‘oral scripture’’ is a contradiction because scripture is by definition written. (The word scripture comes from the Latin scriptura, ‘‘writing.’’) The scrip- tures of all religions, however, do have continuing, significant oral and aural (hear- ing) dimensions.14 Most scriptures originated in oral tradition, so the ‘‘imprint’’ of orality can be found in them. For example, David Carr has recently argued that

12In Rethinking Scripture, for example, the essays by Coburn and Folkert reject the term scripture for the Word and canon. The other authors in this book keep ‘‘scripture’’ as a conceptual category, and it is the dominant category in the volume as a whole, as the title implies. 13See, for example, Schmidt, Exploring Religion, p. 208: ‘‘Broadly conceived, scripture refers to oral as well as written traditions that a people regard as sacred. Each religious community has a scripture, a body of sacred oral or written traditions.’’ 14See especially Graham, Beyond the Written Word. For a general treatment of orality, see W. Ong, Orality and Literacy (New York: Routledge, Chapman and Hall, 1982), and J. Goody, The Interface Between the Written and the Oral (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982).

The Nature and Definition of Scripture 5

Jewish scripture emerged as a support for an educational process in which written and oral dimensions were integrally intertwined, in particular as an aid to memoriz- ing and reciting key traditions.15 The same is probably true for other religions. Al- though the writing of scripture can obscure (especially for us moderns, for whom the written word predominates), the orality of the text is still embedded in the writ- ing and waits to be drawn out by faithful vocalizing of the words. Scripture comes most fully alive when believers read it aloud and hear it in worship. Most believers, even those in highly literate cultures, hear scripture in worship more often and more meaningfully than they read it privately. In this book, as in any book, we encounter scriptures as texts, but these texts are meant to be spoken and heard.

According to our definition, scriptures are especially sacred. They have special re- ligious significance in pointing to ultimate reality and truth. Sacredness should not be seen simply as of divine origin or even as the ‘‘wholly other,’’ Rudolf Otto’s in- fluential conception of sacredness that suits Western religions but not many Eastern faiths. For example, the sacred Tao (‘‘Way’’) witnessed by the Tao Te Ching is not wholly other but is hidden in the universe and the self, waiting to be discovered and ‘‘tuned in to.’’ Moreover, only a few books among world scriptures explicitly claim sacredness for themselves; the Qur’an is the most notable example in Western religions. Most scriptures receive their sacred status only after they have been written, circulated, and widely accepted as reflecting the faith in some special sense. The rela- tional aspect of all scripture comes to the fore in a religious community.

Notice that scriptures are books held to be especially sacred. Most religions have a secondary religious literature that is also viewed as holy, instructive, or authoritative. For example, Judaism has its Talmud, books of religious law, and Islam has its hadith, traditions about Muhammad. This may seem to complicate the matter of defining the idea of scripture. On what basis can we say that a certain holy book in a religious tradition is scripture but another holy book is not? The answer lies in the special reception and usage that believers give to works that they see as espe- cially sacred. Most religions explicitly or implicitly hold some works to be secondary to scripture. Talmud is not the Hebrew Bible; hadith is not the Qur’an. Almost every religion has commentarial, devotional, or legal literature that follows up on scripture, and believers typically make a careful distinction between scripture and these works.

Another mark of special holiness is use in ritual. When believers read books aloud in worship, when they speak their words to carry out sacrifice, and especially when they venerate (pay formal, careful respect to) books during worship, we have a sure indication that these books are especially sacred. Secondary religious literature rarely makes its way into worship. Different types of veneration are practiced in every world religion and in the new religious movements. Even in everyday life, scrip- tures enjoy special respect: The Christian Bible is the only book in the West still often bound in leather; Buddhist monks still copy scriptures onto treated palm leaves. In the new religious movements, the key writings of the founders that function as scrip- tures are often printed and bound to resemble more traditional holy books.

The third element of our definition of scripture is the authority of the text. Just as sacredness is an aspect of every scripture, scriptures are also especially authoritative in

15D. M. Carr, Writing on the Tablet of the Heart: Origins of Scripture and Literature (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005).

6 CHAPTER 1 � Scripture Among the World’s Religions

their communities. Among all written texts in a community, a scripture is always the most authoritative and is often the court of final appeal in religious matters. The range of this authority and the way it is exercised vary depending on the nature of the reli- gion and the content of its scriptures. In the Western ‘‘religions of the book,’’ scrip- tures are comprehensive in content and regulate much of life. In the Eastern religions, scriptures are often not authoritative in the same way as in the Abrahamic traditions. Yet Asian scriptures often express the heart of their faith, the way of salvation. More- over, ‘‘at least four of the six South Asian or Far Eastern fundamentalist-like movements. . .do in fact privilege a sacred text and presume to draw certain funda- mentals—beliefs and behaviors—from it.’’16 The authority of scripture for most fol- lowers of a given religion is paradoxically acknowledged even when some occasionally reject it. Typically among Western religions, to receive one religion’s texts as scripture is automatically to exclude the texts of other religions. For example, the presentation of Jewish Biblematerial in the Qur’anmeans that Muslims should not look directly to the Jewish Bible and read it. An exception to this is the Christian Bible, which contains the entire Jewish Bible renamed as the ‘‘Old Testament.’’

The authority of scripture in both East and West is established by a special class of scholars who are the guardians of scripture and recognized experts in its intrepretation. In Buddhism, monks with special training and ability teach the sacred writings to other monks and inquiring laypeople. The Jewish rabbi, the Christian pastor, and the Muslim mullah, all leaders of local congregations, are experts in interpreting and teach- ing their scriptures. The authority of scripture in nearly every faith, including new re- ligious movements, is therefore mediated largely by individuals considered to be its official interpreters. Commentary, a book written to explain another book, has a large role in the history of many religions and regulates how scriptures are received and used, especially at the official level. As John Henderson states, ‘‘Commentaries and commentarial modes of thinking dominated the intellectual history of most pre- modern civilizations. . . .Until the seventeenth century in Europe, and even later in China, India, and the Near East, thought, especially within high intellectual traditions, was primarily exegetical [text-interpretive] in character and expression.’’17 We must also remember that only quite recently in the sweep of human history have mass- produced books appeared and mass literacy become possible. This is another reason for the existence of a special class to read, comment on, and relate sacred books to a religious community. Of course, the uses of scriptures by ordinary followers of a reli- gion are at times quite different from the official prescribed use.

Two features of scripture not directly related to our definition should be stated here. First, scriptures of every religion are often heterogeneous but are nonetheless seen as a unity by their communities. Modern scholarship has shown that the Qur’an has passed through different phases of development during and since the life of Muhammad. But neither the conclusions of scholars nor the acknowledged difficulties of the Qur’an call its unity into question for a Muslim. Judaism’s Bible went through a long period of development and has dozens of books in it, but it is seen as one distinct, unified book; indeed, Bible means ‘‘the Book.’’

16M. E. Marty and R. S. Appleby, eds., Fundamentalisms Observed (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), p. 820. 17J. B. Henderson, Scripture, Canon, Commentary: A Comparison of Confucian and Western Exegesis (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991), p. 3.

The Nature and Definition of Scripture 7

A second important feature of scripture is that it has a degree of closure. This clo- sure is often called a canon, a list or collection of books recognized as scriptural. The canon is absolutely fixed in the three Abrahamic monotheisms—Judaism, Chris- tianity, and Islam—and in Zoroastrianism. All the scriptures of these religions were long ago officially identified, and nothing can now be added or subtracted from their canons. In Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Confucianism, and Taoism, however, the situation is quite different for two reasons. First, their sacred literature is vast. The problems in defining a canon for a religion like Taoism, for example, which has 1,200 sacred texts, are enormous. Second, the process of producing scrip- ture has not officially ended. Where new scriptural revelations can be added—as Taoists added one in the twentieth century—a closed canon cannot exist.

How can believers relate to their religion’s scriptures when they are so vast that no one person or group can know them all, let alone be expert in them all? In tra- ditions with large canons, certain books are basic for almost everyone. Also, different groups in a religion attach themselves to a few select scriptures that reflect their par- ticular interests. This tendency to choose specific books from among the total corpus of scripture results in a ‘‘canon within the canon.’’ Most commonly, it occurs in reli- gions with very large numbers of books, but it also can be found in religions with smaller canons. In sum, scripture canons can be either completely closed or open to development and change. No matter how readily they can be altered, canonical texts are still viewed and treated as scripture.

THE USES OF SCRIPTURE When scripture is set in the full context of the everyday life of believers, its uses become plain. How believers use scripture shows its status and role in a religion. The following chapters of this book outline the varied uses of scripture in each reli- gion. In this section, we discuss some basic dimensions of the comparative study of scripture usage.

We begin with three uses that are primarily cognitive, understanding and think- ing in some way about the words and their meaning. First, scripture is a source for establishing and defending key doctrines. Scriptures can be used doctrinally because they typically contain the key teachings of the faith and because believers usually see them as continuing the voice of the founders. They have primary importance as state- ments of the deep truths of the universe and the right way to live in it. These teach- ings can assume different forms: God(s) and humanity; human imperfections and salvation; beginnings and ends of the individual and the cosmos; the moral life and how to achieve it. When scripture is used to establish doctrine, its official interpreters—monks, priests, scholars, and the like—most often do this. Sometimes, formal debate in councils or assemblies sets down doctrines, often within the con- fines of a monastery or temple. Defending doctrine occurs less often at the popular level, but even here scripture can function authoritatively. An appeal to a passage of holy writ is often the final word in any argument about religion.

Second, scripture is also prominently used in public worship. Worshippers often display and read it aloud. Although this practice is characteristic especially of the Abrahamic ‘‘religions of the book,’’ it is also significant in religions such as Hin- duism and Buddhism that are not so book oriented. The worship that goes on in a

8 CHAPTER 1 � Scripture Among the World’s Religions

Buddhist monastery, for example, prominently features scriptures. Monks read them, chant them, meditate on them, and walk around them in solemn procession. Even when the book is not prominent in worship, its content often permeates the ceremonies of most scripturalizing religions. Prayers, sacrifices, and hymns come from and echo the language of scripture. Many lyrics of the music of worship are drawn from the scriptural text. Hymns and chants, with their emotional power, are significant vehicles for the use of scripture in most religious traditions in both East and West.

Perhaps the place and function of scripture are never as prominent as when wor- shippers formally venerate it. Almost every religion with scripture pays it ritual re- spect in some way. Hindus speak the words of a Veda with great care. In certain Taoist and Confucian temples, the location of the scripture collection is itself holy. In Judaism, the scrolls are removed from their ark at the front center of the syna- gogue with great solemnity and on certain festival days are paraded around the syn- agogue. In many Christian churches, everyone stands for the oral reading of the gospels. Bibliolatry [bib-lee-AHL-ah-tree], literally, ‘‘worship of a book,’’ results when believers give excessive veneration to their scriptures or become absolutely dependent on them.

A third typical cognitive use of scripture is in meditation and devotion. This is usually private and individual, but it can also occur in group settings, as when Bud- dhist monks meditate in session on sutra passages or on mantras drawn from scrip- ture. In Western religions, the scripture books are often marked into sections for devotional reading; it is the duty of believers to read, ponder, and often memorize the words. In meditation and devotion, the scriptures teach the truth of the religion and promote the growth of the reader into the fullness of the faith.

Another important dimension of scripture use—one often overlooked—is non- cognitive, using the words in a variety of ways without any mental attempt to under- stand their meaning.

� In decorative and iconic uses, the text itself is revered as a holy object. (An icon is a holy picture, usually of a saint.) One cannot live or travel in any Muslim area without encountering Qur’anic verses everywhere. They are displayed on private houses and public buildings, often in a stylized calligraphy that is a main- stay of art in Muslim lands. In these and other iconic usages of scripture, the appeal is typically more to the imagination and emotion than to the mind.

� A second noncognitive application stresses the objective spiritual power of a holy book. The power of scripture is such that it can bring blessing and keep away evil. Scripture can be used in charms or talismans, a manifestation of the supernatural power of scripture. The mere possession of a holy book also has power to bless and to ward off evil. For example, putting a certain Taoist text in the hands of a woman un- dergoing a perilous childbirth is said to cause the immediate safe birth of her child. In many religions, individuals who can afford to do so will often buy a holy book for possession in the home.

� Bibliomancy [BIB-lee-oh-man-see] is the use of holy books to foresee the future and guide one’s response to it. Many religions feature the informal practice of opening a scripture book at random and reading the first passage that meets the eye. This passage is thought to have special power to direct the believer through an uncertain or difficult situation in life or through the difficulties of the new day.

The Uses of Scripture 9

One of the most famous ancient conversions to Christianity, that of Saint Augustine, featured bibliomancy of this sort. Some printed editions of the Qur’an have symbols at the top of the page by which a reader opening the book at random can discern whether a planned action is advisable, inadvisable, or neutral. All these forms of bib- liomancy assume that supernatural guidance is exercised in and through the book for the blessing of the believer.

Scholars of religion have categorized scripture uses in other ways beyond cogni- tive and noncognitive. Perhaps the most helpful is that of Sam D. Gill, who proposed that uses of scripture are informative and performative. Informative means imparting information in various ways, such as in doctrine and history. Performative, in con- trast, means doing something, as for example when scripture is used to make sacri- fice, to make the laws of a religious or civil community, or to bless and curse.18 In both its informative and performative aspects, scripture is also used for transforma- tion. This transformative power is a result of its sacredness and authority. Scriptures come from a sacred source and are themselves sacred. This sacred quality generally entails some power to make holy those who read or listen to them.

The transformative power of scripture occurs in both individual and communal ways—for example, to gain insight about personal or group problems and find the resources to solve them. Not all religions consider their scriptures to be divinely inspired, but all hold them to be inspiring and transformative in some way. This transformative power can be based on cognition, in which believers directly encoun- ter the scriptures and experience their life-changing meaning. It can also happen just as often in the noncognitive ways described earlier.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF STUDYING RELIGIONS THROUGH THEIR SCRIPTURES The study of world religions through their sacred scriptures has both advantages and disadvantages. We need to be aware of the limitations of this method and work from strengths to overcome the weaknesses as much as possible.

The first disadvantage, as we saw earlier, is that the reception and use of scrip- ture are not uniform across religions. Believers regard their scriptures in different ways, and scriptures function differently in each religion. As a student of world religions, you must take note of these variations and learn to look at each religion’s scriptures in a fresh way. Readers of scripture who come from a ‘‘religion of the book’’ must especially try to lay aside their preconceptions. Protestant Christians, for example, must beware of assuming that certain qualities of scripture and its function to which they are accustomed (for example, the belief that scripture is best absorbed by individual silent reading and meditation) are true of every reli- gion’s scripture. Moreover, the use of new scriptures in new religious movements in both Asia and North America often differs from usage in older, classical reli- gious movements. The more we genuinely encounter world scriptures in their

18Sam D. Gill, ‘‘Nonliterate Traditions and Holy Books: Toward a New Model,’’ in Denny and Taylor, Holy Book, p. 234.

10 CHAPTER 1 � Scripture Among the World’s Religions

full range of reception and use, the less likely we will be to inject our own biases into the scriptures of others. Then ‘‘scripture’’ itself will become a fuller, more useful category.

A second disadvantage is that we must read translations, which cannot fully cap- ture the literary characteristics or meaning of the original. We can describe four aspects of this disadvantage.

� Some of the original meaning and resonance of the words is lost or distorted in translation. For example, among Muslims, the identity and power of the Qur’an in its Arabic language are such that it would be unthinkable to translate it into another language and still consider it the true Qur’an; instead, it is often called an ‘‘interpretation.’’

� Some languages and styles are hard to translate into English. For example, the formal Chinese style used by several Confucian and Taoist scriptures is often elusive or even cryptic. Moreover, to cross the borders of language families in translation (to go from Semitic languages of the Jewish Bible and the Qur’an into English, for ex- ample) is more difficult than staying inside a language family (to go from the Greek New Testament into English). These difficulties result in translations that vary widely.

� Bias creeps in. Translators inevitably cannot be fully objective and sometimes distort meaning. A leading example today is the translation of the Arabic word jihad in the Qur’an. It has a variety of meanings, but many translators (some of them Muslim) render it only as ‘‘war,’’ ‘‘holy war,’’ or ‘‘fighting.’’ It can also mean ‘‘struggle’’ or ‘‘striving.’’

� Updating is needed because languages change. Some scripture translations are updated regularly; others are not, for a variety of reasons, and become more and more outmoded as time goes on.

A third main disadvantage is that scriptures tend to reflect only the patriarchal and elite perspectives of their traditions. They come from times and cultures that are patriarchal, where the voices of women—if they come through at all—are muted and filtered.19 Scriptures strongly tend to embody official and elite ideas, the mainstream that feminist scholars call ‘‘malestream.’’ Comparatively little of pop- ular religion can be found in them. Although the contents of scripture are patriarchal and elitist, feminist scholars today in many religions are working to make contempo- rary understanding and use of these scriptures more egalitarian. This book offers some coverage of social justice and the role of women, but the perspective through which these scriptures are filtered is necessarily that of the elite male.20

Finally, and perhaps most seriously, we lack the living context of scripture when we encounter only its textual form. Scripture, which for most traditions (except new religious movements, of course) comes from ancient times, comes alive as it is used in the life of religious communities. Despite growing religious pluralism, many North American readers of world scripture do not have access to these communities.

19See the introductory section of Serinity Young, ed., An Anthology of Sacred Texts By and About Women (New York: Crossroad, 1993), for good treatment of this issue. 20An excellent current series of books edited by Donald S. Lopez Jr., Princeton Readings in Religions, seeks to rectify this male-elite perspective with anthologies on nearly all religions of the world, drawing on more popular writings and anthropological field reports.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Studying Religions Through their Scriptures 11

They cannot easily visit a mosque or see the ritual of a Jewish synagogue or a Bud- dhist monastery. They cannot directly see the broad ways that scripture is reflected in religious life or the more specific ways it is used in worship, devotion, or law. What can be reproduced in a book like this is primarily the written text itself. The uses of scripture can be outlined here, but a printed book inevitably emphasizes the written, textual aspects of scripture over the oral and living.

These disadvantages might seem strong enough to cause you to give up the en- counter with world scriptures. The advantages of studying religions through their scriptures are compelling, however. By working from the strengths of this approach, you can overcome the weaknesses to some extent and use scripture appropriately to enter the world of other religions.

The first advantage of this approach is that scripture is widespread among reli- gions. Even though it is not fully universal, each ‘‘major’’ (to use a traditional but rather prejudicial term) living religion has a scripture. Scriptures naturally vary in form, content, and usage, but they are usually present in a religion. As we have seen, recent researchers emphasize that they form a distinct and important element in the life of most religions. The tendency to scripturalize, to make and use scrip- tures, is strong among religions. Indeed, almost every contemporary religion that is based in a literate culture produces and uses scriptures of some sort.21 New reli- gious movements also express themselves in writings that have a scriptural status.

Second, scriptures tend to be comprehensive for their faiths. Matters that a religion considers of great importance for its life are generally written down for the continuing community. ‘‘The sacred writings provide not only the essence of each particular reli- gious tradition, but also the archetypal experiences which stir in the depths of all human lives: death, trust, anxiety, wonder, loyalty to a cause greater than oneself, fasci- nation, healing, fulfillment, peace.’’22 Of course, what religions view as important does vary, and scriptures reflect this variety. For example, the Jewish scriptures regulate a mul- titude of aspects of life considered significant, from worship to ethics to diet. What each religion considers of supreme importance is strongly reflected in its scriptures. Scriptures offer broad insight into the key characteristics of their faiths.

Third, scriptures are authoritative for their religions. Because they are believed to come from God or the gods, an enlightened teacher, or a wise sage, and because they bear witness to an ultimate reality, the truth contained in scriptures is recognized and lived out by believers. To read a scripture is to discover what is of primary value in the world’s religions. And because scriptures are authoritative, they typically reflect the distinctive main aspects of each tradition. ‘‘Despite the variety of attitudes to scriptural works [in the world’s religions], there is a continuing tendency to find in a sacred text . . . the primary source for true doctrine, correct ritual, [and] appropriate conduct.’’23

The fourth advantage of studying scriptures lies in their ancient or foundational character. They or the oral traditions on which they are based arise soon after the be- ginning of a religion and often signal important stages in its early development. Chinese religions call their oldest scriptures ‘‘Classics,’’ and in a sense, all world

21Only Shinto does not treat its holy books as scripture in the full sense. Thus, Shinto is the exception that proves the rule that religions based in literate cultures produce and use scriptures. 22Leonard J. Biallas, ‘‘Teaching World Religions Through Their Scriptures,’’ Horizons 17 (1990): 80. 23Richard C. Bush et al., The Religious World: Communities of Faith, 2d ed. (New York: Macmillan, 1988), p. 3.

12 CHAPTER 1 � Scripture Among the World’s Religions

scriptures are classic treatments of their religious tradition. Where a religion has a founder or founders, scriptures usually give deep insight into the life of the found- er(s) from the perspective of later followers. The foundational character of scriptures thus makes them valuable as a primary source for the history of religions. In the new religious movements that we examine in Chapter 13, scriptural books were com- pleted and published by the founder himself or herself, at the very beginning of the movement.

Furthermore, because the traditional religions of the world have so richly influ- enced and been influenced by their cultures, scriptures are among the most important literary sources for the understanding of world cultures. Even though scriptures are indeed ancient and important, it is usually erroneous to argue, as does Charles Braden, that religion is somehow ‘‘founded on’’ scriptures.24 This is a common mis- conception, especially in ‘‘religions of the book.’’ Rather, as T. W. Hall puts it so well, ‘‘Historical investigations show that the religious communities existed prior to the writing of their scripture . . . religions produced scripture and scripture did not produce religion.’’25 However, this conclusion is not as accurate when applied to new religious movements, because among them scriptures often do coincide with the beginnings of the movement.

Fifth, scriptures are accessible in translation to English-language readers. Most of the important religious books of the world have been translated into English, and many of those that have not are now being translated. Sometimes, the translations of a certain scripture are few, but others can boast a near riot of English versions. The Tao Te Ching, for example, had more than twenty English versions in print in 2006; and even though the Qur’an cannot be translated and still retain its holiest status, new English translations are produced regularly. Although no translation can convey the full meaning and feeling of the original, a good translation can sug- gest it. Students of world scripture who want a closer, more accurate look at a given passage should consult at least two or three different contemporary translations of it and compare them closely.

Finally, scriptures as literary texts are open to analysis. Both the specialist scholar and the beginning reader can analyze them directly or, better yet, enter a conversa- tion with them. Although most religious texts range from mildly strange to com- pletely baffling for those who come from other cultures and religious traditions, the same intellectual and scholarly skills that you use to read any other text can be put to use on world scriptures. With some effort, you can understand scriptures and use them as a pathway into other faiths.

WORLD SCRIPTURES AND MODERN SCHOLARSHIP The earlier discussion of critical analysis of scripture leads us to an important but often neglected topic. How does the modern academic study of scripture influence how religions use scriptures and how we read them?

Historical and critical literary scholarship is largely Western and European in origin, stemming from various methods of interpreting literature developed in

24Charles Braden, The Scriptures of Mankind: An Introduction (New York: Macmillan, 1952), p. 8. 25Hall, Pilgrim, and Cavanagh, Religion, p. 109.

World Scriptures and Modern Scholarship 13

the Renaissance and the Enlightenment. Textual criticism methodically judges manuscripts to find the likely original reading; grammatical criticism analyzes the content and style of the wording of a work in its original language; literary crit- icism studies genres. Most important is historical criticism, in particular the historical-critical method, which probes the developmental genesis of works from the past, their original meaning as understood by their first audience. In the early nineteenth century, this approach began to be applied to the Bible. Crit- ical study of the Christian scripture has uncovered development, diversity, and even some disagreement within it. Christianity’s effort to understand the Bible critically has suffered reversals from time to time. Yet many Protestant groups accept this critical study and perceive that it offers a fuller understanding of scrip- ture that is compatible with faith.

In the early twentieth century, biblical criticism spread to Judaism, and today Conservative and Reform Jews widely accept it; only Orthodox Jews still oppose it. Since the Second Vatican Council (1962–1965), Roman Catholics have also embraced the historical-critical method.26 Today, the basic methods of literary study are still largely European academic methods. Scholars and students read sacred texts through Western eyes and by Western methods.

The effort to collect, edit, and publish the literature of world religions is also a Western academic enterprise. It had its roots in the eighteenth century, when the first copies of Chinese and Indian scripture made their way to Europe and were greeted with great interest, even enthusiasm, in some circles. One reason for this enthusiasm was an Enlightenment hope that these scriptures might be a religious or philosoph- ical alternative to what some saw as the hidebound clericalism of Christianity. The Hindu Vedas, for example, were first viewed as religious expressions from near the dawn of time, pristine and unspoiled by priestcraft. Gradually, Europeans realized that the Vedas reflect a priestly system as traditional as that of Christianity. By the middle of the nineteenth century, as we saw, a more mature scholarly interest in world scriptures blossomed into a systematic effort to publish reliable translations. The editing and publishing of sacred texts continues today, especially in religions that have large canons. The methods used to edit, translate, publish, and interpret these scriptures draw generally from the Western tradition.

Scholarship in comparative religion came from a background that was largely Protestant in orientation. Thus, over the last century, an inevitable ‘‘Protestant bias’’ has crept into the way scholarship has looked at the scriptures of other faiths. Certain mainstream Protestant ideas about the nature of scripture colored the study of the scriptures of other religions and only today are being identified and corrected. These include

� A concern with textuality to the exclusion of orality, from the Protestant em- phasis on the scripture as written.

� An orientation that assumes that scriptures are to be read mainly by the indi- vidual, from Protestant ideas of the ‘‘priesthood of all believers’’ and universal literacy.

26See G. P. Fogarty, American Catholic Biblical Scholarship (San Francisco: HarperCollins, 1989), and R. B. Robinson, Roman Catholic Exegesis Since Divino Afflante Spiritu (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1988).

14 CHAPTER 1 � Scripture Among the World’s Religions

� The notion that scriptures are widely authoritative over every aspect of reli- gious life, from the Protestant assertion that the scriptures are the sole author- ity in the Christian faith.

� The assumption that scriptures are best understood by objective, academically recognized methods of study, from mainstream Protestant attachment to sound academic procedures.27

Of course, believers of the other religions of the world do not share this bias, as we can see when we reflect comparatively on each of these assumptions. In some reli- gions, such as Hinduism, the oral dimension dominates the written. In others, such as Islam, written and oral traditions are more in balance. Next, most religions do not share the Protestant notion that scriptures should be read by the individual; rather, their adherents speak and hear their scriptures in groups, usually in worship and ritual. Indeed, it comes as a striking realization for modern North Americans that most followers of many religions throughout history (and even today!) cannot read and therefore cannot read their sacred texts. For the typical follower of most faiths, texts must be spoken (often from memory) and heard.

We examined earlier the next Protestant assumption, that scriptures seek to reg- ulate every aspect of religious life, and we concluded that they seek to regulate the center of religious life as their religion conceives that center. For most religions of the world, the Western academic approach to scripture goes against the grain of faith and is consequently viewed as alien. To study scripture historically and objec- tively is to question its sacredness because such study employs the same methods used to study other, nonsacred literature. For example, Islam discourages going behind the present edition of the Arabic text to inquire about earlier versions. Tra- ditional, conservative Islam also forbids Muslims to study or use the Qur’an in such a way to question its unity or divine origin, as the Muslim writer Salman Rushdie dis- covered. His controversial novel, The Satanic Verses, allegedly committed blasphemy against the Qur’an. In 1989, Iranian officials put a $2 million price on his head, and he only recently—and tentatively—came out of hiding when the death threat was lifted. Each religion has some systematic study of its sacred texts, but such study usu- ally remains devotional, meditative, and interpretive. Noncritical and unthreatening, it does not question the received beliefs about the origin and standing of the text.

When we read scriptures, then, we must always remember that the way we read is fully conditioned by our cultural backgrounds and academic enterprises. Those who read from a religious background must always try to keep their own viewpoints iden- tified and in check. Those with no religious commitments must try to suspend any doubts they may have about religion and scriptures. We read scriptures as outsiders in an objective, scholarly, noncommittal way. This is altogether necessary as a first step in coming to grips with scriptures. A second step, more difficult than the first but equally necessary, is to read them as much as possible as insiders, with the eyes, minds, and hearts of those for whom these texts are much more than the object of scholarship.28

27See Levering, Rethinking Scripture, pp. 3–5, for more on this Protestant bias. 28See the excellent remarks by Eric Sharpe in Encyclopedia of Religion, vol. 14, p. 85, on ‘‘imaginative sym- pathy’’ in reading scripture as ‘‘insiders.’’ See also Ross N. Reat, ‘‘Insiders and Outsiders in the Study of Religious Traditions,’’ Journal of the American Academy of Religion 51 (1983): 459–475.

World Scriptures and Modern Scholarship 15

SCRIPTURES AND THE WORLD WIDE WEB The last ten years have seen an explosive growth in the World Wide Web. Much in- formation about religion can be found on the web; it seems to be one of the leading topics of discussion and inquiry. As a part of this interest in religion, many websites feature scriptures in translation or sometimes in the original.

Many positive features of this new opportunity to encounter world scriptures are obvious. The access is almost always free. The amount of scripture on the web is growing rapidly and may someday encompass most world scriptures. The Internet is an appealing way for most young, computer-oriented students (but not always their professors!) to encounter scriptures. It presents different ways of studying and learning—for example, the ability to search a text electronically. The Internet by its structure encourages exploration. Some sites are fully interactive, allowing stu- dents to ask questions and participate in online discussion groups. Finally, but not least, when students explore a religion site sponsored by its followers, the perspective provided there is likely to be a bit more that of an ‘‘insider’’ than classroom or text- book descriptions.

The drawbacks of studying scriptures on the web are also obvious. Some sites are not constructed well; they may have poor layout, little eye appeal, out-of-date links, or other technical deficiencies. The translations used are too often public domain works that are not edited for today’s readers. When representatives of a religion post that religion’s writings for religious conversion or public relations purposes, the interpretations they provide may not agree with the current academic consensus about that religion. Most significantly, these electronic publications are subject to little or no scholarly control, such as editorial or peer review before publication, so their quality varies greatly. Some sites are excellent, some average, and some poor.

This mixed situation means that many students need help in finding, using, and especially analyzing critically these web-based scripture sites. Readers of this anthol- ogy may access a special website to further their use of the web in religious studies. It has links to short, helpful essays on using the Internet in an academically appropriate way. It also has links to sites useful in the study of scriptures. The listing is not com- prehensive, but it does offer a starting place to surf and learn. The address is: http:// religion.wadsworth.com; search by Anthology of World Scriptures, and bookmark this book’s site when you reach it.

THE PLAN OF THIS BOOK This book contains excerpts of world scriptures in the following order of religions: Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism, Confucianism, Taoism, Shinto, Zoroastri- anism, Judaism, Christianity, Islam, and selected new religious movements. This pro- gression keeps these religions together in their family groups and goes in order of historical development. Moreover, the reader can see the relationships among reli- gions and scriptures more easily when related bodies of texts are dealt with in succes- sion. For example, when the Christian scriptures and then the Islamic follow the Jewish scriptures, the deep relationship among them becomes apparent. The final chapter gives excerpts from the scriptures of Western new religious movements treated in order of their time of origin: Baha’i, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Christian Science, and the Unification Church.

16 CHAPTER 1 � Scripture Among the World’s Religions

http://religion.wadsworth.com
http://religion.wadsworth.com
Each chapter except the last (where each new religious movement is treated in a separate section) is structured as follows: An introduction outlines the scriptures included, setting them in the context of the whole religion by examining briefly their name(s), overall structure, contemporary use, and their historical origins and development. The first grouping of scripture passages deals with the history of the religion. If the faith has a founder, special attention is given to him or her; any sub- sequent history of the religion that scripture reflects is also excerpted. Second are pas- sages covering the main doctrinal teaching of the religion. These topics include divine or ultimate reality, creation and the environment, the nature of humanity, and achieving human fulfillment (salvation, release, harmony, etc.). Third are pas- sages about the moral/ethical structure of the scriptures: good, evil, and the authen- tic human life. Personal morality is probably more widely treated in world scriptures, but social ethics are also prominent. Such topics as war and peace, violence and non- violence, tolerance and intolerance of people of other faiths, the status of women, and a just society are represented as fully as possible. Fourth are passages about the organization of the religion, either in its internal organization (for example, monks and laity in Buddhism) or in its attempts to organize its wider culture (such as the Hindu caste system in India). Last are passages about religious worship, ritual, devotion, and meditation. Of course, some religions have more in some of these categories than in others, but most religions do fit into them without signifi- cant distortion. Where they do not fully fit, this format is adapted to do justice to the particular nature of the texts.

The predominant rationale for this organization is pedagogical. It is meant to fur- ther the learning of students encountering world religions. North American readers are familiar with the categories used here, and both teachers and students of world religions will recognize them as a standard paradigm for research and teaching in re- ligion. Moreover, they are categories that seem to fit world scriptures themselves. Why not discard any attempt to use categories of organization and simply provide one or two longer excerpts from each religion’s body of scripture? A rather uniform scripture like the Qur’an may be possible to encompass in a few long readings. Even Islamic tradition says that the whole message of the Qur’an is contained in each of its chapters, so to read one is in a sense to read them all. However, what Paul Muller- Ortega says about Hinduism is true of most world religions, including the new reli- gious movements: ‘‘It is not possible to put a single sacred text in the hands of stu- dents and expect the reading of that one text to allow students to encompass the tradition. . . .Thus, the preferred method of exposing students to the enormity of the Hindu sacred literature has been by means of anthologies.’’29

SUGGESTIONS ON HOW TO READ SCRIPTURES Individuals reading world scriptures for the first time often feel they are entering a strange new world. Sometimes, preconceived notions of what reading a given scrip- ture will be like turn out to be quite wrong. Students of world religion are especially

29Paul Muller-Ortega, ‘‘Exploring Textbooks: Introductions to Hinduism,’’ in B. R. Gaventa, ed., Critical Review of Books in Religion, 1988 (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1989), p. 71.

Suggestions on How To Read Scriptures 17

susceptible to the difficulties of reading scripture. Their textbooks usually try to make scriptures easier to encounter by simplifying and summarizing the content. To en- counter scriptures more directly and in their original form is a harder process. As Mortimer Adler and Charles Van Doren once wrote, ‘‘The problem of reading the Holy Book . . . is the most difficult problem in the field of reading.’’30 In the end, however, it is more profitable for readers to wrestle as directly as possible with the texts. Of course, an anthology such as this does not present world scriptures in their totality but serves as a bridge to the full scripture text.

Each reader must ultimately find an individually suitable method for reading world scriptures. But these ten suggestions drawn from my experience and the expe- rience of others may be helpful.

1. Use your knowledge of religion to set these readings in a fuller context. Try to relate scriptures as fully as possible to the life of the religions from which they come. For example, when you are reading a passage about ritual, visualize how the ritual is carried out.

2. Read the introductions to each chapter before you turn to the passages. They will provide an important background for understanding the passages.

3. Skim the selections first. Having a general feel for the ‘‘lay of the land’’ will help you when you begin to read in detail.

4. Read the scripture passages objectively. Use the same intellectual skills that you bring to any other text, religious or nonreligious. Remember their holy status in their religions, but don’t be intimidated by it.

5. Mark the text as you read. Research shows that readers who mark the text, underlining or highlighting as few as three or four items per page, understand and remember more than readers who do not mark their text. Marking helps to make the text your own.

6. Pay attention to literary genre. The form and content of any literary passage reflect its genre. Read with a feeling for the differences among myth, poetry, narra- tive, law, and other literary forms.

7. Make a personal glossary of unfamiliar terms and names as you go along. You can do this easily by circling them in the text and writing them in the bottom margin. (Use circles or some other type of marking that will distinguish them from your other marked material.) Then you can go back later to make a short note of their meaning, also in the margin. The unfamiliarity and difficulty of so many words, both technical terms and personal names, are large obstacles for many students of world religions. With a little extra effort, you can minimize this difficulty.

8. Read each selection repeatedly until you are familiar with it. Familiarity ena- bles you to identify any problems you have in understanding it. View these prob- lems as opportunities for achieving greater understanding, not as roadblocks.

9. Read the selections aloud as much as possible. This may feel embarrassing at first because you are not accustomed to it. Listen to the sounds of the words, and try to get a sense of the oral dimensions of the text. You cannot reproduce the feeling of

30Mortimer Adler and Charles Van Doren, How to Read a Book (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1940), p. 288.

18 CHAPTER 1 � Scripture Among the World’s Religions

the original language, but reading aloud will at least remind you that the text does have an oral dimension.

10. Put yourself, as well as you can, inside the faith of the scripture. What could these writings mean to you if you were among those who first heard them? What could they mean to you today if you were a typical follower of that faith? By using your knowledge and imagination, you can participate in the unique use of scripture in each religion and become—partially and temporarily—an insider.31

g G L O S S A R Y Abrahamic monotheisms Judaism, Christianity, and

Islam.

bibliolatry [bib-lee-AHL-ah-tree] excessive venera- tion of a scripture book.

bibliomancy [BIB-lee-oh-man-see] the use of scrip- ture to foresee future events and guide one’s re- sponse to them.

canon a more or less fixed collection of books regarded as scriptural.

commentary a book written to explain another book, often passage by passage. Many religions possess commentaries on their scriptures.

genre a literary form, such as poetry, myth, proverb, narrative history, and philosophical meditation.

historical-critical method the scholarly study of a text that derives meaning from the text’s ear- liest phases and traces the text’s historical development.

icon a holy picture. Metaphorically, scripture is an icon when it is revered as a sacred object apart from its content.

narrative the telling of an event or series of events in story form.

oral tradition the passing down, usually through many generations, of myths, narratives, poems, and the like by word of mouth.

scripture text that a religious community holds to be especially sacred and authoritative.

g Q U E S T I O N S F O R S T U D Y A N D D I S C U S S I O N 1. What does the word scripture mean to you? 2. ‘‘Scripture is more a Western concept than an

Asian concept.’’ To what extent do you agree or disagree with this common statement?

3. Suppose that a new potential scripture—a new gospel book about Jesus, for example—is discov- ered and shown to be authentic. Would such a po- tential scripture actually get into the scripture canon of Christianity? Why or why not?

4. What uses of scripture seem most important or in- teresting to you? Why?

5. What disadvantages are posed by the ancient char- acter of scriptures? Can these be overcome? If so, how?

6. Reflect on this description of Mohandas Gandhi’s teachings about studying others’ scriptures: ‘‘One should read others’ scriptures with respect and reverence even to be enriched in one’s own reli- gious convictions.’’

7. What other advantages and disadvantages of using the Internet in religious studies occur to you be- sides the ones given here?

31‘‘By an act of historical imagination we can actually participate up to a certain point in the aspirations and devotions of other times and places. Yet this truly is only up to a certain point, for the curtain is suddenly lowered and we realize with a shock just how far away those places and times really are. That experience has been called ‘the paradox of understanding.’’’ Jaroslav Pelikan, On Searching the Scriptures—Your Own or Someone Else’s (New York: Quality Paperback Book Club, 1992), p. 7.

Questions for Study and Discussion 19

g S U G G E S T I O N S F O R F U R T H E R R E A D I N G L. J. Biallas, ‘‘Teaching World Religions Through

Their Scriptures.’’ Horizons (Villanova University) 17 (1990): 76–91. Especially useful to teachers, but students can profit from it as well; focuses on narrative forms.

H. Coward, Sacred Word and Sacred Text: Scripture in World Religions. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 1988. Sound chapter-length treatments (especially of orality) of scripture in Christianity, Islam, and also Hinduism, Sikhism, and Buddhism.

H. Coward, ed., Experiencing Scripture in World Reli- gions. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 2000. Brief, lively essays by various scholars who are also believers on the use of scripture in Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Sikhism, and Buddhism.

F. M. Denny and R. L. Taylor, eds., The Holy Book in Comparative Perspective. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1985. After an introduction by the editors, this volume features up-to-date treatments of the scriptures of nine major reli- gions, including the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.

W. A. Graham, ‘‘Scripture.’’ In M. Eliade, ed., The En- cyclopedia of Religion, vol. 13, pp. 133–145. New

York: Macmillan, 1987. This lucid article is the best short survey of its topic.

P.-L. Kwok and E. Schüssler Fiorenza, eds., Women’s Sacred Scriptures. London: SCM Press/Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 1998. A treatment of the scriptures of several world religions with a view to a feminist reclaiming of scripture.

M. Levering, ed., Rethinking Scripture: Essays from a Comparative Perspective. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1989. Has an excellent essay by W. C. Smith, ‘‘Scripture as Form and Concept: Their Emergence in the Western World.’’ W. A. Graham also has an essay, ‘‘Scripture as Spoken Word.’’

W. C. Smith, What Is Scripture? A Comparative Approach. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1993. An influ- ential survey of its topic by the most influential researcher on world scriptures.

S. Young,Anthology of Sacred Texts by and about Women. New York: Crossroad, 1993. A comprehensive se- lection of scriptures and other important religious writings from, among others, Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism, and select new religious movements.

g C O M P A N I O N W E B S I T E Visit the Anthology of World Scriptures companion web- site at www.thomsonedu.com for learning tools such as map explorations, flashcards of glossary terms,

learning objectives, chapter practice quizzes, links to other websites for learning and research, and chapter summaries in PowerPoint1 format.

20 CHAPTER 1 � Scripture Among the World’s Religions

www.thomsonedu.com
gC H A P T E R T W O Hinduism

Reading Hindu Scripture

A Hindu woman in Varanasi, India, reads the Bhagavad Gita devotionally. (Photo by Diana Eck from the Image Bank of the Center for the Study of World Religions, Harvard University. Photo courtesy Diana Eck.)

– 21 –

� In northern India, filmmaker Deepa Mehta and her cast and crew are driven out of the holy city of Varanasi by angry mobs stirred up by fundamentalist Hindu authorities. Her sets for the film Water, a story set in the 1930s of the confine- ment of widows to a life of self-denial in an ashram in an effort to follow the Laws of Manu scripture, are destroyed. Undeterred, she moves the filming to Sri Lanka and completes her controversial, powerful film.

� Just before dawn breaks in India, a householder rises and purifies himself with water. He then stirs back to life the embers of the sacred household fire while chanting sacred verses. Raising his arms to the rising sun, he recites a prayer to the sun-god from the most ancient scripture, the Rig-Veda. This ritual, the Agnihotra, has been performed continually in India for more than 3,000 years.

� In Hardwar, India, people gather in the ‘‘world’s largest religious festival.’’ Ten million people came to this site on the upper Ganges River. According to Hindu scriptures, bathing during this festival is the supreme act of worship. Much of the other activity focuses on scripture: Holy men read scripture aloud, chant their mantras, and teach mantras to the pilgrims.

� In Bangalore, twenty-three-year-old Lakshmi works in a call center, answering inquiries from customers of a prominent American corporation. She dropped out of college to work in the center, and she is paid enough to live a middle- class life and be independent of her parents. She and thousands of others like her have provoked a growing social crisis in India. According to Indian cultural norms grounded in ancient scripture called the Laws of Manu, young people live with their parents and are under their direction until they get married. ‘‘I want to live on my own,’’ Lakshmi says.

INTRODUCTION Hinduism is one of the oldest of world religions and certainly the most internally di- verse. It encompasses many gods and offers many paths to salvation. The scriptures of Hinduism mirror this diversity. Vast in size, varied in usage, and profound in influence, many scriptures have been chanted, heard, taught, and repeated for 3,000 years. Gen- eralizations about Hindu scriptures are thus especially difficult to make; almost every statement has exceptions. Still, the main lines of these scriptures can be reliably traced, and they provide good doors into the many-roomed mansion of Hinduism.

Overview of Structure Hindus have not given any single comprehensive name to their scripture. They divide their scriptures into two classes: Shruti and Smriti (see Table 2.1). Shruti [SHROO- tee], ‘‘what is heard,’’ is the primary revelation. It has no human or divine author but captures the cosmic sounds of truth first heard by rishis [REE-shees], ancient seers. Later seers began a process of oral transmission and practice through priestly families that continues today. Shruti consists of four Vedas (Books of Knowledge), the Brah- manas (Brahmin Books), the Aranyakas (Forest Books), and the Upanishads (Sit- tings near a Teacher). Taken together, they are ‘‘Vedic’’ scripture. The canon of Shruti has been basically fixed for almost 2,000 years, and all of Hinduism is in some sense based on it.

22 CHAPTER 2 � Hinduism

Smriti [SMRIH-tee], ‘‘what is remembered,’’ designates all other scripture. It is all post-Vedic. The role of Smriti is to bring out the meaning of Shruti and apply it to later ages. Hindus consider Smriti revelatory only to the extent that it is grounded in Shruti. The Smriti literature is vast in size and scope. It ranges from myths and legends of the Puranas, epics like the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, and law codes like the Laws of Manu and the Institutes of Vishnu. These scriptures have been widely translated from their original Sanskrit into the other languages of the Indian subcontinent, and the canon of Smriti is still open. Because of its more pop- ular and ever-developing nature, Smriti scripture has had, despite its officially sec- ondary status to Shruti, a strong influence on Hindu religion and Indian culture.

In the Shruti category, the four Vedas [VAY-duhs] are the foundation of Hindu scripture. They are samhitas [SAHM-hee-tuhs], ‘‘collections’’ of hymns, formulas, songs, and spells.

� The Rig-Veda samhita has 1,028 hymns divided into ten books. Each hymn (Rig) is addressed to a single god or goddess. When a god is extolled in a hymn, the hymn praises that god above other deities, a form of worship called henotheism. Each hymn of the Rig-Veda has a fairly common sequence: It begins with the invocation of a deity; it then makes requests of that deity and offers praises by recounting her or his deeds in myth; it finishes with a brief restatement of the worshippers’ request.

� The Yajur-Veda samhita consists mostly of prose sacrificial formulas (yajus) used by the presiding priest in a sacrifice.

� The Sama-Veda is a collection of songs and melodies (saman) used in sacri- fice; most of the words are taken from the Rig-Veda. The Rig, Yajur, and Sama Vedas together are known in Hinduism as the ‘‘threefold Veda.’’

TABLE 2.1 Hindu Scriptures

Division Name Translation/Content Size

Shruti (Vedic scripture)

Vedas

Rig-Veda Hymn Veda 1,028 hymns in 10 books

Yajur-Veda Formula Veda

Sama-Veda Song Veda 1,549 mantras

Atharva-Veda Spell Veda 731 hymns in 20 books

Brahmanas Brahmin Books Correspond to each Veda

Aranyakas Forest Books

Upanishads Sittings near a Teacher 123 total; 13 principal

Smriti (Post- Vedic scripture)

Puranas Legends 18 books

Mahabharata Great Story of the Bharatas 18 books

Ramayana Story of Rama 50,000 lines in 7 books

Manusmriti Laws of Manu 12 books

Vishnusmriti Institutes of Vishnu 100 chapters

Tantras Weavings Uncertain number of books

Introduction 23

� The Atharva-Veda differs remarkably from the other three, containing mostly spells, curses, and charms in 731 hymns divided into twenty books. It reflects the everyday religious life of ordinary people just as the threefold Veda reflects the religious life of the priestly group.

The next part of Shruti to emerge was the Brahmanas [BRAH-muh-nuhs], which are manuals for sacrifice. They describe ancient Vedic sacrifice in great and fas- cinating detail and are organized to correspond to the four Veda samhitas. They pres- ent sacrifice—and especially ritual utterance, the powerful sacrificial word correctly spoken—as the power that strengthens the gods, keeps the universe intact, and brings blessing to the sacrificer. Brahmin priests sacrificed meat and other offerings to all the gods. The soma sacrifice is the most prominent. The Aranyakas [ah- RUN-yah-kuhs], which contain philosophical thoughts on sacrifice, especially the sacrificial fire, are a development of the Brahmanas. Reflections on the New Year fes- tival are also prominent. These speculations were considered unsuitable for open knowledge and so were made in the privacy of the forest. Some Aranyakas have been incorporated into the Upanishads.

The Upanishads [oo-PAH-nee-shahds] form the final part of Shruti. One hun- dred twenty-three Upanishads have survived, but only thirteen have been influential in Hindu history. The Upanishads are philosophical treatments on cosmic reality and sometimes feature debates between opposing teachers. Their emphasis is on self- denial as a way to find religious truth—the way of asceticism. The ritualism of the four Vedas and especially of the Brahmanas is downplayed and even attacked in the Upanishads. The Upanishads are concerned to find the One, the absolute spiri- tual reality that lies in and behind all the visible elements and beings of this physical world. As the conclusion of Shruti and the Vedic scripture collection, the Upanishads are also known as the Vedanta (End of the Veda).

We begin describing the Smriti with the two main epics: the Mahabharata and the Ramayana. The Ramayana (Story of Rama) is traditionally attributed to the poet Valkimi. It was written in the third century B.C.E. Prince Rama was exiled from his kingdom and his wife, Sita, was kidnapped by the demon Ravana, but Rama was restored to his kingdom and his wife with the help of the monkey-god. The Mahabharata (Great Story of the Bharatas) is the longest epic in the world—four times longer than the Christian Bible. Its basic story involves the feud and eventual war between two sides of King Bharata’s family. The Mahabharata is a vast repository of Indian myths and legends, and the Bhagavad Gita [BAH-gav-vahd GEE-tuh] (Song of the Lord) is a small part of this larger epic. The Mahabharata and the Ramayana share a common body of myth and folklore.

The Puranas, traditionally eighteen in number, are also concerned with myth, lore, and legend. Like the epics (and like Smriti in general), they are addressed to the ordinary person. Emerging about 400 to 1000 C.E., they stress devotion to a spe- cific divinity as the way to release. Thus, some speak of Shiva, some of Vishnu, and some of Shakti, the three main devotional movements of Hinduism. By far the most popular, and influential for medieval and early modern Indian popular literature and painting, is the Bhagavata-Purana. This tenth-century work provides background on the Krishna of the Bhagavad Gita, especially his youth among the cowherders of his village and his romantic adventures with the cowherd women.

24 CHAPTER 2 � Hinduism

Tantras (‘‘looms, weavings’’) mirror the Hinduism of medieval India. Books of mystical teachings, spells, and rituals, they deal with beliefs and yogic meditation in a popular way. Each of the three main devotional movements—Shiva, Vishnu, and Shakti—has its own official collections of tantras, which tell the exploits of the move- ment’s gods and bring their powers to devotees by means of ritual and yoga.

The final type of Smriti to consider is manuals of dharma, or law codes. Law here is broadly conceived in its social and personal dimensions; it encompasses caste, life stages, diet, government, and other matters. The most important dharma manual is the Laws of Manu, composed around 200 C.E. in twelve books. The main concern of Manu is the codification and operation of the four-caste system, and Manu’s influ- ence on Hindu life has been profound. Indeed, the two things that are most often said to define a practicing Hindu are acceptance of the Vedas and following caste duty.

Contemporary Use Hindu scriptures have a wide variety of uses today, some of which have already been mentioned. In what follows, we trace these uses briefly, with a special focus on orality.

The four Vedas were orally composed and were handed down orally for thou- sands of years. To put them in a book would have seemed absurd, even sacrilegious, because they were in essence a spoken and heard revelation (Shruti), and their power resided in their spokenness.

Brahmin priests use the Vedas for ritual. The threefold Veda has always been the text of this religious aristocracy, never of the people as a whole. From the first, the sound of these scriptures was more important than their content. Traditionalist Hindus believe that the sounds of the Veda were the sounds that the sages heard rever- berating from the creation of the universe and that the same sounds will be used again at the next cycle of re-creation. These sounds have been passed on orally from guru to student for thousands of years. Gurus teach their students every element of correct oral usage of the Veda, including correct enunciation, poetic meter, volume, and pitch. Brahmins who excel in Vedamemorization and ritual enactment are known as pandits (compare with the English word pundit). As a student, each young Brahmin is edu- cated in one of the four Vedas and becomes an expert in the use of that Veda in sac- rifice. Hymns in the Rig-Veda often end with a request to the deity that the sacrificers might ‘‘speak as men of power’’ during the rites.

Hindus do not study the content of the Vedas in, for example, meditation or doctrinal instruction. Much of the ancient Vedic form of the Sanskrit language has been lost, and much of its meaning is not recoverable. For the past 2,000 years, ac- cordingly, Brahmins often have not understood what they were saying as they chanted the Vedas in the rituals. This is not important; only the correct sounds matter. Today, only a few Brahmin families keep up a ritually correct form of the an- cient Vedic sacrifices. However, all domestic rituals are done with Vedic formulas. Speaking and concentrating on the mantra [MAHN-truh] allow the believer to tap into the cosmic power of creative speech.

The Upanishads became the texts of the philosophers, especially of the Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy. Reflecting on the meaning of this scripture in a life of strict renunciation allows the sage to be set free from desire and rebirth. In the last hundred years, a neo-Vedantic school has arisen, mainly drawing on ancient Hindu themes and also influenced by Western religious ideas such as theism and interreli- gious tolerance.

Introduction 25

Law codes are used for the ordering of society. They especially reflect the Brah- min caste and its view of Hindu life. How closely these books were followed and enforced in ancient times cannot now be determined, but their broadest aspects have certainly retained much authority.

Of all Hindu scripture, the epics have been the best known and most loved. The Bhagavad Gita, because of the way it affirms and integrates many main aspects of Hinduism, has been acceptable and influential among most Hindus. For its promo- tion of one way as the best, however, it remains the special text of the Vishnu-Krishna devotional movement.

For most of Hindu history, the primacy of these works has been in their oral, not their written, form. For example, the four Veda samhitas probably were composed and collected before writing was known in India. TheUpanishads were not fully writ- ten down until 1656 C.E., and then only at the command of the non-Hindu Sultan Dara Shakoh, who ordered a translation of these oral works into Persian. Since then, the Upanishads have been translated by Hindus into the other main Indian lan- guages; the original Sanskrit was written down as well. The Hindu tradition has regarded writing itself as polluting compared with the sanctity of the spoken word. Now, however, orality is fading, and it is common to see even holy men reading aloud from books instead of ‘‘reading’’ from memory. Still, the ‘‘sound’’ of the scrip- tures continues to be important, for sound is their very essence.

Comparing a typical Hindu attitude toward scripture with Western attitudes, Daniel Gold remarks, ‘‘The idea of Vedic authority known to traditional Hindus is much more diffuse and abstract than the idea of a closed biblical canon known to the West. Christians, for example, variously interpret a revealed text to which most people have access and of which they can make some literal sense. For Hindus, by contrast, a reverence for scriptural authority can often mean simply that they think that what they do somehow comes from the Vedas, texts which in their antiquity are very rarely used or understood anymore. . . . They exist now primarily as words of power incorporated into newer rites.’’1

To sum up, Hindus’ use of scripture depends on their class and occupation and on the particular type of Hinduism (philosophical, devotional, etc.) they follow. All Hindus have a strong, if vague, reverence for the threefold Veda, a feeling for the structure of society as reflected in the law codes, and in devotional Hinduism, a strong feeling for the literature of one’s single chosen god or goddess.

Historical Origin and Development The long history of Hindu scripture parallels the history of Hinduism as a whole. We here briefly survey how Hindu scripture began, the process of its growth, and how it took its present form. Keep in mind this general principle of Hindu scripture as we begin this section: The literature grows by association. Earlier works, no matter how sacred, invite and attract later works with related themes and styles, which in turn at- tract still more sacred literature.

The four Vedas have their origin in ritual. Sacrifice itself seems to have come first, for even the earliest Vedas presuppose an established sacrifice. The songs, melodies, and formal directions for their performance were drawn up later, soon after the Aryan

1D. Gold, ‘‘Organized Hinduisms,’’ in M. E. Marty and R. S. Appleby, Fundamentalisms Observed (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), pp. 542–543.

26 CHAPTER 2 � Hinduism

invasion of India around 1500 B.C.E. The Rig-Veda contains songs for sacrifice. The oldest hymns deal with the gods of the Indo-Aryans: the sky-god Dyaus Pitar, whom the Greeks knew as Zeus, and the earth-goddess Prithivi Mater. In the next stage, these old gods receded and new gods arose: Indra the new sky-god, Agni the god of fire, Soma the god of drugged sacrifice. The final hymns written down are found in the present Rig-Veda Books 1 and 10, which move from polytheistic nature gods to the kind of cosmic speculations that search for the oneness of all being. The final form of the Rig-Veda was reached about 1200 B.C.E.

The Sama-Veda was composed after the Rig-Veda was complete. It has lines from the Rig-Veda, which are chanted to fixed melodies. The melodies are not captured in the written text but are passed on from singing priest to his disciples. The proper lyrics and music were essential to the success of the rite. The Yajur-Veda contains directions for sacrifice and also was written down after the Rig-Veda was established. The Atharva-Veda with its magical spells gives a glimpse into the more popular levels of ancient Hinduism. The spells are addressed not to the great gods but to the gods and spirits that control everyday life, its cycles, and its challenges. The first seven books are the earliest; Books 8 through 12 are more recent and contain cosmological speculations similar to Book 10 of the Rig-Veda and the later Upanishads.

The Brahmanas mark the high point of Hindu ritualism. The power of the priesthood steadily grew in Vedic times (2000–1000 B.C.E.), and the focus of the Brahmanas is on sacrifice itself, not on the gods. Sacrifice is the power that generates the cosmos and keeps it going. The main group of the Brahmanas deals with the Yajur-Veda and the ritual process. Sacrifices using soma are prominent, as is the horse sacrifice, which took great expense and an entire year to enact.

The Aranyakas mark the beginning of a departure from Vedic ritualism. Mixed and disjointed in content, these reflections may have been developed by marginalized Brahmins or by members of the warrior caste.

TheUpanishads, the last of the Vedic scriptures, are close in style to the Aranyakas. Most were written from the eighth to the fourth centuries B.C.E. The so-called principal Upanishads number about thirteen and are the only Upanishads accepted by all Hindus. Some with special devotion to a particular deity date from the beginnings of the Common Era all the way to the sixteenth century C.E. and are accepted only by cer- tain Hindu sects as interest in ritual fades and philosophy/renunciation advances. The oldest of these are the Chandogya and Brihad-Aranyaka Upanishads.

The Upanishads, like most Shruti, are not uniform or systematic; they are diverse collections of philosophical materials from different teachers over the centuries. The ‘‘world-affirming’’ Vedic religion that originally sought blessing in this world has also become a ‘‘world-negating’’ religion that seeks release from continually reincar- nated existence in this world. These Upanishads present the way of knowledge, the search for the eternal One called Brahman [BRAH-muhn] as it relates to Atman [AHT-muhn], the eternal Self at the hidden center of every human. They are the beginnings of Hindu philosophy, which has been and remains influential, although it has been an option for only a tiny minority of Hindus of any period.

Unlike the Shruti, the epics of Smriti display very little interest in ritual and in- stead deal with broad religious and cultural topics. The Mahabharata was finished by 400 C.E., the Ramayana by 200 B.C.E. Evident in both are three layers of develop- ment: (1) myths of the gods, from earliest Hinduism; (2) the central plot of each epic; and (3) discussions of religious duty and law. The insertion of this last layer

Introduction 27

into the epic is a typically Indian practice: to pause at key points in the narrative for a religious discussion. The most famous of these insertions, the Bhagavad Gita, sec- tion 6 of the Mahabharata, today is reckoned a book in itself. These discussions are precursors of the law books, to which we now turn.

The law codes are called Dharma-Shastras [DAHR-muh SHAS-truhs], ‘‘Writings on Duty.’’ Books on duty began to be compiled in the schools in which the Vedas and Brahmanas were studied. They developed into comprehensive and systematic books that eventually formed the basis of Hindu law. Manu was writ- ten perhaps about 200 C.E. as a full code for all Hindu society, for every caste, occu- pation, and stage of life. Like the law books of most religions and civilizations, Manu and the other law codes were developed by commentary as the centuries passed, and thus, their influence was perpetuated. How deep this influence may have been is un- known because Manu (again like most law codes) gives prescriptions for an ideal so- ciety. Real Hindu life, like the life of all religions, no doubt fell short of its ideals.

Eighteen of the ancient stories of the Puranas are especially important. Their themes are creation, re-creation, origins of the gods and sages, eras of common his- tory, and dynastic histories. Some, like the Upanishads, are sectarian, appealing to dev- otees of only one god. The Puranas fall into three main categories, as they promote the gods Vishnu, Shiva, and others. The most important Purana is the Bhagavata- Purana, composed about 400–1000 C.E. It is based on and furthers the book for which it is named, the Bhagavad Gita.

Tantras—books of mystical teachings, spells, and directions for rituals—arose as a popular supplement to Vedic religion. While acknowledging the truth and authority of the Vedas, the tantras go beyond them to provide updated rituals. They perfect the use of specific techniques for the body and the mind. Tantrism is widespread in Hindu re- ligion, but the devotional cult of the goddess Shakti has a special attachment to it. The Shaktic tantras occasionally feature ‘‘left-handed’’ tantrism, which most Westerners wrongly associate with tantrism as a whole: esoteric practices, magic, and exotic sexual practices. The tantras were written in the period 500–1800 C.E.

TEACHING

Aditi and the Birth of the Gods

This hymn presents several different and seemingly contradictory explanations of the creation of the world: It was spoken by the lord of sacred speech; it came from nonexistence; the mother-goddess gave birth to it; it was formed from the mutual births of Aditi and Daksa; it was formed from Martanda. These and other explanations still exist among Hindus today.2

2All selections from the Rig-Veda are reprinted from The Rig Veda, An Anthology, by Wendy Doniger O’Flaherty (London: Penguin, 1981). Copyright # 1981 Wendy Doniger O’Flaherty. Used by permission.

Rig-Veda 10.72.

28 CHAPTER 2 � Hinduism

Let us now speak with wonder of the births of the gods, so that someone may see them when the hymns are chanted in this later age. The lord of sacred speech, like a smith, fanned them together. In the earliest age of the gods, existence was born from nonexistence. In the first age of the gods, existence was born from nonexistence. After this the quarters of the sky were born from her who crouched with legs spread. The earth was born from her who crouched with legs spread, and from the earth the quarters of the sky were born. From Aditi, Daksa was born, and from Daksa Aditi was born. [5] For Aditi was born as your daughter, O Daksa, and after her were born the blessed gods, the kinsmen of immortal- ity. When you gods took your places there in the

water with your hands joined,3 a thick cloud of mist arose from you like dust from dancers. When you gods like magicians caused the worlds to swell, you drew forth the sun that was hidden in the ocean. Eight sons are there of Aditi, who were born of her body. With seven she went forth among the gods, but she threw Martanda, the sun, aside. With seven sons Aditi went forth into the earliest age. But she bore Martanda so that he would in turn beget off- spring4 and then soon die.

Two Philosophical Views of Creation

Many accounts of the origin of the universe are philosophical rather than mythological. Ques- tioning and puzzling, they stir the listener to reflection. In the first selection, ‘‘that one’’ is the impersonal creator by whom the gods themselves are created. This hymn has been most in- fluential among Hindus. The second selection, from an important Upanishad, presents a phil- osophical reflection on the origin of the world. It traces creation to Brahman, the world-soul that is the All in and behind the world. The cosmic Person (purusha) identified with the world- soul is neither male nor female, despite the references to the Person as ‘‘he.’’5

[Rig-Veda 10.129] There was neither nonexis- tence nor existence then; there was neither the realm of space nor the sky which is beyond. What stirred? Where? In whose protection? Was there water, bottomlessly deep? There was nei- ther death nor immortality then. There was no distinguishing sign of night or of day. That one breathed, windless, by its own impulse. Other than that there was nothing beyond. Darkness was hidden by darkness in the beginning; with no distinguishing sign, all this was water. The

life force that was covered with emptiness one arose through the power of heat. Desire came upon that one in the beginning; that was the first seed of mind. Poets seeking in their heart with wisdom found the bond of existence in non- existence. [5] Their cord6 was extended across. Was there below? Was there above? There were seed-placers; there were powers. There was impulse beneath; there was giving-forth above. Who really knows? Who here will proclaim it? Where was it produced? Where did this creation come from? The gods came afterwards, with the creation of this universe. Who then knows where it has arisen? Where this creation has arisen—perhaps it

3hands joined: the typical Indian posture of greeting and respect. 4offspring: humanity, which begets its offspring and dies.

5This and all other selections from the Upanishads are taken, with editing, from F. Max Müller, trans., The Upanishads, Sacred Books of the East, vols. 1 and 15 (Oxford: Oxford Uni- versity Press, 1878, 1884). 6cord: the bond of existence, extending across the universe.

Rig-Veda 10.129; Brihad-Aranyaka Upanishad 1.4.1–7.

TEACHING: Two Philosophical Views of Creation 29

formed itself, or perhaps it did not—the one7 who looks down on it, in the highest heaven, only he knows—or perhaps he does not know.

[Brihad-Aranyaka Upanishad 1.4.1–7] In the beginning this world was Soul alone, in the shape of a Person. He looked around and saw nothing but himself. He first said, ‘‘This is I.’’ Therefore, he became ‘‘I’’ by name. Therefore even now, if a man is asked he first says, ‘‘This is I,’’ and then pronounces his other name. Before [purva] all this he burnt down [ush] all evils; therefore he was a Person [purusha]. Truly he who knows this burns down everyone who tries to be before him.

He feared, and therefore anyone who is lonely fears. He thought, ‘‘As there is nothing but myself, why should I fear?’’ Then his fear passed away. For what should he have feared? But he felt no delight. Therefore a man who is lonely feels no delight. He longed for a second person. As he was as large as a man and woman together, he made his Self to fall in two, and there came husband and wife. There- fore Yajnavalkya said: ‘‘We two are thus like half a shell.’’ Therefore the void that was there [in the male] is filled by the wife. He had sexual inter- course with her, and humans were born.

She thought, ‘‘How can he have sexual inter- course with me, after having produced me from himself? I shall hide myself.’’ She then became a cow. But he became a bull and had sex with her, and therefore cows were born. Then she became a mare, and he a stallion; then he a male ass, and she a female ass. He had sex with her [in both forms], and therefore one-hoofed

animals were born. He became a she-goat, she a he-goat; he became a ewe, she a ram. He had sex with her, and therefore goats and sheep were born. In this way he created everything that exists in pairs, down to the ants. [5] He knew this: ‘‘I indeed am this creation, for I cre- ated all this.’’ Therefore he became the creation, and he who knows this lives in this his creation.

Next he thus produced fire by rubbing. From the mouth, as from the fire-hole,8 and from the hands he created fire. Therefore both the mouth and the hands are hairless inside, for the fire- hole is without hair inside.

People say, ‘‘Sacrifice to this god or that god.’’ But each god is his manifestation, for he is all gods.

Whatever is moist he created from semen; this is Soma. So this universe is really either food or eaters of food. Soma is food, Agni the eater. This is the highest creation of Brahman, when he created the gods from his better part, and when he who was then mortal created the immor- tals. Therefore it was the highest creation. He who knows this lives in this highest creation. . . .

He cannot be seen, for when breathing he is called breath. When speaking, he is called speech; when seeing, eye; when hearing, ear; when think- ing, mind. All these are only the names of his acts. He who worships him as the one or the other, does not know him. . . .Let men worship him as Soul [Atman], for in the Soul all these are one. This Soul is the footprint of everything, for through it one knows everything. As one can find again by footprints what was lost, he who knows this finds glory and praise.

The God Indra

Indra is the sky-god, the king of the gods. This hymn extols Indra’s accomplishments over sev- eral opposing gods and for promoting the welfare of the people. It seeks to defend the impor- tance of Indra against those who ignore him or even deny his existence (verse 5). This defense evidently did not succeed, because in post-Vedic Hinduism, Indra has largely disappeared.

7the one: Prajapati, the high god.

8fire-hole: Sanskrit yoni, the circular religious image of the human vagina symbolizing the female cosmic creative power.

Rig-Veda 2.12.

30 CHAPTER 2 � Hinduism

The god who had insight the moment he was born, the first who protected the gods with his power of thought, before whose hot breath the two world-halves tremble at the greatness of his manly powers—he, my people, is Indra. He who made fast the tottering earth, who made still the quaking mountains, who measured out and extended the expanse of the air, who propped up the sky—he, my people, is Indra. He who killed the serpent and loosed the seven rivers, who drove out the cows that had been pent up by Vala,9 who gave birth to fire between two stones, the winner of booty in combats—he, my people, is Indra. He by whom all these changes were rung, who drove the race of Dasas10 down into obscurity, who took away the flourishing wealth of the enemy as a winning gambler takes the stake—he, my people, is Indra.

[5] He about whom they ask, ‘‘Where is he?,’’ or they say of him, the terrible one, ‘‘He does not exist,’’ he who diminishes the flourishing wealth of the enemy as gambling does—believe in him! He, my people, is Indra. He who encourages the weary and the sick, and the poor priest who is in need, who helps the man who harnesses the stones to press Soma, he who has lips fine for drinking—he, my people, is Indra.

He under whose command are horses and cows and villages and all chariots, who gave birth to the sun and the dawn and led out the waters, he, my people, is Indra. He who is invoked by both of two armies, enemies locked

in combat, on this side and that side, he who is even invoked separately by each of two men standing on the very same chariot, he, my people, is Indra. He without whom people do not conquer, he whom they call on for help when they are fighting, who became the image of everything, who shakes the unshakable—he, my people, is Indra.

[10] He who killed with his weapon all those who had committed a great sin, even when they did not know it, he who does not pardon the arro- gant man for his arrogance, who is the slayer of the Dasas, he, my people, is Indra. He who in the for- tieth autumn discovered Sambara living in the mountains, who killed the violent serpent, the Danu, as he lay there, he, my people, is Indra. He, the mighty bull who with his seven reins let loose the seven rivers to flow, who with his thun- derbolt in his hand hurled down Rauhina as he was climbing up to the sky, he, my people, is Indra. Even the sky and the earth bow low before him, and the mountains are terrified of his hot breath.