Cognitive psychology margaret w matlin pdf

Cognition

Cognition TENTH

EDITION

Thomas A. Farmer California State University, Fullerton

and

Margaret W. Matlin SUNY Geneseo

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v

Preface xv

1 An Introduction to Cognitive Psychology 1 Chapter Introduction, 1 What Is Cognitive Psychology?, 2 Historical Perspective on the Field, 4

Origins of Cognitive Psychology, 4 Wilhelm Wundt, 4 Early Memory Researchers, 5 William James, 5 Behaviorism, 5 The Gestalt Approach, 6 Frederic Bartlett, 7

Cognitive Revolution, 7 Cognitive Psychology in Present Times, 8

Mind, Brain, and Behavior, 9 Cognitive Science, 9

Artificial Intelligence, 9 Computer Metaphor of the Mind, 10

The Connectionist Approach, 11 Cognitive Neuroscience, 12

Brain Lesions, 13 Positron Emission Tomography (PET Scan), 13 Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging, 14 Event-Related Potential Technique, 14 Magnetoencephalography (MEG), 15

Textbook Overview, 15 Chapter Preview, 16 Themes in the Book, 17

Theme 1: Cognitive processes are active, rather than passive, 17 Theme 2: Cognitive processes are remarkably efficient and accurate, 17 Theme 3: Cognitive processes handle positive information better than negative information, 18 Theme 4: Cognitive processes are interrelated with one another; they do not operate in isolation, 18 Theme 5: Many cognitive processes rely on both bottom-up and top-down processing, 18

How to Use Your Book Effectively, 18 Chapter Outline, 18 Chapter Introductions, 18 Demonstrations, 19 Individual Differences Focus, 19 Application, 20 Section Summaries, 20

Contents

CONTENTSvi

End of Chapter Review Questions, 20 Keywords, 20 Keywords List & Glossary, 20 Recommended Readings, 20

Section Summary Points, 21 Chapter Review Questions, 21 Keywords, 22 Recommended Readings, 22 Answer to Demonstration 1.4, 22

2 Visual and Auditory Recognition 23 Chapter Introduction, 23 Overview of Visual Object Recognition, 24

The Visual System, 24 Organization in Visual Perception, 26 Theories of Visual Object Recognition, 27

Feature-Analysis Theory, 27 The Recognition-by-Components Theory, 29

Top-Down Processing and Visual Object Recognition, 30 Bottom-Up versus Top-Down Processing, 31 Top-Down Processing and Reading, 32 “Smart Mistakes” in Object Recognition, 33

Change Blindness, 33 Inattentional Blindness, 35

Specialized Visual Recognition Processes, 36 Neuroscience Research on Face Recognition, 36 Applied Research on Face Recognition, 37

Speech Perception, 39 Characteristics of Speech Perception, 40

Word Boundaries, 40 Variability in Phoneme Pronunciation, 40 Context and Speech Perception, 41 Visual Cues as an Aid to Speech Perception, 41

Theories of Speech Perception, 42 The Special Mechanism Approach, 42 The General Mechanism Approaches, 43

Section Summary Points, 43 Chapter Review Questions, 44 Keywords, 45 Recommended Readings, 45

3 Attention and Consciousness 46 Chapter Introduction, 46 Overview of Attention, 47

Divided Attention, 47 Selective Attention, 48

Dichotic Listening, 48 The Stroop Effect, 49 Visual Search, 51

Eye Movements in Reading, 53 Overview of Eye Movements in Reading, 53 Selective Attention in Reading, 54

Contents vii

Neuroscience of Attention, 55 The Orienting Attention Network, 56 The Executive Attention Network, 56

Theories of Attention, 57 Early Theories of Attention, 57 Feature-Integration Theory, 57

Consciousness, 59 Thought Suppression, 61 Blindsight, 61

Section Summary Points, 62 Chapter Review Questions, 63 Keywords, 64 Recommended Readings, 64

4 Working Memory 65 Chapter Introduction, 65 Classical Research on Short-Term Memory, 66

Short-Term Memory Capacity Limits, 67 The Brown/Peterson & Peterson Technique, 67 Serial Position Effect, 68 Semantic Similarity of the Items in Short-Term Memory, 69

Atkinson & Shiffrin’s Model of Information Processing, 70 The Turn to Working Memory, 71

Evidence for Components with Independent Capacities, 73 Phonological Loop, 74

Neuroscience Research on the Phonological Loop, 75 Visuospatial Sketchpad, 76

Research on the Visuospatial Sketchpad, 76 Neuroscience Research on the Visuospatial Sketchpad, 77

Central Executive, 77 Characteristics of the Central Executive, 77 The Central Executive and Daydreaming, 78 Neuroscience Research on the Central Executive, 78 Recent Views of the Central Executive, 78

Episodic Buffer, 79 Applications of Working Memory, 80

Working Memory and Academic Performance, 80 Working Memory Abilities in Clinical Populations, 80

Working Memory and Major Depression, 80 Working Memory and ADHD, 81 Working memory and Generalized Anxiety Disorder, 82 Summary, 82

Section Summary Points, 82 Chapter Review Questions, 83 Keywords, 84 Recommended Readings, 84

5 Long-Term Memory 85 Chapter Introduction, 85 Overview of Long-Term Memory, 86 Encoding in Long-Term Memory, 87

Levels of Processing, 87

CONTENTSviii

Levels of Processing and Memory for General Material, 88 Levels of Processing and the Self-Reference Effect, 88

Encoding-Specificity Principle, 90 Research on Encoding Specificity, 90 Levels of Processing and Encoding Specificity, 91

Retrieval in Long-Term Memory, 92 Explicit Versus Implicit Memory Tasks, 92

Anxiety Disorders and Explicit and Implicit Memory Tasks, 93 Individuals with Amnesia, 94

Autobiographical Memory, 95 Schemas and Autobiographical Memory, 96 Source Monitoring and Reality Monitoring, 96 Flashbulb Memories, 97 Eyewitness Testimony, 99

Example of Inappropriate Eyewitness Testimony, 99 The Post-Event Misinformation Effect, 99 Factors Affecting the Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony, 101 The Relationship Between Memory Confidence and Memory Accuracy, 101

Special Topics in Long-Term Memory, 102 Expertise, 102

The Context-Specific Nature of Expertise, 102 How Do Experts and Novices Differ?, 102 Own-Ethnicity Bias, 103

Emotions and Memory, 104 The Recovered-Memory/False-Memory Controversy, 107

The Two Contrasting Positions in the Controversy, 107 The Potential for Memory Errors, 108 Arguments for False Memory, 108 Arguments for Recovered Memory, 109 Both Perspectives Are At Least Partially Correct, 109

Section Summary Points, 109 Chapter Review Questions, 110 Keywords, 111 Recommended Readings, 111

6 Memory Strategies and Metacognition 112 Chapter Introduction, 112 Memory Strategies I: Memory Strategies Informed by Memory Concepts, 113

Divided Attention, 113 Working Memory, 113 Levels of Processing, 114

Elaboration, 114 Distinctiveness, 114

Encoding Specificity, 115 Memory Strategies II: Practice and Mnemonics, 116

Memory Strategies Emphasizing Practice, 116 Distributed Practice Effect, 116 Testing Effect, 116 Test Anxiety, 117

Mnemonics Using Imagery and Organization, 118 Imagery, 118

Contents ix

Organization, 119 Prospective Memory, 121

Comparing Prospective and Retrospective Memory, 121 Absentmindedness and Prospective Memory Failures, 122 Suggestions for Improving Prospective Memory, 122

Metamemory, 123 Accuracy of Metamemory, 124

Metamemory: Estimating the Accuracy for Total Score Versus the Accuracy for Individual Items, 124 Metamemory: Estimating the Score Immediately Versus After a Delay, 125

Metamemory About Factors Affecting Memory Accuracy, 126 Metamemory and the Regulation of Study Strategies, 126

Allocating Time When the Task Is Easy, 126 Allocating Time When the Task Is Difficult, 127 Conclusions About the Regulation of Study Strategies, 127

Tip-of-the-Tongue and Feeling-of-Knowing Effects, 127 Tip-of-the-Tongue Effect, 127 Feeling of Knowing, 129

Metacomprehension, 129 Metacomprehension Accuracy, 129 Improving Metacomprehension, 130

Section Summary Points, 131 Chapter Review Questions, 132 Keywords, 132 Recommended Readings, 133 Answer to Demonstration 6.4, 133

7 Mental Imagery and Cognitive Maps 134 Chapter Introduction, 134 Classical Research on Visual Imagery, 135

Overview of Mental Imagery, 135 Mental Rotation, 136

Subsequent Research on Mental Rotation, 138 Cognitive Neuroscience Research on Mental Rotation Tasks, 139

The Imagery Debate, 139 Visual Imagery and Ambiguous Figures, 140

Individual differences in mental imagery, 142 Summary, 143

Factors That Influence Visual Imagery, 143 Distance and Shape Effects on Visual Imagery, 143 Visual Imagery and Interference, 144 Visual Imagery and Other Vision-Like Processes, 145 Gender Comparisons in Spatial Ability, 145

Auditory Imagery, 146 Auditory Imagery and Pitch, 147 Auditory Imagery and Timbre, 147

Cognitive Maps, 148 Distance and Shape Effects on Cognitive Maps, 150

Distance Estimates and Number of Intervening Cities, 150 Distance Estimates and Category Membership, 150 Distance Estimates and Landmarks, 151 Cognitive Maps and Shape, 151

CONTENTSx

Relative Position Effects on Cognitive Maps, 152 The Rotation Heuristic, 152 The Alignment Heuristic, 153

Creating a Cognitive Map, 154 The Spatial Framework Model, 154 The Situated Cognition Approach, 155

Section Summary Points, 155 Chapter Review Questions, 156 Keywords, 157 Recommended Readings, 157

8 General Knowledge 158 Chapter Introduction, 158 Background and Approaches to Semantic Memory, 159

Background Information, 159 The Prototype Approach, 161

Characteristics of Prototypes, 162 Levels of Categorization, 163 Conclusions About the Prototype Approach, 164

The Exemplar Approach and Semantic Memory, 164 Comparing the Prototsype and Exemplar Approaches, 166

Network Models of Semantic Memory, 167 Anderson’s ACT-R Approach, 167 The Parallel Distributed Processing Approach, 169

Schemas and Scripts, 172 Background on Schemas and Scripts, 173

Schemas and Scripts, 173 Identifying the Script in Advance, 174

Schemas and Memory Selection, 174 Schemas and Boundary Extension, 176 Schemas and Memory Abstraction, 178

The Constructive Approach, 178 The Pragmatic Approach, 179 The Current Status of Schemas and Memory Abstraction, 179

Schemas and Memory Integration, 179 The Classic Research on Memory Integration, 180 Research About Memory Integration Based on Gender Stereotypes, 180

Section Summary Points, 184 Chapter Review Questions, 184 Keywords, 185 Recommended Readings, 185 Answer to Demonstration 8.1, 186

9 Language I: Introduction to Language and Language Comprehension 187

Chapter Introduction, 187 Overview of Psycholinguistics, 188

Relevant Terminology and Background on Language, 188 Basic Facts About Human Language, 189

A Brief History of Psycholinguistics, 190 Chomsky’s Approach, 190 Reactions to Chomsky’s Theory, 191

Contents xi

Psycholinguistic Theories that Emphasize Meaning, 191 On-line Sentence Comprehension, 192

Negation and the Passive Voice, 192 Syntactic Complexity, 193

Lexical and Syntactic Ambiguity, 195 Lexical Ambiguity, 195 Syntactic Ambiguity, 195 Good-Enough Processing, 197

Brain and Language, 198 General Considerations, 198 Aphasia, 199 Revisiting Broca’s Area, 200 Hemispheric Specialization, 201 The Mirror System, 203

Reading, 203 Comparing Written and Spoken Language, 204 Reading Words: Theoretical Approaches, 205

The Direct-Access Route, 205 The Indirect-Access Route, 205

Implications for Teaching Reading to Children, 206 Discourse Comprehension, 207

Forming an Integrated Representation of the Text, 208 Drawing Inferences During Reading, 209

The Constructionist View of Inferences, 209 Factors That Encourage Inferences, 210 Higher-Level Inferences, 211

Teaching Metacomprehension Skills, 211 Section Summary Points, 212 Chapter Review Questions, 213 Keywords, 213 Recommended Readings, 213 Answer to Demonstration 9.1, 214

10 Language II: Language Production and Bilingualism 215 Chapter Introduction, 215 Speaking I: Overview of Production Processes, 216

Producing a Word, 216 Speech Errors, 217

Types of Slip-of-the-Tongue Errors, 217 Explanations for Speech Errors, 217

Producing a Sentence, 218 Producing Discourse, 219

Speaking II: Language Production and Naturalistic Communication, 219 Using Gestures: Embodied Cognition, 219 The Social Context of Language Production, 222

Common Ground, 222 Directives, 224 Framing, 224

Language Production and Writing, 225 The Role of Working Memory in Writing, 225 Planning a Formal Writing Assignment, 226 Sentence Generation during Writing, 226

CONTENTSxii

The Revision Phase of Writing, 227 Bilingualism, 227

Background on Bilingualism, 228 The Social Context of Bilingualism, 229 Advantages (and Minor Disadvantages) of Bilingualism, 230

Proficiency and Second Language Acquisition, 231 Second Language Proficiency, 232 Vocabulary, 232 Phonology, 232 Grammar, 232 Simultaneous Interpreters, 234

Section Summary Points, 235 Chapter Review Questions, 236 Keywords, 236 Recommended Readings, 237

11 Problem Solving and Creativity 238 Chapter Introduction, 238 Understanding the Problem, 239

Methods of Representing the Problem, 240 Symbols, 240 Matrices, 241 Diagrams, 241 Visual Images, 242

Situated and Embodied Cognition Perspectives on Problem Solving, 243 Situated Cognition, 243 Embodied Cognition, 244

Problem-Solving Strategies, 244 The Analogy Approach, 245

The Structure of the Analogy Approach, 245 The Means-Ends Heuristic, 246

Research on the Means-Ends Heuristic, 246 Computer Simulation, 247

The Hill-Climbing Heuristic, 247 Factors That Influence Problem Solving, 248

Expertise, 248 Knowledge Base, 248 Memory, 248 Problem-Solving Strategies, 249 Speed and Accuracy, 249 Metacognitive Skills, 249

Mental Set, 249 Functional Fixedness, 250 Gender Stereotypes and Math Problem Solving, 251

Research with Asian American Females, 251 Potential Explanations, 252

Insight versus Noninsight Problems, 253 The Nature of Insight, 253 Metacognition during Problem Solving, 254 Advice about Problem Solving, 254

Creativity, 255

Contents xiii

The Nature of Creativity, 255 Motivation and Creativity, 256

Section Summary Points, 257 Chapter Review Questions, 258 Keywords, 259 Recommended Readings, 259 Answer to Demonstration 11.3, 259 Answer to Demonstration 11.5, 259 Answer to Demonstration 11.6B, 259 Answer to Demonstration 11.7A, 260 Answer to Demonstration 11.7B, 260

12 Deductive Reasoning and Decision Making 261 Chapter Introduction, 261 Deductive Reasoning, 262

Overview of Conditional Reasoning, 263 Factors That Cause Difficulty in Reasoning, 264 Belief-Bias Effect, 265 Confirmation Bias, 266

The Standard Wason Selection Task, 266 Concrete Versions of the Wason Selection Task, 267 Applications in Medicine, 267 Further Perspectives, 267

Decision Making I: Overview of Heuristics, 268 Representativeness Heuristic, 268

Sample Size and Representativeness, 269 Base Rate and Representativeness, 270 The Conjunction Fallacy and Representativeness, 271

Availability Heuristic, 272 Recency and Availability, 273 Familiarity and Availability, 273 The Recognition Heuristic, 274 Illusory Correlation and Availability, 274

Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic, 275 Research on the Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic, 276 Estimating Confidence Intervals, 276

Current Status of Heuristics and Decision Making, 277 Decision Making II: Applications of Decision Making Research, 278

Framing Effect, 278 The Wording of a Question and the Framing Effect, 279

Overconfidence about Decisions, 280 General Studies on Overconfidence, 280 Overconfidence about Completing Projects on Time, 281 Overconfidence in Political Decision Making, 281 Reasons for Overconfidence, 282

Hindsight Bias, 282 Explanations for the Hindsight Bias, 283

Decision-Making Style and Psychological Well-Being, 283 Section Summary Points, 284 Chapter Review Questions, 285 Keywords, 286

CONTENTSxiv

Recommended Readings, 286 Answer to Demonstration 12.1, 286 Answer to Demonstration 12.6, 286

13 Cognitive Development throughout the Lifespan 287 Chapter Introduction, 287 The Lifespan Development of Memory, 288

Memory in Infants, 288 Recognizing Mother, 289 Conjugate Reinforcement, 289

Memory in Children, 291 Children’s Working Memory, 291 Children’s Long-Term Memory, 292 Children’s Memory Strategies, 294 Children’s Eyewitness Testimony, 295 Children’s Intellectual Abilities and Eyewitness Testimony, 297

Memory in Elderly People, 297 Working Memory in Elderly People, 298 Long-Term Memory in Elderly People, 298 Explanations for Age Differences in Memory, 300

The Lifespan Development of Metamemory, 301 Metamemory in Children, 301

Children’s Understanding of How Memory Works, 301 Children’s Awareness That Effort Is Necessary, 302 Children’s Judgments about Their Memory Performance, 302 Children’s Metamemory: The Relationship between Metamemory and Memory Performance, 302

Metamemory in Elderly People, 304 Beliefs about Memory, 304 Memory Monitoring, 304 Awareness of Memory Problems, 304

The Development of Language, 305 Language in Infants, 305

Speech Perception during Infancy, 305 Language Comprehension during Infancy, 306 Language Production during Infancy, 307 Adults’ Language to Infants, 307 Can Infants Learn Language from a DVD?, 308

Language in Children, 308 Words, 309 Morphology, 310 Syntax, 310 Pragmatics, 311

Section Summary Points, 312 Chapter Review Questions, 313 Keywords, 313 Recommended Readings, 314

Glossary 315 References 333

Index 404

xv

The 1st edition of this textbook was published in 1983, and was followed by eight more editions published over the course of roughly three decades. Margaret W. Matlin was the sole author of the 1st through 8th editions. After 30 years of dedication to this and other textbooks, Margaret has retired from the text- book writing enterprise. In the wake of her retirement, Thomas A. Farmer, Lecturer in Psychology at California State University—Fullerton, was contracted by Wiley to carry out the revision and updating process starting with the 9th edition of the textbook (2015). Margaret Matlin and Thomas Farmer thus share authorship for this 10th edition of Cognition.

Message from Author Thomas Farmer

I took Cognitive Psychology during the Spring Semester, 1999, as an undergraduate Psychology major at James Madison University in Harrisonburg, Virginia. Margaret Matlin’s Cognition was the assigned textbook, and at that point in time, it was in its 4th edition. I remember the textbook as engaging, thought provoking, and highly accessible. In hindsight, I think that Cognition helped ignite my interests in topics related to the mind–body–environment relationship, and certainly contributed to my decision to pursue research opportunities in the cognitive sciences. I am thus immensely grateful for the opportunity to carry this textbook into its 10th edition.

The revisions and updates that I instituted in this edition of Cognition are additive in nature. For the most part, I did not remove discussions of key concepts, debates, theoretical topics, or methodological consid- erations. Instead, I supplemented the existing text with additional explanation, examples, and up-to-date citations. I expanded more heavily in certain places, aiming to provide readers with an overview of both classical and more contemporary treatments of a concept or theoretical framework. Additionally, I have increased the number of experiments discussed, the amount of detail embedded in their discussion, and have made a concerted effort to highlight basic components of experimental design and behavioral testing methodologies. My hope is that these additions will facilitate a greater appreciation for the rigorous experi- mental research so characteristic of the field. I think that these additions will aid students in the development of their ability to critically assess links between experimental design and the conclusions drawn from their results.

In the preface to the 8th edition of Cognition, Margaret noted that the field of cognitive psychology has changed in many ways over the past decade. She then discussed three of these changes: (1) an increase in reliance on neuroscience and neuroscientific testing methods in the scientific study of human cognition, (2) an increase in the interdisciplinary nature of research on cognitive processes, and (3) a sharp increase in the application of research in the cognitive sciences to real-world problems. I strongly agree with her observations, and have continued her mission to integrate these recent advances into this textbook. Indeed, cognitive neuroscience, interdisciplinary collaboration, and real-world application were three of the fac- tors that motivated my decisions about how to revise and update material in this edition of the book.

In her textbooks, Margaret repeatedly demonstrates a keen ability to provide comprehensive treatments of complex research topics while writing in a style that makes them understandable to a wide range of undergraduate audiences. Although I could never perfectly mirror Margaret’s elegant writing style, I tried my best to imitate it. Thus, I strived to maintain the clarity and accessibility so characteristic of Margaret’s work.

In the remainder of this preface, I (1) provide an overview of the more substantial content-based addi- tions to this edition, (2) highlight the features and organization of the book, and (3) acknowledge the many individuals who have contributed to this and previous editions.

Preface

PREFACExvi

Content-Based Additions to the 10th Edition

As noted above, very few topics were eliminated in my updating and revision of this textbook. Instead, most content-based revisions and updates involve the addition of information detailing more recent con- ceptualizations of key concepts and principles. Some of the more substantial changes include the follow- ing:

Chapter 1 now includes a discussion of the magnetoencephalography (MEG) cognitive neuroscientific testing method, along with a more comprehensive historical overview of individuals who have contributed to the emergence of the field of experimental psychology.

Chapter 2 includes an enhanced explanation of the speech recognition process and an extended discus- sion of deficits in face recognition (prosopagnosia).

Chapter 3 includes an updated discussion of research involving the Stroop task. Chapter 4 was modified to include a more in-depth overview of the manner in which individual differ-

ences in working-memory capacity map onto variability in performance on an array of cognitive tasks. Additionally, the section on working-memory abilities in clinical populations has been extended to include a discussion of the relationship between working memory and generalized anxiety disorder (GAD).

Chapter 5 now details recent research on the effects of different amnesias on cognitive processing, as well as an extended discussion of expertise effects.

Chapter 6 now includes a discussion of test anxiety. Chapter 7 now discusses research on individual differences in cognitive style, and provides a corre-

sponding overview of cognitive neuroscientific research supporting these style differences. Chapter 8 contains an updated overview of research involving the implicit attitude test, along with a

discussion of more recent methodological extensions of the paradigm. Chapter 9 includes the reintroduction of “good enough processing,” along with a more integrative dis-

cussion of the cognitive neuroscience of language. Chapter 10 now provides an overview of research supporting a compelling role for gesture in learning,

as well as a more up-to-date overview of controversy regarding the bilingual advantage. Chapters 11 and 12 contain updated references to the classical problem solving and decision-making

effects detailed in these chapters, along with a discussion of more recent research involving these effects. Chapter 13 continues to provide an overview of research on lifespan developmental questions as they

pertain to memory, language, and metacognitive abilities.

Features of This Textbook

I genuinely believe that cognitive psychology can have practical applications that stretch far beyond the classroom. Therefore, students must be able to understand and remember the material. Here are some of the ways in which I consider this textbook to be student-oriented:

1. The writing style is clear and interesting, with frequent examples to make the information more concrete. Indeed, over the years, Margaret has received letters and comments from hundreds of students and professors expressing enthusiasm for the accessibility and clarity of the writing. This edition of the textbook has been line-edited in order to ensure precision and clarity.

2. The text demonstrates how our cognitive processes are relevant in our everyday, real-world experiences.

3. The book frequently examines how cognition can be applied to other disciplines, such as clinical psychology, social psychology, consumer psychology, education, communication, business, medicine, and law.

4. The 1st chapter introduces five major themes that are repeatedly emphasized throughout the book. Because the current research in cognitive psychology is so extensive, students need a sense of continuity that helps them appreciate the connections among many diverse topics.

5. An outline appears before each chapter, providing a helpful framework for understanding the new material.

6. Each new term is presented in boldface print. Every term is also accompanied by a concise definition that appears in the same sentence. In addition, pronunciation guides are provided for new

Preface xvii

terms with potentially ambiguous pronunciation. If students are hesitant about pronouncing terms such as schema and saccadic, they will be reluctant to use these words or ask questions about them.

7. Many easy-to-perform demonstrations illustrate important research in cognition, and they clarify central concepts in the discipline. These demonstrations were designed so that they would require equipment that undergraduate students typically have on hand.

8. Each chapter concludes with point-by-point summaries for each section of a chapter, followed by comprehensive review questions and a list of new terms. These features provide students with additional opportunities to review material and to identify knowledge gaps.

9. Each chapter concludes with a list of recommended readings, along with a brief description of each resource. This feature should be useful if students are searching for a topic for a literature-review paper. Furthermore, professors can consult these resources when they want to update a specific lecture.

10. A glossary at the end of the book provides a definition of every keyword. I tried to include additional contextual information wherever it might be useful, in order to clarify the terms as much as possible. For example, the word antecedent can be used in many contexts. Accordingly, my definition for antecedent begins with the phrase, “In conditional reasoning. ...”

11. The subject index is comprehensive and detailed. Students can quickly locate the keywords, because they appear in boldface.

The Textbook’s Organization

A textbook needs to be interesting and helpful. It must also reflect current developments in the discipline, and it should allow instructors to adapt its structure to their own teaching plans. The following features should therefore be useful for professors:

1. The tenth edition of Cognition offers a comprehensive overview of the field, including chapters on perceptual processes, memory, imagery, general knowledge, language, problem solving and creativity, reasoning and decision making, and cognitive development.

2. Each chapter is a self-contained unit. For example, terms such as heuristics, schema, and top- down processing are defined in every chapter where they are used. This feature allows professors considerable flexibility in the sequence of chapter coverage. Some professors may wish to discuss the topic of imagery (Chapter 7) prior to the three chapters on memory. Others might want to assign the chapter on general knowledge (Chapter 8) during an earlier part of the academic term.

3. Each section within a chapter can stand as a discrete unit, especially because every section concludes with a section summary. Professors may choose to discuss the individual sections in a different order. For example, one professor may want students to read the section on schemas prior to the chapter on long-term memory. Another professor might prefer to subdivide Chapter 13, on cognitive development, so that the 1st section of this chapter (on memory) follows Chapter 5, the 2nd section (on metacognition) follows Chapter 6, and the 3rd section (on language) follows Chapter 10. In summary, these separate sections provide professors with additional flexibility.

4. In previous editions, Margaret went to great lengths to emphasize the importance of individual differences in the study of cognitive processes. I carry on this tradition by exploring individual differences in each cognitive process discussed in this book. I take great care to emphasize to the reader how an individual difference effect can further inform our understanding of a process as it relates to theories of cognition, as well as to other clinical and social issues.

5. In all, the bibliography contains over 2,000 references, over half of which have been published since the year 2005. As a result, the textbook provides a current overview of cognitive psychology.

6. TEST BANK: Professors who teach courses in cognitive psychology consistently emphasize the importance of a high-quality Test Bank. The multiple-choice questions must be clear and unambiguous, and they must not focus on relatively trivial details. Most of the questions should be conceptually rich, rather than requiring brief, obvious answers. Furthermore, each chapter in

PREFACExviii

the Test Bank should contain a large number of questions, so that professors can select a different sample every time they create an examination. The Test-Bank questions available here to instructors emphasize conceptual knowledge, as well as applications to real-world situations. Furthermore, I have rated each question as “easy,” “moderate,” and “difficult.” These difficulty ratings can help professors to create a test that is appropriate for the students in their classes.

For more information, professors should contact their Wiley sales representative about the Test Bank for the tenth edition of Cognition. They can also visit the Wiley website for this book, www.wiley.com/ college/matlin.

Acknowledgments

I offer my sincerest thanks to the many great minds who provided me with countless hours of academic guidance and support over the years, including: Morten Christiansen, Kenny Coventry, Melissa Fergu- son, Fernanda Ferreira, Barbara Finlay, John Henderson, Florian Jaeger, Sheena Rogers, Michael Spivey, Michael Tanenhaus, Richard West, and Jason Zevin. I’m honored and truly lucky to have had the oppor- tunity to learn from each one of you.

I would also like to thank the many individuals at John Wiley & Sons for their substantial contributions to the development and production of the 10th edition of Cognition, especially Veronica Visentin for her guidance in the updating and revision of this textbook (and to Chris Johnson for his support during the 9th edition revision process). Additionally, I thank all of the Wiley sales representatives for their excellent work and enthusiastic support, and especially Marti Mount for her years of service in Iowa City and its surrounding areas.

Many thanks are also in order for the graduate students who have served as Teaching Assistants for my Introduction to Cognitive Psychology course: Kimberly Halvorson, Valerie Beck, Francis Smith, Caglar Tas, and Sharong Yan. Your commitment to excellence in the classroom was always apparent. I also express an especially large amount of gratitude to Caitie Hilverman for her unwavering friendship and hours of fun and stimulating academic conversation.

In the preface to the 8th edition, Margaret offered thanks to a number of students who have provided useful input, feedback, and suggestions to various editions of Cognition. She also thanked a number of colleagues for making suggestions about references and for providing feedback on various passages over time. Given their valuable contributions to previous editions, I would also like to offer my thanks to these individuals:

Ned Abbott, Laura Aizpuru, Drew Appleby, Jennifer Balus, Alesya Borisyuk, Tim Bowersox, Mary Jane Brennan, Stacey Canavan, Angela Capria, Elizabeth Carey, A. Eleanor Chand, Lindsay Ciancetta, Kristina Condidorio, Melissa Conway, Amanda Crandall, Ganie DeHart, Lucinda DeWitt, Thomas Don- nan, Miriam Dowd, Elizabeth Einemann, Connie Ellis, K. Anders Ericsson, Beverly Evans, Michelle Fischer, Hugh Foley, Sarah Gonnella, Moises Gonzales, Mark Graber, Katie Griffin, Laurie Guarino, Ben- jamin Griffin, Sven Halstenburg, Elliot D. Hammer, Heather Henderson, Douglas Herrmann, Eve Higby, Jessica Hosey, Don Hudson, Hideaki Imai, Ken Kallio, Peter Kang, Becky Keegan, Jay Kleinman, Kristen Kolb, Maria Korogodsky, Jessica Krager, Patricia Kramer, Mary Kroll, Leslie Lauer, Eun Jung Lim, Rod- rigo Liong, Jean Lu, Colin M. MacLeod, Edwardo Martinez, Sally Matlin, Pamela Mead, Kristen Merkle, Pamela Mino, Kaveh Moghbeli, Jacquilyn Moran, Michelle Morante, Monica Morris, Lisbet Nielsen, Jennifer Niemczyk, Paul Norris, Danielle Palermo, Jill Papke, Dorin Parasca, Matt Pastizzo, Christopher Piersante, Heather Quayle, Alison Repel, Judith Rickey, Mary Riley, Margery Schemmel, Brooke Schurr, Bennett L. Schwartz, Laura Segovia, Richard Slocum, John Tanchak, Brenna Terry, Sherri Tkachuk, Nancy Tomassino, Laura Uribarri, Dan Vance, Lori Van Wallendael, Douglas Vipond, Sara Vonhold, Julia Wagner, Heather Wallach, Melissa Waterman, Alan Welsh, Lauren Whaley, Rachelle Yablin.

Many reviewers have provided invaluable feedback on one of multiple editions of the 1st nine editions of this textbook. Both Margaret and I would like to express our appreciation for these reviewer contributions. I list each reviewer’s name and affiliation below, noting that affiliations were accurate at least until the publication of the 8th edition of Cognition: Lise Abrams, University of Florida; John Agnew, University of Colorado, Boulder; Tom Alley, Clemson University; Harriett Amster, University of Texas, Arlington; Mark Ashcraft, Cleveland State University; Kurt Baker, Emporia State University; Heather Bartfeld, Texas A&M University; James Bartlett, University of Texas at Dallas; Richard Block, Montana State University; Kyle Cave, University of Southampton (United Kingdom); Stephen Christman, University of Toledo; Tim Curran, University of Colorado; Lucinda DeWitt, University of Minnesota; Mike Dodd, University of

http://www.wiley.com/college/matlin
http://www.wiley.com/college/matlin
Preface xix

Nebraska, Lincoln; Francis T. Durso, University of Oklahoma; Susan E. Dutch, Westfield State College; Randolph Easton, Boston College; James Enns, University of British Columbia; Ira Fischler, University of Florida; Kathleen Flannery, Saint Anselm College; John Flowers, University of Nebraska; Nancy Franklin, SUNY Stony Brook; Joanne Gallivan, University College of Cape Breton; Linda Gerard, Michigan State University; Barbara Goldman, University of Michigan, Dearborn; Sallie Gordon, University of Utah; Richard Gottwald, University of Indiana, South Bend; Kenneth R. Graham, Muhlenberg College; Catherine Hale, University of Puget Sound; Mark Hale, Rowan University; Harold Hawkins, University of Oregon; Morton A. Heller, Winston-Salem State University; Joseph Hellige, University of Southern California; Richard High, Lehigh University; Philip Higham, University of Northern British Columbia; Robert J. Hines, University of Arkansas, Little Rock; Mark Hoyert, Indiana University Northwest; Matthew Hunsinger, Mary Baldwin College; Margaret Intons-Peterson, Indiana University; Timothy Jay, North Adams State College; Kathy E. Johnson, Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis; James Juola, University of Kansas; Gretchen Kambe, University of Nevada, Las Vegas; Richard Kasschau, University of Houston; and R. A. Kinchla, Princeton University; Joseph Lao, Teachers College, Columbia University; Susan Lima, University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee; Christine Lofgren, University of California, Irvine; Bill McKeachie, University of Michigan; Anita Meehan, Kutztown University of Pennsylvania; Eduardo Mercado, University at Buffalo, SUNY; Heather Mong, Laurentian University; Julien Musolino, Rutgers University; Janet Nicol, University of Arizona; Michael W. O’Boyle, Iowa State University; William Oliver, Florida State University; David G. Payne, SUNY Binghamton; W. Daniel Phillips, Trenton State College; Thomas Piccin, Loyola University Maryland; Joan Piroch, Coastal Carolina University; David Pittenger, Marietta College; Dana Plude, University of Maryland; Catherine Powright, University of Ottawa; Sara Ransdell, Nova Southeastern University; David Rapp, Northwestern University; Andrea Richards, University of California, Los Angeles; Tony Ro, Rice University; Michael Root, Ohio University; Jonathan Schooler, University of Pittsburgh; Mithell Serman, University of Wisconsin, Stout; Matthew Sharps, California State University, Fresno; Greg Simpson, University of Kansas; Louisa M. Slowiaczek, Loyola University, Chicago; Albert Smith, Cleveland State University; Donald A. Smith, Northern Illinois University; Patricia Snyder, Albright College; David Somers, Boston University; Garrett Strosser, Southern Utah University; Margaret Thompson, University of Central Florida; Jyotsna Vaid, Texas A & M University; James P. Van Overschelde, University of Maryland; Christian Vorstius, Florida State University; Richard K. Wagner, Florida State University; Thomas B. Ward, University of Alabama; Paul Zelhart, East Texas State University.

I conclude by expressing much gratitude to my loving, patient, and supportive husband Giuseppe Vez- zoli. We’ve had a great run, and I look forward to the future. I also send my sincerest regards to the mem- bers of my family who have offered much love, guidance, and support over the years, including my parents Thomas and Catherine Farmer, my sister Amy Farmer, and grandparents Charlotte Estep, Patricia Farmer, Raymond Farmer, and H. B. Estep.

In the 8th edition of Cognition, Margaret concluded the preface with the following words of thanks to members of her family. I conclude by carrying them over to the preface of Cognition, 10th edition:

The final words of thanks belong to my family members. My husband, Arnie Matlin, encouraged me to write the first edition of this book during the early 1980s. His continuing enthusiasm, superb sense of humor, and loving support always bring joy to my writing, and certainly to my life! Our daughters and their husbands now live in other parts of the United States, but I always value their perspectives. I’d like to thank Sally Matlin and Jay Laefer, who now live in the San Francisco Bay area. Thanks also to Beth Matlin-Heiger, Neil Matlin-Heiger, and our grandchildren, Jacob and Joshua Matlin-Heiger), who live in the Boston area. Their continuing pride in my accomplishments makes it even more rewarding to be an author! Last, I would like to express my gratitude to four other important people who have shaped my life, my parents by birth and my parents by marriage: Helen and Donald White, and Clare and Harry Matlin.

Thomas A. Farmer Palm Springs, California

1

1 Chapter Introduction What Is Cognitive Psychology? Historical Perspective on the Field

Origins of Cognitive Psychology Cognitive Revolution Cognitive Psychology in Present Times

Mind, Brain, and Behavior Cognitive Science Computer Metaphor of the Mind Cognitive Neuroscience

Textbook Overview Chapter Preview Themes in the Book How to Use Your Book Effectively

Chapter Introduction Cognitive psychology is a subdiscipline of experimental psychology focused on investigating the mental processes that give rise to our perceptions and interpretations of the world around us.

In this chapter, we first explore a definition of cognition before walking through an example designed to provide clarity regarding the topics covered in the remainder of this textbook. We then examine a handful of historical developments that contributed to the emergence of cognitive psy- chology as a coherent subdiscipline of experimental psychology. Indeed, understanding the historical events that occurred prior to the emergence of cognitive psychology will help you appreciate how a cognitive approach differs from other approaches. In the third section of this chapter, we review con- tributions from multiple fields outside of psychology that have served as the basis for recent spikes in our current understanding of how the mind works. As you can imagine, recent advances in the field of neuroscience have had an immeasurable effect on our current understanding of how neural systems support mental processes.

We conclude this chapter with an overview of the general themes that you will encounter time and time again throughout this textbook. Additionally, we detail the large number of learning features that are built into this textbook. Their design is based on research in areas of cognitive psychology, such as human memory, and will help you to maximize the amount of information that you maintain as you read.

An Introduction to Cognitive Psychology

AN INTRODUCTION TO COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY2

What Is Cognitive Psychology? The term cognition, or mental activity, refers to the acquisition, storage, transformation, and use of knowl- edge. Although many have argued that nonhuman animals also have cognitive abilities, our focus here is on the inner workings of the human mind. You will likely have the opportunity to learn more about nonhuman animal cognition in other courses offered by the Psychology and Biology departments at your university.

Cognition is inescapable. At any point that you are awake, your cognitive processes are at work. They grant you the ability to recognize and interpret stimuli in your environment and to act (or react) strategi- cally to environmental input. Cognitive processes afford you the ability to plan, to create, to interact with others, and to process all of the thoughts, sensations, and emotions that you experience on a daily basis. Your cognitive abilities operate together in intricate and highly coordinated ways to create your conscious experiences.

While reading this paragraph, for example, you are performing multiple cognitive tasks at the same time. In order to reach this paragraph, you used pattern recognition to create words from an assortment of squiggles and lines that form the letters on this page. You also consulted your memory and your knowledge about language to search for word meanings and to link together the ideas in this paragraph. Addition- ally, right now, as you think about these cognitive tasks, you are engaging in another cognitive task called metacognition—you were thinking about your own thought processes. Perhaps you made an inference such as, “This book may help me learn to study more effectively.” You may have also used decision making by saying to yourself, for instance, “I’ll finish this section of the book before I eat lunch.”

If cognition operates every time you acquire some information, place it in storage, transform that infor- mation, and use it…then cognition includes a wide range of mental processes! This textbook will explore many of these mental processes, such as perception, memory, imagery, language, problem solving, reason- ing, and decision making.

Cognitive psychology has two meanings: (1) Sometimes it is a synonym for the word cognition; (2) Sometimes it refers to a particular theoretical approach to psychology. Specifically, the cognitive approach is a theoretical orientation that emphasizes people’s thought processes and their knowledge. For example, a cognitive explanation of ethnic stereotypes would emphasize topics such as the influence of these stereotypes on the judgments we make about people from different ethnic groups (Whitley & Kite, 2010).

I took Introduction to Cognitive Psychology during my junior year of college. I remember quite vividly that I had enrolled for the course because it was required, but I honestly had no idea what the term “cogni- tive psychology” meant. Even after our brief discussion of a definition of cognition, some of you may still not have a strong sense of what a cognitive psychologist really studies. Below, I offer a brief demonstra- tion that should help you gain a stronger sense of what you’re in store for over the course of the semester.

Open up a Web browser, pull up a recent episode of a television show or a random video clip, and do the following: 1) Watch one minute of the video; 2) Exit your Web browser; and 3) In only two minutes, write down (or type) everything that you experienced as you watched the TV or video clip. Go ahead…give it a shot. It will only take you a total of three minutes.

I just completed the demonstration myself. I went online and selected a random music video, and I watched one minute of it. Here’s what I was able to type in two minutes after closing the Web browser:

• There was a strong bass line.

• I have never heard this song before.

• Approximately 20 people were standing close together. Music was playing but no one was moving.

• One person at the center of the group of people was female, and she was wearing a turquoise dress that looked kind of fancy.

• The camera moved from left to right but remained focused on the 20 or so people standing in a group.

• Somebody coughed in the next room (not in the video, but in the room next to where I’m sitting and watching this video).

• A female voice started to sing. She’s singing in a language that I don’t know. It sounds like it could be Swedish, but I don’t know.

Krystal Munoz
What Is Cognitive Psychology? 3

Most of you were probably able to generate a list of bullet points. Now focus on the list and think about everything that you had to do in order to produce it. Or, if you didn’t really complete the exercise yourself, think about all of the types of processes that I had to complete in order to produce the list above.

Importantly, I had to create a rich internal interpretation of the video in order to have a meaningful, conscious experience of it. In order to do so, I had to process auditory information (the music), linguistic information (the lyrics, although I couldn’t really understand them), and visual information (the visual images that accompanied the music in the video).

I also had to rely heavily on information that is stored in my memory as a guide for how to interpret the auditory and visual streams of information I encountered while watching the video. Many of you are likely to be in your early 20s. That means that you have had approximately 20 years of experience with the world around you. Based on that experience, you’ve come to possess knowledge about facts (such as, “Brooklyn is one of the five boroughs of New York City”), and about patterns that are embedded in environmental stimuli (for example, the word “the” rarely comes before a verb). Crucially, notice how important this stored knowledge is for your ability to interpret and understand the video you watched. In the case of my video, I had to know which features of a person are characteristic of males versus females. If I lacked this knowledge, I would not have been able to list the 4th bullet point above. I also wouldn’t have been able to note that a female voice was singing (as per the 7th bullet point above). Linking the physical characteristics of the auditory and visual streams you processed to knowledge stored in your memory was thus necessary for you to create a meaningful interpretation of the video.

Attentional processes also contributed to my interpretation, and thus experience, of the video. Do you think that I remembered every detail of the video well enough to be able to precisely describe it? Probably not. I had to perceive and interpret information from the environment (the video) on a very fast timescale. Under such time pressure, I had to strategically allocate my attention to elements and events occurring in the video that seemed most relevant and important. I also noted that I heard someone in a room next to me cough. This cough had nothing to do with the video I was watching, and yet I still processed it (enough to report my perception of the cough after the video was complete . . . it was part of my experience watching the video).

And, in order to type the list of bullet points, I had to access my stored memories about the video, trans- form those memories into a linguistic code, and then move my fingers around a keyboard in order to type linguistic descriptions of my memories.

After thinking about your experience with this demonstration, do you have a stronger sense of what is meant by the term “cognition?” Information from the environment was taken in through sensory systems, and it was linked to knowledge that you possess. New memories (of your experiences while watching and interpreting the video) were created. And, they were accessed at a later point in time in order for you to write out descriptions of your interpretation of the video. In this sense, you acquired, stored, transformed, and used knowledge that you gleaned from experience.

Why should you and other students learn about cognition? One reason is that the cognitive approach has widespread influence on other areas of psychology, such as clinical psychology and psychotherapy (e.g., Erdelyi & Goldberg, 2014; Gu, Strauss, Bond, & Cavanagh, 2015; Snyder, Miyake, & Hankin, 2015), educational psychology (O’Donnell & King, 2014; Schonert-Reichl et al., 2015), and social psychol- ogy (e.g., Seyfarth & Cheney, 2015; Srull & Wyer, 2015; Todd, Thiem, & Neel, 2016). Let’s consider an example from clinical psychology. One cognitive task asks people to recall a specific memory from their past. People who are depressed tend to provide a general summary, such as “visiting my grandmother.” In contrast, people who are not depressed tend to describe an extended memory that lasts more than one day, such as “the summer I drove across the country” (Wenzel, 2005). Whether a person is depressed or not thus influences an individual’s ability to access and report experiences from their memories. Relatedly, cogni- tive psychology also influences interdisciplinary areas. A journal called Cognitive Neuropsychology, for example, publishes research that examines specific neurological problems—such as an extreme difficulty in recognizing people’s faces—when other cognitive skills are normal (e.g., Wilson et al., 2010).

Another reason to study cognitive psychology is that cognition occupies a major portion of human psychology as it relates to your daily life experiences. In fact, almost everything you have done in the past hour required you to perceive, remember, use language, or think. As you’ll soon see, psychologists have discovered some impressive information about every topic in cognitive psychology. Even though cognitive psychology is extraordinarily central in every human’s daily life, many college students cannot define this term accurately (Maynard, 2006; Maynard et al., 2004). For a demonstration of this point, try Demonstration 1.1.