Anuloma ds tablet uses in hindi

SOURCES OF INDIAN TRADITION

VOLUME I

INTRODUCTION TO

ORIENTAL CIVILIZATIONS

WM. THEODORE DE BARY, EDITOR

Sources of

Indian Tradition

VOLUME I

GENERAL EDITOR

Ww. Theodore (k Bary CO MPILERS

A L, B&sham R. H Dawlefear Peter Uariy V. Raghavan Royal Weiler

COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS New

The addition to the "Records of Civilization: Sources and Studies"

of a group of translations of Oriental historical materials in a clothbound

edition, from which this volume is taken, was made possible by funds

granted by Carnegie Corporation of New York. That Corporation is not, however, the author, owner, publisher, or proprietor of this publication,

and is not to be understood as approving by virtue of its grant any of the

statements made or views expressed therein.

Clothbound editions of Columbia University Press books

are Smyth-sewn and printed on permanent and durable acid-free paper.

ISBN 0-231-08600-8 Copyright 1958 Columbia University Press

Printed in the United States of America

15

PREFACE

This book is part of a new edition o Introduction to Oriental Civiliza-

tions, the three-volume work dealing with the civilizations of Japan,

China, and India and Pakistan published by Columbia University Press

in the series Records of Civilization. It contains source readings that tell

us what the peoples of India have thought about the world they lived in

and the problems they faced living together. It is meant to provide the

general reader with an understanding of the intellectual and spiritual traditions which remain alive in India and Pakistan today. Thus, much

attention is given to religious and philosophical developments in earlier

times which still form part of the Indian heritage and have experienced a considerable revival in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. On the other hand, attention is also given to political, economic, and social

thought, which other surveys, concentrating on classical Indian philos-

ophy, have generally omitted.

Although our aim has been to combine variety with balance in the

selection and presentation of materials, a few words are perhaps neces-

sary concerning special points of emphasis. A glance at the contents will show that religion has furnished the general categories under which tradi-

tional Indian civilization is treated. This implies no judgment that

religion was always the dominant factor in Indian life, but only that in

the body of literature which provides us our texts, religious identities and

continuities are more clearly distinguishable than are those based upon historical chronology or dynastic associations. Next, in this volume some-

what more attention is given to Theravada Buddhism than to Mahayana because the latter is given fuller treatment in the volumes in this series

dealing with China and Japan. In the case of Hinduism the reader will

find that relatively greater emphasis is placed upon the social and devo-

tional aspects of the religion, which have affected great numbers of Hin-

[v]

dus, than upon the philosophical speculations which have generally com-

manded the first attention o educated Indians and Westerners and have

already been widely reproduced in translation. In this volume, dealing

with traditional Indian and Muslim civilization, most o the translations

are new and many of them are of texts previously untranslated into any Western language.

Because of the unfamiliarity and complexity of many subjects not previ-

ously presented in translation, we have found it necessary to include more

historical and explanatory material than is usual in a set of source readings.

Nevertheless, the reader who seeks a fuller knowledge of historical and

institutional background will do well to supplement this text by referring

to a general survey of Indian history and culture.

Given the limitations of an introductory text, we could not hope to deal

with every thinker or movement of importance, but have had to select

those examples which seem best to illustrate the major patterns of Indian

thought in so far as they have been expressed and preserved in writing. In

the modern period the necessity for such selectivity is most apparent. Here

particular prominence has been given to persons actively engaged in lead-

ing organized religious and political movements.

Compilation of Sources of Indian Tradition was originally undertaken

by Andrew Yarrow in connection with the general education program in

Columbia College. These readings were then substantially revised by the

general editor with the assistance of Dr. Royal Weiler of Columbia and

supplemented by Dr. Stephen N. Hay of the University of Chicago. In

making revisions for the present edition, the general editor was assisted by Ainslie T. Embree of Columbia University. It goes without saying that this

volume could not have been compiled without the cooperation of our prin-

cipal contributors: R. N. Dandekar of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research

Institute, Poona, prepared the materials for Chapters I, II, III, X, XI, and

the selection from the Bhagavad Gita in Chapter XIII; A. L. Basham of

the School o Oriental and African Studies, University of London, pre-

pared Chapters IV, V, VI, VII, and VIII; V. Raghavan of the University of Madras prepared Chapters IX, XII, and XIII; Peter Hardy of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, prepared Chapters XIV, XV, XVII, XVIII, and XIX. Their contribution is all the more ap~ preciated because of the patience and forbearance they have shown in re-

[vi]

gard to adjustments which the general editor has had to make in order to achieve uniformity and balance in the volume as a whole. For this reason, it should be emphasized, the editor must bear primary responsibility for

the selection and presentation of the materials contained here.

The final version of these readings owes much to the critical examina- tion and comment of scholarly colleagues. Dr. Basham wishes to record his appreciation to Dr. A. K. Warder for his reading of the draft on Jain- ism and Buddhism. S. M. Ikram, then of the Center for Pakistan Studies, Columbia University, is also to be thanked for reading the chapters on

Muslim India. Visudh Busyakul of the University of Pennsylvania gave Dr. Weiler invaluable advice and assistance, as did Marjorie A. Weiler. Hans Guggenheim performed the exacting task of preparing the chapter decorations for Chapters I-XIX.

This series of readings has been produced in connection with the Co-

lumbia College General Education Program in Oriental Studies, which has been encouraged and supported by the Carnegie Corporation of New York. For whatever value it may have to the general reader or college student seeking a liberal education that embraces both East and West, a

great debt is owed to Dean Emeritus Harry J. Carman, Dr. Taraknath

Das, and Dean Lawrence H. Chamberlain of Columbia College, who contributed much to the initiation and furtherance of this program.

WM. THEODORE DE BARY

[vii]

EXPLANATORY NOTE

The sources of translations given at the beginning of each selection are rendered as concisely as possible. Full bibliographical data can be obtained

from the list of sources in the clothbound edition. In the reference at the

head of each selection, unless otherwise indicated, the author of the book

is the writer whose name precedes the selection. Where excerpts have been taken from existing translations, they have sometimes been adapted or

edited in the interests of uniformity with the book as a whole.

Indie words appearing in italics as technical terms or tides of works are

rendered in accordance with the standard system of transliteration as

found in Louis Renou's Grammaire Sanskrite (Paris, 1930), pp. xi-xiii, with the exception that here s is regularly used for c. To facilitate pro- nunciation, other Sanskrit terms and proper names appearing in roman

letters are rendered according to the usage of Webster's New International Dictionary, 2d edition, Unabridged, except that here the macron is used

to indicate long vowels and the Sanskrit symbols for s (c) and are uni-

formly transcribed as sh. Similarly, the standard Sanskrit transcription of

c is given as ch. In connection with Theravada Buddhism, the form of

technical terms is that of Pali rather than Sanskrit; the latter, however, is

retained in connection with Jamism. Thus, in Buddhism Pali dhamrna

for Sanskrit dharma, but in Jainism Sanskrit posadha for Prakrit fosaha. Deviations from these principles may occur in passages directly quoted from Indian writers of the seventeenth through twentieth centuries. A word list giving standard Indie equivalents for roman transcriptions will

be found at the end of this volume.

In the pronunciation of Indie words, the accent is usually on tie next

to final syllable if long; otherwise on the nearest long syllable before it.

The long syllable is indicated by the macron (e.g., a, I, u) or a diphthong

(e, o, ai, au), or a vowel followed by more than one consonant (except h).

[ix]

Guide to Pronunciation

a as u in but

a as a in father

i as / in pin I as i in machine

u as u in pull u as u in rule

ri (r), a vowel as er in river

e as ay in say ai as ai in aisle

as o in go au as ow in how ch (c) as in church

sh (s, s) as sh in shape

g as g in get kh as ty in lakehouse

gh as gh in doghouse th as th in anthill

dh as dh in roundhouse

bh as bh in clubhouse

ph as ph in uphill m or n as ng in sing

Guide to the Pronunciation o] Persian and Indo-Persian Words

Short Vowels

a Intermediate between the vowels in the

English words bed and bad

1 As the vowel sound in the English fen u As in the English word put

Long Vowels a as a in father

T as t in police

u as u in prude

Diphthongs ai as ey in they

au as ou in out

In Indo-Persian the majhul vowel sound 6 rhymes with toe; the short vowel

a is closer to the u in sun; and the diphthong au tends more to the majhul

sound, as the o in hose or toe, *

represents the Arabic and Persian letter 'ayn. In Arabic 'ayn is a strong

guttural preceding a vowel. In Persian, however, 'ayn at the beginning of a

word is not pronounced separately from the vowel which goes with it; in the

middle of a word, it has a sound sa'd (or sefd) like the bleating of a sheep; at

the end of a word, in Persian, it is either silent or, more usually given a slight

pronunciation between short "a" and "e" on a rising intonation. *

represents the hamza or glottal stop in Arabic words. It is a jerked hiatus; the Cockney pronunciation of "butter," "better," or "bottle" gives the sound

in the middle of Arabic words; at the beginning of Arabic words it is in-

distinguishable from the vowel that goes with it; at the end it is like the

Persian pronunciation of 'ayn at the end of words.

In Persian words, '

also represents hamza when used to indicate a hiatus between two long vowels, as in the English pronunciation (very distinct) of

"India Office," i.e., "India" (pause) "Office." (Example: Bada'um.)

R.W. AND PH.

[xi]

Without the assistance of many publishers, a book of source readings such as

this is not possible, and we are grateful for the cooperation of the following: Advaita Ashrama, Almora, India; Allen & Unwin, Ltd., London; All-Pakistan

Political Science Association, Lahore; Mohammad Ashraf, Lahore; Asiatic

Society of Mangal, Calcutta; Sri Aurobindo Ashram, Pondich&y, India; The

Bodley Head, Ltd., London; Clarendon Press, Oxford; Current Book House,

Bombay; Ganesh and Co., Ltd., Madras, India; S. P. Gokhale, Poona, India; Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass*; Hero Publications, Lahore; Indian Printing Works, Lahore; The India Press, Allahabad, India; Kitabistan,

Allahabad, India; S. K. Lahin and Co., Calcutta; Luzac and Co., London; Mao millan & Co., Ltd., London and New York; al-Manar Academy, Lahore; Modern Review, Calcutta; John Murray, London, and the "Wisdom of the

East" series; The Muslim World; G. A. Natesan and Co., Madras, India; The

Navajivaa Trust, Ahmedabad, India; P. M. Neogi, Calcutta; Orient Longmans

Ltd., Calcutta; Oxford University Press, London; Pakistan Herald Press, Ka-

rachi; Panjab University Press, Lahore; People's Publishing House, Ltd., Bom-

bay; Renaissance Publishers, Ltd., Calcutta; Roy and Son, Calcutta; A. W.

Sahasvabuddhe, Sevagram, India; Sadharan Brahmo Samaj, Calcutta; Sar-

vodaya, Bombay; Thcosophical Publishing Society, Banaras, India; Thomas

and Co., Calcutta; Thompson and Co. Ltd., Madras, India; R, B. Tilak, Poona,

India; The Vcdanta Society, New York; Vedic Yantralaya, Ajmer, India; The

Viking Press, Inc., New York; Visvabharati, Calcutta,

CONTENTS

Chronological Table xx

Brahmanism i

Chapter I: The Cosmic Order in the Vedic Hymns 5

Agni, 7; Heaven and Earth, 8; Varuna, 9; Dawn, 10; Indra, n; The

Primeval Sacrifice, 13; The Origin -of the World, 15; The Brah-

machari, 16; A Charm Against Jaundice, 18; Exorcism of Serpents, 18

Chapter 11: The Ritual Order in the Brahmanas 19

The Collection of Materials for the Sacred Fires, 20; The Fetching of

Sacrificial Grass, 22

Chapter III: The Ultimate Reality in the Upantshads 24

The Sacrificial Horse, 25; Sacrifices Unsteady Boats on the Ocean

of Life, 26; The Five Sheaths, 27; The Real Self, 28; The Essential

Reality Underlying the World, 31

The Background of Jainism and Buddhism 35

Chapter IV: The Basic Doctrines of Jainism 42

THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF JAINISM 42

JAIN DOCTRINES AND PRACTICES 46

JAIN LITERATO&E 51

Of Human Bondage^ 53; The Man in the Well, 53; Kinsfolk Are No

Comfort in Old Age, 55; All Creation Groans Together in Torment,

56; Crc#urs Gttat and Sjpaall, 57; The Eternal Law, 58; Respect for

[xiii]

Life, 59; The Hero of Penance and Self-Control, 61; Cheerfully En-

dure All Things, 61; Wise Men and Fools, 62; Two Ways of Life,

63; The Refuge of All Creatures, 65; The Final Penance, 65; Moral

Verses, 66

Chapter V, Jain Philosophy and Political Thought 70

Of Space and Time, 72; There is No Creator, 75; The Plurality of

Souls, 78; A Modern Jain Apologist, 80; The Ideal King, I, 83; II, 85; Practical Advice on War and Peace, 86; The Miseries and Dangers of

Politics, 87

Chapter VI: Theravada Buddhism - 90

BASIC DOCTRINES OF THERAVADA BUDDHISM 98

The Four Noble Truths, 98; The Nature of Consciousness and the

Chain of Causation, 99; False Doctrines About the Soul, 102; The

Simile of the Chariot, 103; Change and Identity, 105; The Process

of Rebirth, 106; Karma, 106; Right Mindfulness, 107; The Last In-

structions of the Buddha, 109; The Buddha in Nirvana, in; The

City of Righteousness, in

THE ETHICS OF THERAVADA BUDDHISM 113 The Morals of the Monk, 114; Care of the Body, 115; "Lay Not Up for Yourselves Treasures upon Earth. . . ,", 116; The Virtue of

Friendliness, 117; Hatred and Love, 118; Buddhism and Everyday

Life, 119

SOCIETY AND THE STATE IN THERAVADA BUDDHISM 124 How the World Evolved, 127; The Origin of Society and the State, 128; The Ideal of Government, and the Decay and Growth o Civiliza-

tion, 133; Conditions of the Welfare of Societies, 139; Birth is No Criterion of Worth, 140; Ashoka: The Buddhist Emperor, 142

Chapter VII: Mahayana Buddhism: "The Greater Vehicle" 151

The Bodhisattva, 158; The Mahayana Ideal Is Higher Than That of the Theravada, 159; The Suffering Savior, 159; The Lost Sonr 162; Against Self-Mortification, 166; Joy in All Things, 168; The Good Deeds of the Bodhisattva, 169; The Evils of Meat-Eating, 169; The Gift of Food, 170; The Three Bodies of the Buddha, 172; Emp- tiness, 173; Faith in Emptiness, 175; Karma and Rebirth, 175; Such-

ness, 176; All Depends on the Mind, 177; Nirvana Is Here and Now,

177; Praise of Dharma, 178; Perfect Wisdom Personified, 180; The

Blessings of Peace, 181; The Divine Right (and Duty) of Kings, 182;

Magical Utterances, 185

Chapter VIII: The Vehicle of the Thunderbolt and the Decline of Bud- dhism in India 187

To the Pure All Things Are Pure, 194; Everything Is Buddha, 196

Hinduism 200

Chapter IX: The Four Ends of Man 206

From the Science of Dharma, 208; From the Science of Material Gain: The Conduct of the Ideal King, 209; From the Science of Love,

209; From the Ramayana, 210; From Kahdasa, 210

Chapter X: Dharma, The First End of Man 211

What is Dharma? 215; The Sources and Extent of Dharma, 216; Dharma Is Not Static, 218; Varna-Dharma or Organization of the Four Classes, 219; The Origin of Mixed Castes, 221; Initiation to

Studentship, 223; Marriage and Householder's Duties, 225; The

Position of Women, 227; The Hermit and the Ascetic, 228; The

Sacraments, 230

Chapter XI: Artha, The Second End of Man 231

Dharma As the Supreme Authority, 235; The Origin of Kingship,

236; The Science of Polity, 239; Duties of a King, 241; The Seven

Limbs of the State, 243; The Circle of States and Interstate Policy,

246; State Administration, 249

Chapter XII: Kama, The Third End of Man 253

The Man of Taste and Culture, 254

AESTHETIC SPECULATIONS ^55

Dramaturgy: Bharata's Treatise on Dramaturgy, 261

Poetics: Mammata's Illumination of Poetry, 265; The Ocean of Aes-

thetic Emotion, 268

Music: From a Brahmana, 268; From an Upanishad, 269; From a

Lawbook, 269; From the Puranas, 269; From a Tantra, 269; From a

Standard Music Treatise, 270; From the Songs of Tyagaraja, 270

Chapter XIII: Marsha, The Fourth End of Man 271

THE BHAGAVAD GITA 274

You Have to Fight, 278; Why Karma-Yoga? 281; The Technique of

Karma-Yoga, 283; The Doctrine of Devotion, 286; Divine Manifes-

tations, 287; Philosophical Synthesis, 291; The Ideal Man, 293

HINDU PHILOSOPHY 295

TSHVARAKRISHNA: The Sankhya Karikas, 303

SHANKARA: Commentary on the Vedanta Sutras, 310

THE WAY OF DEVOTION 322

The Teachers 327

NARADA: Aphorisms on Devotion, 327

KAPILA: The Purana of the Lord, 331

LOKACHARYA: The Triad of Categories, 337

Hymns' in Sanskrit 340 Devotion Alone Essential, 341; The Lord's Incarnation, 341; The

Lord's Name, 342; The Lord's Compassion, 342; Serving the Lord,

343; Laying All Burdens on the Lord and Surrendering to His Grace,

344

The Songs of the Saints of Medieval Hinduism 345

TIRUNAVUKKARASHU: 348

JNANASAMBANDHA, 348: The Lord's Names, 349; The Lord Is Every-

thing, 349

MANIKKAVACHAKAR; 349

SUNDARAMURTI; 349

POIHAI, BHftTAM, AND PEY: 350

NAMMALVAR: The Lord As Lover, 350; The God with Form and

Beyond Form, 351 PERIYALVAR OR VISHNUCHITTA : 351

TIRUMANGAIMANNAR: The Lord's Name Narayana, 351

BASAVARAJA: 352

PURANDARADASA: 352

JNANADEVA OR JNANESHVARA: 353

TUKARAM: 353

MIRABAI: 354

LALLA: 354

KABIR: 355

SURDAS: 357

TULASIDAS: Where the Lord Dwells, 358

SHANKARADEVA: 359

RAMAPRASAD: 359

An Anonymous Bhajan Song, 360

TYAGARAJA: 360

Islam in Medieval India 3^2

Chapter XIV: The Foundations of Medieval Islam 364

ISLAM AS REVEALED IN THE QUR JAN AND THE SUNNA 365

UNORTHODOX ISLAM 3^7

THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 37

The Corning of Islam to India 375

FUNDAMENTALS OF MUSLIM FAITH 37^

The Legacy of Al-Ghazall 383

Muslim Orthodoxy in India 3^5

Piety: The Key to Paradise, 386; Theology: The Perfection of Faith,

388; Propaganda: The Indian Proof, 393

[xvii]

The Shari'a or Holy Law of Islam 395 The Bases of Jurisprudence, 397; Guidance in the Holy Law, 400

Chapter XV: The Mystics 404

SUFISM IN INDIA DURING THE SULTANATE PERIOD 410 The Love of God, 411; Contemplation, 411; Seeking the Path, 413 Renunciation, 414

The Quest for God the Beloved and for Knowledge of God 415 Repentance, 415; The Steps of a Disciple, 415; The Final Stage, 417

The Preservation of God's Transcendence at the Supreme Stage of

Mystic Experience 417 Subsistence and Annihilation, 418; True Contemplation Is Ineffable,

422

Sufi Acceptance of Orthodox Formalist Islam 423 Orthodox Practice and Spiritual Experience Both Necessary, 423; The

Superiority of the Prophets Over the Saints, 425; The Morals of the

Heart, 426

Chapter XVI' Religious Tension Under the Mughals 429

AKBAR'S RELIGIOUS OUTLOOK 430 The Discussion in the Hall of Worship, 432; The Divine Faith, 436

DARA SHIKOH AND PANTHEISM 437 Data Shikoh and the Mystic Path, 438; The Upanishads: God's Most Perfect Revelation, 439

THE REACTION AGAINST PANTHEISTIC MYSTICISM 44! Mystic Union With God Is Only Subjective, 442; The Sharfa Is the True Religious Way, 444; Revelation and Inspiration Reconciled, 445; Against Rulers Misled by Wicked Ulama, 447

SHAH WALI-ULLAH 448

Legal Interpretation, 449; Shah Wall-Ullah and Mysticism, 453

Chapter XVII: The Muslim Ruler in India 455

The Final End of Human Society Is the Worhip of God, 458; Proph- ets and Kings, 459; Obedience to the Sultan Is Commanded by God,

462; Kingship Is Incompatible With Religious Ideals, 462; The War Between Good and Evil, 468; Man's Opposing Qualities and Their

"Political" Implications, 469; The Duties and Responsibilities of the

True King, 470; Justice Is Indispensable to Temporal Rulership, 483;

Rulership Is a Sacred Trust, 485; The Selection of Officials, 487; The

Importance of Consultation, 490; Organizing the Government, 491; The Army, 494; The Perfect Rule, 495; Abu'l Fazl's Theory of Ruler-

ship, 496; The Declaration of Akbar's Status As a Mujtahid, 499

Chapter XVIII: The Ideal Social Order 501

The Four-Class Division of Society, 503; Social Precedence, 505; Di-

vine Origin of the "Division of Labor," 506; Rulers to Preserve the

Social Order Willed by God, 508

Chapter XIX: The Importance of the Study of History 5 1 1

The Study of History As an Integral Support of the Orthodox Mus-

lim Conception of World Order, 513; Historical Literature in the

Service of Autocracy, 519

Indie Word List 521

Index 525

Map: India before 1200, page 37

[xix]

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE

Brahmanism

PREHISTORIC PERIOD

B.C. .2700-1700 Indus Valley civilization and height of Harappa Culture,

c. 1500-1200 Aryan invasions of the Indian subcontinent; composition of

the earliest hymns of the Rig Veda.

VEDIC PERIOD

.1200-900 Composition of the Rig Veda.

.900 The great war depicted in the Mahabhdrata epic.

.900-500 Period of later Vedas, Brahmanas, and early Upanishads. c.8oo Aryans reach eastern Bihar and Bengal, c.6oo End of Brahmana period.

Jainism and Buddhism

B,C. 817 Traditional date of the birth of the Jain savior Parshva-

natha.

.563-483 [or, 558-478] Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha,

.542-490 Bimbisara, king of Magadha.

.490-458 Ajatashatru, king of Magadha.

.480 First Buddhist Council at Rajagriha.

.468 [or, 487, 477] Death of Vardhamana Mahavlra.

327-325 Invasion by Alexander of Macedon.

MAURYA PERIOD

.322-298 [or, 317-293] Chandragupta

.300 Megastheiies, Greek ambassador of Seleucus Nicator visits court of Chandragupta.

.298-273 Bindusara.

.273-237 [or, 269-232; 268-233] Ashoka.

.247-207 King Devanampiya Tissa of Ceylon converted to Bud- dhism by Thera Mahinda.

c.200-200 A.D. Period of greatest Buddhist and Jain influence in India.

.190 Greek Kingdoms in North-West India*

.185 [or, 183] End of dynasty*

AGE OF INVASIONS

A.D.

0.185-173 [or, 183-171] Shunga Dynasty. 0.185-149 Pushyamitra Shunga.

0.170-165 Yueh-chi (Iranians) invade India.

0.150 Milinda (Gk. Menander), greatest of Indo-Greek kings.

.90 Shakas invade North-West India.

c.early ist century Kushanas invade India.

0.79 [or, 82] Division of Jains into Shvetambara and Digambara sects.

.78-101 C.IOO-200

.200-400

.400-500

.454

,500-1000

.600-700

.700-800

.770-810

.900-1000

.1192

Hinduism

B.C. C.500-500 A.D.

.300

C.IOO-IOO A.D.

A.D. C.IOO-200

C.20O-40O

Kanishka.

Rise of Mahayana Buddhism. Ashvaghosha's Buddhaca-

nta. Prominence of Madhyamika School of Nagarjuna (until 5th century).

Kundakunda, Jain teacher of Digambara sect.

Mahayana philosophers Asanga and Vasubandhu. Found-

ing of great Buddhist monastery at Nalanda.

Writing of Jain oral tradition at Council at Valabhl in

Saurashtra.

Prominence of Mahayana Buddhist School of Yogachara or Vijnanavada,

Appearance of Tantricism in organized Buddhism.

Buddhism spreads to Nepal and Tibet.

Buddhist King Dharmapala rules in Bihar and Bengal.

Sahajayana or Sahajiya Tantric School marks last phase of Buddhism in India.

Muslim defeat of Hindus under Prithivi Raj. Buddhism

disappears as an organized religious force in India.

Period of Hindu lawbooks, epics, and development of the

six orthodox systems of philosophy.

Earliest core of Kautilya's Artha Sastra.

Composition of Bhagavad Gita.

Early law code of Yajnavalkya. Bharata's Treatise on Dramaturgy.

GUPTA PEB.IOD

.300-500

.300-888

Ishvarakrishna's Santyya Kansas. Christian community

of the Nestorian (Syrian) sect in existence at Cochin in

South India.

Pallava rulers of Kanchi in South India.

[ni]

0.319 [or 3*83 32o]~335 Chandragupta I.

0.335-376 Samudragupta.

0.376-415 Chandragupta II.

0400-500 Vatsyayana's Aphorisms on Love.

0.405 Fa-hsien, Chinese pilgrim arrives in Magadha.

0.454 First Huna invasion.

0.495 Second Huna invasion.

0.540 End of Gupta dynasty. c'55~753 [ r 757] Kingdom of Western Chalukyas in Deccan.

606-647 Ruk ^ King Harsha of Kanauj in North India.

0.629-645 Chinese pilgrim Hsiian-tsang visits India.

0.630-970 Eastern Chalukyas in Deccan.

MEDIEVAL INDIA

0.700-800 Tamil saint Mamkkavachakar in Mathurai. Dandin, San- skrit author and rhetorician.

0.760-1142 Palas of Bihar and Bengal.

0.788-820 Traditional dates of Shankara.

0.800-900 "Bhagavata Purana. Policy of SAufya. Jinasena's Great

Legend (Mahdpurdna). Sundaramurti, Shaiva Ndyandr of South India, Vamana and Anandavardhana, Hindu rhetoricians and aesthetic philosophers.

0.907-1310 [or, 0.850-1267] Chola Empire at Tanjore.

0.973-1189 Second Chalukya dynasty in Western and Central Dec-

can.

c.rooo-1100 Abhinavagupta. Yamuna Acharya's (Tamil Alavandar) Agamapramanya. Saraha's Dohatysa. Rise of Hindu Tantricism.

c.io 18-1055 King Bhoja of Malwa.

c.noo-1200 Mammata's KavyaprafySsa. Basavaraja founds Vlrashaiva

movement in South India.

0.1137 Death of Ramanuja*

0.1197-1276 [or, 1199-1278] Madhva Acharya.

0.1200-1300 Sharngadcva's treatise on music, Sangitaratnafyra. Lo-

kacharya's Triad of Categories,

1216-1327 Pandyas of Mathura.

0.1275-1296 Jnaneshvara's Jndnefoari.

0.1300-1400 Lalla, poetess of Kashmir.

1336-1565 Vijayanagara, last great Hindu kingdom in India.

0.1420 [or, 1550] Mira BIT, Rajput poetess.

1440-1518 Kabir.

Shankaradeva, Vaishnava saint of Assam.

c.1475 [or, 14791-1531 Vallabha, Vcdanta philosopher. .1480-1564 Purandaradasa, poet-saint of Karnataka.

0.1485-1533 Chaitanya of Bengal.

0.1500-1600 Surdas, blind poet of Agra. Vadiraja's Krsnastuti and

Haryasfafa. c. 1532-1623 Tulasi Das.

0.1542 St. Francis Xavier arrives in India.

0.1609-1649 [or, 1598-1649] Tukarama, Maharashtra poet-saint. 0.1700-1800 Baladeva, Vaishnava mystic in Bengal.

.1718-1775 Ramaprasad in Bengal,

.1767 [or, 17591-1847 Tyagaraja, saint-musician of South India.

Islam in Medieval India

.570-632 Life and mission of Muhammad the Prophet. 711-715 Conquest of Sind by the Arabs under Muhammad ibn Qasim. 962 Foundation of Turkish principality of Ghaznln.

988 Capture of Kabul by Sabuktigin of Ghaznln.

999-1026 Mahmud of Ghaznln raids India. 102 1 Foundation of Ghaznavid principality at Lahore.

1040 Battle of Dandanqan. Ghaznavids lose bulk of empire to Saljuqs. 1151 Burning of Ghaznln by Jahan-Suz. Rise of principality of Ghor. 1 186 Ghorids capture Lahore. End of Ghaznavid principality. 1192 Ghond defeat of Prithivi Raj. Delhi becomes Ghorid headquar-

ters in India.

DELHI SULTANATE

1211-1236 Reign of lltutmish, first founder-sultan of Delhi.

1266-1287 Reign of Balban, consolidator of Delhi sultanate.

1296-1316 Reign of Ala al-din KhaljI. Imperial phase of Delhi sultanate.

1306-1310 Conquest of South India by Delhi. Foundation of independent Bahmam sultanate in the Deccan.

1325-1351 Sultan Muhammad ibn Tughluq, patron of historian and political theorist Barni.

1351-1388 Reign of Delhi sultan, Flruz Shah Tughluq. End of imperial

phase of Delhi sultanate.

1398-1399 Tlmur's invasion of India and sack of Delhi. Rise of independent

"provincial" Muslim principalities. Probable birth of Kabir.

1451-1526 Lodi sultanate of Delhi.

1469 Birth of Guru Nanak, founder of Sikhism.

1504 Babur occupies Kabul.

[ xxiii ]

MUGHAL EMPIRE

1526 First battle of Panipat. Mughals displace Lodis as rulers of Delhi and Agra.

1540 Mughal ruler, Humayun, expelled from India by Sher Shah Sur.

1555 Humayun recovers Delhi.

1556 Accession of Akbar.

1569-1586 Mughal conquest of Chitor, Gujarat. Bengal, Kashmir.

1582 Promulgation of Din-i-Ilahi, Akbar J

s "Divine Faith."

io~oo Charter of incorporation granted to the East India Company. 1605-1627 Reign of Jahanglr.

1627-1658 Reign of Shah Jahan.

1651 Foundation of East India Company's factory at Hugli.

1657-1658 War of Succession between Dara Shikoh and Aurangzib. 1707 Birth of Shah Wali-Ullah. Death of Aurangzib.

1739 Sack of Delhi by Nadir Shah.

1757 Battle of Plassey.

[xxiv]

BRAHMANISM

Brahmanism, while not necessarily representing the most ancient religion of the Indian subcontinent, is that system of belief and ritual practice to

which Indians have, historically, looked back as the source of their re-

ligious traditions. Whether in later Hinduism, which tenaciously holds

to much of the Brahmanical tradition, or in Buddhism, which rejects much of it, there is presupposed this highly conscious and articulate cult, the central feature of a way of life made known through the ages by the earliest body of formal literature, the Veda.

As seen today, the earliest religious thought in India is known or de- duced from archaeological evidence, such as seals, figurines, tablets, and

other artifacts, belonging to a pre-Aryan civilization which existed in the

valley of the Indus River during the latter part of the third millennium

B.C. The only conclusions which may be drawn with any certainty, how-

ever, from materials associated with the culture uncovered at the site of

Harappa, are a preoccupation with fertility symbols (e.g., terra-cotta

figurines of pregnant females, stone phallic symbols, and the like) and

the worship of a divinity similar to the god Shiva, the ascetic par excel-

lence of historic Hinduism, who is frequently associated with a bull and

is also often represented by a phallic symbol. Besides representations of

fertility symbols, which imply the existence of a Mother or Earth Goddess

cult, and the divinity reminiscent of Shiva, the Indus civilization also

seemed to attach religious significance to certain animals, such as the

tiger, buffalo, crocodile, elephant, and even multiheaded monsters and

hybrid creatures, as well as trees and auspicious symbols, such as the

swastika. Some seals point to religious motifs found in Mesopotamia, such as the Gilgamesh legend, the ibex, trefoil designs, and others, and

suggest a possible origin of religious ideas even earlier than the datable

artifacts of the Indus Valley civilization. Though it is difficult to establish

a definite continuity in the development of religious ideas in India dating

from the Indus civilization to modern times, it is, however, possible to

distinguish a clearly non-Aryan which may or may not be pre-Aryan source for many of the concepts which characterize that religion which

is known as "Hinduism' 1

in India today.

A second, and perhaps somewhat more significant, source of Indian reli- gious ideas was introduced by the Aryans who invaded India from the

northwest about 1500 B.C., or earlier, and who may themselves have been

responsible for the destruction of the Indus civilization. These Aryan invaders brought with them religious concepts consisting mainly of a

pantheon of naturalistic or functional gods, a ritualistic cult involving

the sacrificial use of fire and an exhilarating drink called soma, as well as

the rudiments of a social order. To a certain extent their religion derived from primitive Indo-European times; that is to say, some of the gods mentioned in the scriptures of these people are found to have mythological

counterparts in other Indo-European traditions, particularly those of

Iran, Greece, and Rome, and thus indicate a common origin of such gods in antiquity. In addition to such specifically Indo-European concepts, the

religion of the Aryans involved other ideas which may have developed in the course of their eastward migrations or may have resulted from the assimilation of indigenous religious notions encountered in the Indian

subcontinent itself, From a sociological standpoint, the religion intro-

duced by the Aryan invaders was limited to persons of Aryan birth,

though some non-Aryan beliefs seem to have been accepted in a modified

form or at least tolerated by the priesthood of the conquering Aryans. The religion thus developed by the Aryans from the time of their

invasion of India until roughly 500 B.C. was embodied in a collection of

hymns, ritual texts, and philosophical treatises, called the Veda. From

Aryan times down to the present, Hindus have regarded the Veda as a

body of eternal and revealed scripture. Its final authority is accepted to

some extent by all Hindus as embodying the essential truths of Hinduism.

The earliest portion of the Veda consists of four metrical hymnals, known as Samhitas, being the Rig Veda, Yajur Vedat Sdma Vedat and Aiharva

Veda. The earliest of these texts is that of the Rig Veda, and it is this col- lection of hymns (re) which constitutes the earliest source of knowledge

concerning the Aryan religion. The most recent of these canonical collec- tions is the Atharva Veda, which is somewhat more representative of the

popular religion of Vedic times than are the other Vedas, which are more

sacerdotal in character* The metrical hymns and chants of these texts gave

rise to elaborate ritualistic prose interpretations called Brdhmanas and

Aranyafos ("forest books"). Toward the end of the Vedic period, the earlier emphasis on ritual was translated symbolically. Thus, Vedic ideas

of sacrifice and mythology were reinterpreted in terms of the macrocosm

and microcosm. Cosmological inquiries of some of the later hymns of the

Rig Veda were extended and an investigation of the human soul was undertaken. The speculations and interpretations along these lines were formulated by various philosophical schools in treatises collectively called

Upanishads. Thus, the whole of Vedic literature consists of four Vedas

or Samhitas, several expository ritual texts attached to each of these Vedas

called Brahmanas, and speculative treatises, or Upanishads, concerned

chiefly with a mystical interpretation of the Vedic ritual and its relation

to man and the universe.

Although the relationship between the various deities of the Rig Veda

is not always clear, and different deities often personifications of natural

forces may each in turn be regarded as the supreme god, nevertheless Indra (often referred to as c\a deva "One God") stands out as pre-eminent and the core myth of the Rig Veda recounts his deeds. In terms of this

central myth, creation proceeded when Indra, the champion of the celestial

gods, slew a serpent demon, Vritra, who enclosed the waters and the sun

requisite for human life. When Indra split open the belly of this demon the essentials of creation moisture, heat, light were released and cosmic

order (rita) was established under the administration of the god Varuna.

Gods and men then had specific functions (yrata) to perform in accordance with this cosmic order. After death those individuals who had fulfilled

their obligations under the cosmic order went to a heavenly realm presided

over by Yama, the first mortal. Two mythical dogs guarded the righteous on the path to this region, but the sinful were fettered and, unprotected, fell prey to various demons.

Cult practices developed an elaborate ritual based on a fire sacrifice,

personified as the god Agni, and included various oblations of clarified

butter and the production of the soma juice, deified as the god Soma,

from an unidentified plant known also from Iranian sources. This ritual

naturally necessitated a highly specialized priesthood. Just as the crack-

ling of the sacrificial fire was viewed as the voice of Agni, the priest

par excellence, so, too, great significance was attached to the chanting of

hymns and invocations by the human priesthood. Later the sacrifice itself

[3]

was viewed cosmologically and the correct performance of the sacrifice pos- sessed a magical potency which could coerce even the gods. This magical

power inherent in the sacrificial prayers thus developed into spells, called

br&hman. He who recited them was a "pray-er" (brahman), or one related to prayer (brdhmana). From this concept developed the brahman, or

priestly, caste.

The spiritualization o prayer (brahman) and its relation to the gods and the universe through ritual sacrifice constitute the central conception of this early phase of Indian religious thought. When the Upanishads coupled this notion with an investigation of the individual self (atman)

an idea closely allied to the earlier personification and deification of

"Wind" or "Air" (Vayu) and referring to human "breath" the brahman

came to be viewed as a universal principle. Thus, an essential feature of

Vedic ritual, the "prayer" itself, was given cosmological and cosmogonic

implications and became the principal subject of later Indian philosophical

inquiry. It is on the basis of these ritualistic Vedic concepts that the ear-

liest definable religious thought of India is identified as Brahmanism.

R. WEILER

r .

e

CHAPTER I

THE COSMIC ORDER IN THE VEDIC HYMNS

Long before they entered into India the Vedic Aryans must have started

producing prayers and songs (mantras) relating to their religion. The character of this religion was determined by the kind of life they had

been living. At that early stage of their cultural history, the Vedic Aryans lived close to nature as a part of it, rather than apart from it. It was,

therefore, the vastness and brilliance of nature, its blessings and maledic-

tions, and, above all, the inexorable and subtly operating law which

regulated all its manifestations, that dominated their religious ideology. The earliest hymns of the Vedic Aryans, accordingly, pertained to this cosmic religion, to which they gave expression through such mythological

concepts as those of the divine parents, Heaven and Earth, the cosmic law

(rita), and the sustainer of that law, Varuna. Side by side with this cosmic

religion, the Vedic Aryans had also developed a kind of fire worship. The cosmic religion of the Vedic Aryans tended toward anthropo- morphism, but it was not idolatrous. Fke was, therefore, regarded as the

liaison between gods and men.

Sun worship, which also figures prominently in the Veda, is, in a

sense, just an aspect of fire worship; but it has greatly influenced many

mythological concepts in the Veda with the result that divinities like

Vishnu, who had originally little to do with the solar phenomenon, came

to be regarded as sun-gods at some stage in the evolution of their

character.

In the course of time there occurred a change in the conditions of life

of the Vedic Aryans and consequently in their religious ideology. They set out toward India on campaigns of conquest and colonization, fought

on their way a series of battles with several antagonistic tribes, whom

they collectively called Dasas, and finally emerged as victorious colonizers

of that part of India which was known as the land of seven rivers, the

[5]

present Punjab* In this epoch-making warlike enterprise the Vedic Aryans were apparently led by their heroic leader, Indra, whom they soon made into a god. Gradually history came to be transformed into mythology. In this process several elements were derived from an ancient primitive

myth of the Hero and the Dragon. And later the Vedic Aryan war-god came to be invested with a cosmic character. This hero-religion even-

tually dominated the hymns produced by the Vedic poets, priests, and

warriors.

Perhaps with a view to counteracting the growing influence of a

mythology glorifying military prowess, the Vedic poets and priests deified

the magical potency of their prayers and priestcraft in the forms of

Brahmanaspati (Lord of Prayer), who is in some respects modeled after

Indra, and Vach, the goddess of Speech or Holy Word. He embodies prayer (brahman) itself, as well as ritual activity in general. Moreover, in the

person of Brahmanaspati ritual and cosmological aspects are blended. He is often associated frith Agni, the sacrifice personified, on the one hand,

and Indra, the later cosmogonic principal (tad efom), on the other. Thus

the hymns dedicated to this god represent the emergence of prayer (brah-

man) as an extremely significant concept in early Vedic thought. It is not

at all surprising then that the importance of ritual in Vedic religion should

give rise to the central conception of later Vedic philosophical speculation

regarding the true nature of the cosmological concept brahman and its re-

lation to the human self.

Like many other primitive communities, the Vedic Aryans believed that the creation of the universe and the procreation of the human race were the result of a primeval sacrifice, namely of the self-immolation of a cosmic

being. This cosmic being is represented in the Veda as the male, Purusha,

Apart from this concept of the primeval cosmic sacrifice as the starting

point of creation, there are represented in the Veda other significant cur-

rents of cosmogonic thought- According to one of them the source of all

powers and existences, divine as well as earthly, was conceived as the

"golden germ" (hiranyagarbha) a form assumed by an unnamed Ur-god. This "golden germ" is the precursor of the universal egg (brahma^a) of

the later cosmogony. Another cosmogonic theory is far more profound. It

seeks to controvert the view that the world has evolved out of "nonbeing"

(asat) . At the same time this theory asserts that the source of this world can-

not be, strictly speaking, characterized as "being" (sat). In the beginning there was neither "nonbeing" nor "being," nevertheless That One (tad c\am) breathed, though breathless, through its own inherent power. Be- sides it nothing existed. This idea may suggest the mythological creation of the world by Indra, the One God (e\a deva), who destroyed the cosmic demon Vritra. Finally, in the Atharva Veda both "being" and "nonbeing" have brahman as their source.

Side by side with the ritual, eschatology, mythology, and cosmogony of the upper classes among the Vedic Aryans there had also existed a

religion o the non-Aryan subject peoples. This religion comprised a variety of charms, imprecations, and exorcistic practices which were primarily intended "to appease, to bless, and to curse." The motif recurring through- out this religion was, of course, magic,

Agni

The discovery of fire constitutes a significant landmark in the history of hu- man civilization and it is not unnatural that fire should have been held in

great awe from early times. The Aryans, however, developed the worship of

Agni or Fire to an extraordinary degree. The god Agni is the personification and deification especially of the sacri-

ficial fire. He is the priest of the gods and the god of the priests. In the Rig Veda he is second only to Indra in prominence. He has three forms: terrestrial as fire, atmospheric as lightning, and celestial as the sun. Thus, his function as

the sacrificial fire of the priests serves as a kind of liaison between man and the

heavenly gods specifically he carries the oblations which the brahman priests

pour into the fire to the gods. The correct propitiation of Agni in the Vedic ritual was thus of considerable importance to Aryan man.

[From Rig Veda, i.i]

I extol Agni, the household priest, the divine minister of the sacrifice,

the chief priest, the bestower of blessings.

May that Agni, who is to be extoled by ancient and modern seers, con- duct the gods here.

Through Agni may one gain day by day wealth and welfare which is

glorious and replete with heroic sons.

O Agni, the sacrifice and ritual which you encompass on every side, that indeed goes to the gods.

May Agni, the chief priest, who possesses the insight of a sage, who

[7]

is truthful, widely renowned, and divine, come here with the gods. O Agni, O Angiras ["messenger"], whatever prosperity you bring to

the pious is indeed in accordance with your true function.

O Agni, illuminator o darkness, day by day we approach you with holy thought bringing homage to you,

Presiding at ritual functions, the brightly shining custodian of the cos-

mic order (rita), thriving in your own realm, O Agni, be easy of access to us as a father to his son. Join us for our

wellbeing.

Heaven and Earth

As the divine parents, Heaven and Earth are symbolic of the vastness, bright- ness, and bounty of nature. The myth of their conjugal union dates from primi- tive Indo-European times and probably represents the earliest Vedic concep- tion of creation based on an indissoluble connection of the two worlds, celestial

and terrestrial.

Note the constant emphasis in these prayers on the hope of obtaining material

rewards.

[From Rig Veda, 6.70]

Rich in ghee [i.e., clarified butter considered as fertilizing rain], exceed-

ingly glorious among beings, wide, broad, honey-dispensing, with beau-

tiful forms, Heaven and Earth are, in accordance with Varuna's cosmic

law (dharma), held asunder, both ageless and rich in seed.

Nonexhausting, many-streamed, full of milk, and of pure ordinance, the two dispense ghee for the pious one. You two, O Heaven and Earth, ruling over this creation, pour down for us the seed [rainj which is wholesome to mankind*

The mortal, who, for the sake of a straightforward course of life, has offered sacrifice unto you, O Heaven and Earth, O Sacrificial Bowls, he succeeds; he is reborn through his progeny in accordance with the cosmic

law. Your poured semen becomes beings of manifold forms, each fulfilling his own function. With ghee are covered Heaven and Earth, glorious in ghee, mingled

with ghee, growing in ghee. Wide and broad, these two have precedence at the time of the selection of officiating priests* The wise ones invoke these two with a view to asking them for blessings.

May Heaven and Earth, honey-dropping, honey-dispensing, with hon-

m

eyed courses, shower down honey for us, bringing unto the gods sacrifice and wealth, and for us great glory, reward, and heroic strength.

May Heaven and Earth swell our nourishment, the two who are father and mother, all-knowing, doing wondrous work. Communicative and

wholesome unto all, may Heaven and Earth bring unto us gain, reward, and riches.

Varuna

Varuna is the administrator of the cosmic law (rita, dharma), which regulates all activities in this world, big and small. It is he, for instance, who has spread out the earth and set the sun in motion, and who pours out the rain but sees to it that the one ocean is not filled to overflowing by many rivers. He is, there- fore, rightly called the world-sovereign. Naturally enough, this upholder of

cosmic order is also regarded as the lord of human morality. It is the function of Varuna to ensure that there occurs no transgression of the law, cosmic or human.

[From Rig Veda, 5.85]

Unto the sovereign lord sing a sublime and solemn prayer (brahman), one dear unto glorious Varuna, who has spread out the earth, as the butcher does the hide, by way of a carpet for the sun.

Varuna has extended the air above the trees; he has put strength in

horses, milk in cows, will-power in hearts, fire in waters, the sun in the

heaven, and soma upon the mountain.

Varuna poured out the leather-bag, opening downward, upon the

heaven and the earth and the mid-region. Thereby does the lord of the

whole creation moisten thoroughly the expanse of earth, as rain does the

corn.

He moistens the broad earth and the heaven. When Varuna would have it milked [i.e., would shower rain] then, indeed, do the mountains

clothe themselves with clouds and the heroes, showing off their might,

loosen those clothes [i.e., disperse the clouds].

This great magic-work (maya) of renowned spiritual Varuna will I

proclaim loudly; of Varuna, who, standing in the mid-region, has meas-

ured the earth with the sun as with a measuring rod.

No one, indeed, dare impugn this great magic-work of the wisest god, namely, that the many glistening streams, pouring forth, do not fill up one ocean with water.

[9]

If we, O Varuna, have offended against a friend, befriended through Aryaman or through Mitra [i.e., gods of hospitality and friendship], or

if we have offended against an all-time comrade or a brother or an inmate

whether belonging to us, O Varuna, or a stranger do you remove that offense from us.

If we have deceived, like gamblers in a game of dice, and whether we

really know it or not, all that do you unbind from us, like loosened fetters, O god. Thus may we be dear unto you, O Varuna.

Dawn

In hymns such as this we find most movingly expressed the profound awe and

sensitivity to the beauties of nature which underlie much of Vedic mythology. Here, however, there is less of the tendency to personify and deify natural forces

which is so prominent a feature of Vedic religious thought, than a majestic

description of the actual dawn itself in metaphorical language, giving us an

insight into the cosmic harmony of man and nature. While later Indian

philosophies often viewed nature and the visible world as in some sense evil

or unreal, this loving appreciation of nature is characteristic not only of the

more optimistic, life-affirming attitude of the Vedas but also of an important strain in Indian literature from the early epics and plays of Kalidasa down to the modern works of Rabindranath Tagore. We have chosen the excellent metrical translation of Professor Macdonell

which suggests the stately rhythm and cumulative power of the original.

[From A, A. Macdonell, Hymns from the Rigveda, p. 38, hymn 1.113]

This light has come, of all the lights the fairest:

The brilliant brightness has been born effulgent.

Urged onward for god Savitar's uprising,

Night now has yielded up her place to morning.

Bringing a radiant calf she comes resplendent: To her the Black One has givfen up her mansions*

Akin, immortal, following each other,

Morning and Night fare on, exchanging colors.

The sisters* pathway is the same, unending: Taught by the gods alternately they tread it.

Fair-shaped, of form diverse, yet single-minded,

Morning and Night clash not, nor do they tarry.

f ml

Bright leader of glad sounds she shines effulgent:

Widely she has unclosed for us her portals.

Pervading all the world she shows us riches :

Dawn has awakened every living creature.

Men lying on the ground she wakes to action : Some rise to seek enjoyment of great riches, Some, seeing little, to behold the distant:

Dawn has awakened every living creature.

One for dominion, and for fame another; Another is aroused for winning greatness; Another seeks the goal of varied nurture:

Dawn has awakened every living creature.

Daughter of Heaven, she has appeared before us, A maiden shining in resplendent raiment. Thou sovereign lady of all earthly treasure, Auspicious Dawn, shine here today upon us. . ,

Indra

Indra is the most prominent divinity in the Rig Veda. He is an atmospheric god often identified with thunder and wielding a weapon, called vajra ("thunder-

bolt"). As such he destroys the demons of drought and darkness and heralds

the approach of the rain so vital to life in India. In the Veda, the most significant

myth which recounts his deeds centers about his slaying of the demon Vritra, who encloses the waters (i.e., the rains) and the sun, and who is the very em- bodiment of cosmic chaos. Historically considered, this myth may represent the conquest of India by the Aryans inspired by a warrior-champion, Indra.

From a mythological standpoint, the destruction of Vritra and the subsequent release of the essentials of life water, heat, light may be allegorically regarded as an early cosmogonic theory.

[From Rig Veda, 1.32]

Indra's heroic deeds, indeed, will I proclaim, the first ones which the

wielder of the vajra accomplished. He killed the dragon, released the

waters, and split open the sides of the mountains.

He killed the dragon lying spread out on the mountain; for him

Tvashtar fashioned the roaring vajra. Like bellowing cows, the waters,

gliding, have gone down straightway to the ocean.

Showing off his virile power he chose soma; l from the three \adru\as

2

he drank of the extracted soma. The bounteous god took up the missile, the vajra; he killed the first-born among the dragons,. When you, O Indra, killed the first-born among the dragons and further

overpowered the wily tricks (maya) of the tricksters, bringing forth, at

that very moment, the sun, the heaven, and the dawn since then, indeed, have you not come across another enemy. Indra killed Vntra, the greater enemy, the shoulderless one, with his

mighty and fatal weapon, the vajra. Like branches of a tree lopped off

with an axe, the dragon lies prostrate upon the earth.

For, like an incapable fighter, in an intoxicated state, he [Vritra] had

challenged the great hero [Indra], the mighty overwhelmer, the drinker

of soma to the dregs. He did not surmount the onslaught of his fatal

weapon. Indra's enemy, broken [-nosed], 8 was completely crushed.

Footless and handless he gave battle to Indra. He [Indra] struck him with the vajra upon the back. The castrated bull, seeking to become a

compeer of the virile bull, Vritra lay shattered in many places. Over him, who lay in that manner like a shattered reed

4 flowed the

waters for the sake of man.6 At the feet of the very waters, which Vritra

had [once] enclosed with his might, the dragon [now] lay [prostrate]. Vritra's mother had her vital energy ebbing out; Indra had hurled his

fatal weapon at her. The mother lay above, the son below; Danu 6

lay

down like a cow with her calf.

In the midst of the water-streams, which never stood still nor had any

resting place, the body lay. The waters flow in all directions over Vritra's

secret place; Indra's enemy lay sunk in long darkness.

With the Dasa as their lord 7 and with the dragon as their warder, the

waters remained imprisoned, like cows held by the Pani. 8 Having killed

1 Presumably the juice of soma was originally used for ritualistic purposes only. In view

of the peculiar strength-giving, entrancing properties of the drink, however, the war-lord

Indra later used it to inspirit himself for his heroic deeds. * Kadruk,as are traditionally explained as the three days in a six-day soma-sacrirlce. Perhaps

the word originally meant the three wooden bowls from which soma was drunk. * Or, the breaker of chariots,

* Or, bull.

* Manu. The exact meaning is unclear. * Vritra*s mother.

7 Literally ''having the demon as their lord" (ddwpatnis}. After Indra's victory over the

demon, the waters became ttrya-ptunis (Rig Veda, 10.43,8), that is, "having the Aryan* as their lord." Apart from its mythological significance, this fact may have an historical basis in the conflict of the Aryan invaders with indigenous tribal people. 'That is, the leader of the Panfo, a gypsy-like, nomadic, trading people, who stole the

cows belonging to the Aryan*.

Vritra, [Indra] threw open the cleft o waters which had been closed.

You became the hair of a horse's tail, O Indra, when he [Vritra] struck at your sharp-pointed vajra the one god (e\a deva) though you were.

You won the cows, O brave one, you won soma; you released the seven rivers, so that they should flow.

Neither did lightning nor thunder, nor mist nor hailstorm, which he

[Vritra] had spread out, prove efficacious when Indra and the dragon fought. And the bounteous god remained victorious for all time to come.

Whom did you see, O Indra, as the avenger of the dragon, that fear entered into your heart, after you had killed the dragon, and frightened,

you crossed nine and ninety rivers and the aerial regions like the fal-

con? *

Indra, who wields the vajra in his hand, is the lord of what moves and what remains rested, of what is peaceful and what is horned.

10 He alone rules over the tribes as their king; he encloses them as does a rim the

spokes.

The Primeval Sacrifice

The origin of the universe from a primeval sacrifice, in which a cosmic being offers himself as an oblation, is not unknown in primitive mythological tradi- tions. However, the sacrifice of the male Purusha here is not so much the

primordial sacrifice of a world-giant or the type Ur-mensch found in Norse or

Germanic mythology, as it is a cosmogonic idea based on ritual sacrifice itself

as the origin of the universe. Thus, the nature of the Purusha is a secondary blend of characteristics derived from the Vedic deities Agni, the sacrifice per- sonified and the typical male principle; Surya, the sun; and Vishnu, another

solar deity who embraces earth, atmosphere, and sky. Emphasized here is the

universality of Purusha and his function as the cosmic sacrifice. In this way the ritual sacrifice performed on earth by a priestly class eventually was .translated into terms of cosmological significance by a process identifying microcosmic, with macrocosmic, elements.

This hymn makes the earliest reference to the four social orders, later known as castes. The passage is important in that it emphasizes the magico-ritualistic origin of castes. The brahmans formed the highest social order, the literate

intelligentsia which gave India its priests, thinkers, law-givers, judges, and

ministers of state. The rajanyas, later called kshatriyas or rulers, were the

"Docs this refer to some temporary setback which Indra suffered in his battles with the

Dasas? 10 And, therefore, aggressive.

[13]

second social order, the Indian counterpart of feudal nobility: from this class

were recruited kings, vassals, and warriors. The vaishyas formed the class of

landowners, merchants, and moneylenders, while the shudras, originally those

peoples conquered by the Aryans, were workers, artisans, or serfs.

[From Rig Veda, 10.90]

Thousand-headed Purusha, thousand-eyed, thousand-footed he, having

pervaded the earth on all sides, still extends ten fingers beyond it.

Purusha alone is all this whatever has been and whatever is going to

be. Further, he is the lord of immortality and also of what grows on ac-

count of food.

Such is his greatness; greater, indeed, than this is Purusha, All creatures

constitute but one quarter of him, his three quarters are the immortal in

the heaven.

With his three quarters did Purusha rise up; one quarter of him again remains here. With it did he variously spread out on all sides over what

eats and what eats not.

From him was Viraj u

born, from Viraj the evolved Purusha, He, being

born, projected himself behind the earth as also before it.

When the gods performed the sacrifice with Purusha as the oblation, then the spring was its clarified butter, the summer the sacrificial fuel, and the autumn the oblation.

The sacrificial victim, namely, Purusha, born at the very beginning,

they sprinkled with sacred water upon the sacrificial grass* With him as

oblation the gods performed the sacrifice, and also the Sadhyas [a class of

semidivine beings] and the rishis [ancient seers]. From that wholly offered sacrificial oblation were born the verses [re]

and the sacred chants; from it were born the meters (chandas) ; the sacri-

ficial formula was born from it.12

From it horses were born and also those animals who have double rows

[i.e., upper and lower] of teeth; cows were born from it, from it were born

goats and sheep. When they divided Purusha, in how many different portions did they

arrange him? What became of his mouth, what of hi$ two arms? What were his two thighs and his two feet called?

11 The precise meaning of Viraj is uncertain, Here it seems to represent a kind of cosmic source perhaps the waters themselves from which creation proceeds. "The verses (re), the sacred chants (sama), and the sacrificial formula (yajus) may re-

fer to the three Veda*.

His mouth became the brahman; his two arms were made into the

rajanya; his two thighs the vaishyas; from his two feet the shudra was

born.

The moon was born from the mind, from the eye the sun was born; from the mouth Indra and Agni, from the breath (prana) the wind

(vayu) was born.

From the navel was the atmosphere created, from the head the heaven issued forth; from the two feet was born the earth and the quarters (the cardinal directions) from the ear. Thus did they fashion the worlds.

Seven were the enclosing sticks in this sacrifice, thrice seven were the

fire-sticks made, when the gods, performing the sacrifice, bound down

Purusha, the sacrificial victim.

With this sacrificial oblation did the gods offer the sacrifice. These were

the first norms (dharma) of sacrifice. 13 These greatnesses reached to the

sky wherein live the ancient Sadhyas and gods.

The Origin of the World

In the early Indra creation myth, the demon Vritra had to be slain before creation could proceed. Indra as the personal demiurge brought order out

of chaos (asat); that is to say, he brought about the existent (sat) from the

nonexistent (asat). In later Vedic cosmogonic speculation, the personal creator, Indra as the One God (eJ(a deva) is conceived of as an impersonal creative im-

pulse called That One (tad e\am). When the question arises (vs. i) as to "what enclosed all," the answer is no longer Vritra according to the old myth, but

rather that creation proceeds from a principle motivated by desire outside, or

over and beyond, "being" and "non-being." In terms of this new cosmological interpretation of creation, only the sages were able to fathom in their hearts

the relation of "being" and "nonbeing." The hymn ends on a note of skepticism, which anticipates the questioning mood of the Upanishads "he who is the

highest overseer in heaven, he certainly knows, on the other hand, perhaps he

does not."

[From Rig Veda, 10.129]

Neither not-being nor being was there at that time; there was no air-filled

space nor was there the sky which is beyond it. What enveloped all? And

where? Under whose protection? Wtiat was the unfathomable deep water?

\

"The later sacrifices are modeled after the primeval cosmic sacrifice and are believed to be actually furthering the purpose of that sacrifice by ensuring the proper organization and

functioning of the world and human society.

[15]

Neither was death there, nor even immortality at that time; there was

no distinguishing mark of day and night. That One breathed without

wind in its own special manner. Other than It, indeed, and beyond, there

did not exist anything whatsoever.

In the beginning there was darkness concealed in darkness; all this was

an indistinguishable flood of water. That, which, possessing life-force, was

enclosed by the vacuum, the One, was born through the power of heat

from its austerity.

Upon It rose up, in the beginning, desire, which was the mind's first seed.

Having sought in their hearts, the wise ones discovered, through delibera-

tion, the bond of being and nonbeing.

Right across was their [i.e., the wise ones'] dividing line extended. Did

the below exist then, was there the above? There were the seed-planters, there were the great forces of expansion. Below there was self-impulse, above active imparting.

Who knows it for certain; who can proclaim it here; namely, out of what it was born and wherefrom this creation issued? The gods appeared

only later after the creation of the world. Who knows, then, out of what it has evolved?

Wherefrom this creation has issued, whether he has made it or whether

he has not he who is the superintendent of this world in the highest heaven he alone knows, or, perhaps, even he does not know.

The Brahmachari

The term brahmachari means "going to, or according to, brdhman (the holy word)." Since the prayer or sacred word (brahman) came to be identified with the Vedic hymns or invocations themselves, a brahmachari was regarded as a student of the Veda as well as a disciple of Brahman. In later Hinduism this

remnant of early Brahmanism was preserved as the first prescribed stage

(ashrama) of Aryan life, characterized by studentship under a competent teacher

(guru) or authority on the Vedic texts, and adherence to a vow of celibacy. This

stage itself is called brahrnacharya. In this particular hymn, from the Atharva

Veda, the brahmachari is glorified in a cosmological sense as the sun "clothed

in heat** and "with a long beard" (that is, with many rays), who is the primeval principle of the universe. The heat of the sun and the fervor generated through austerities are both called tapas, often seen as a factor in creation. Thus when Mahatma Gandhi later glorified brahmachctrya, it was as a creative force sub- limated by sexual continence.

[From Atharva Veda, 11.5,1-8, 17-26] r _ri

The Brahmachari travels animating the two hemispheres; the gods be-

come like-minded in him. He sustains earth and heaven; he fills his teacher with fervor.

The fathers, the god-folk, and all the gods collectively follow the

Brahmachari; the six thousand three hundred and thirty-three Gan-

dharvas went after him. He fills all the gods with fervor. When the teacher accepts the Brahmachari as a disciple, he treats him

as an embryo within his own body. He carries him for three nights in his belly; when he is born, the gods assemble to see him. . . . Born prior to Brahman, clothing himself in heat, the Brahmachari

arose with his fervor. From him were born Brahmahood, the highest Brahman, and all the gods together with immortality. The Brahmachari goes forth, kindled by sacred fire-sticks, clothing him-

self with black-antelope skin, consecrated, long-bearded. Within one sin-

gle day does he go from the eastern to the northern ocean; having gath- ered together the worlds, he fashions them repeatedly. The Brahmachari, begetting Brahman, the waters, the world, Prajapati

[Lord of Creatures], the most exalted one, creative force, having become

an embryo in the womb of immortality, indeed, having become Indra, has shattered the demons.

The preceptor fashioned both these hemispheres, the wide and the

deep, namely, earth and heaven. These two the Brahmachari protects with

his fervor; in him the gods become like-minded. . . .

Through Brahmacharya, through fervor, a king protects his kingdom. A teacher through Brahmacharya seeks a Brahmachari for his student. Through Brahmacharya a maiden finds a young husband. Through

Bramacharya a steer or horse strives to obtain food.

Through Brahmacharya, through fervor, the gods dispelled death.

Through Brahmacharya Indra brought heaven to the gods.

Plants, past and future, trees, the year and its seasons were all born

from the Brahmachari.

Animals of the earth and those of heaven, wild and domestic, wingless

and winged, were all born from the Brahmachari. . , .

The Brahmachari fashioned these things on the back of the waters. He

stood in the sea performing austerities. When he has performed ritual

ablution, he shines extensively over the earth, brown and ruddy.

A Charm Against Jaundice

The contents of the Atharva Veda relate mainly to what may be considered

indigenous traditions of popular religion. This religion consists of charms and

imprecations accompanied by certain exorcistic practices, for the proper knowl-

edge of which one has to depend entirely on an ancillary text of the Veda, like

the Kauhfa Sutra. It is needless to add that the principal basis of these practices is symbolic magic.

[From Atharva Veda, 1.22]

Unto the sun let them both go up your heartburn and your yellowness; with the color of the red bull do we envelop you. With red colors do we envelop you for the sake of long life; so that

this person may be free from harm and may become non-yellow. Those cows l that have Rohini [the Red One] as presiding divinity, as

also cows which are red their every form and every power with them

do we envelop you. Into the parrots do we put your yellowness and into the yellow-green

ropanal(d-bird$. Similarly into the turmeric [or yellow wagtail?] do we

deposit your yellowness.