Commissioner lin's letter to queen victoria worksheet answer key

Reading & Question Answer

ASSIGNMENT 1:

After finishing this week’s readings(The reader(Reader 6-8 & reader 9-10) I uploaded in the below attachment), please focus this week’s post on the questions below.

Remember: the idea here is to think carefully about the questions, but you don’t need to worry as much about producing a perfectly polished text. Your post should be a few sentences for each question and please write this post on your own before you look at your classmates’ posts. I want you to first think independently.

1. What’s one idea about this week’s lectures and readings that you found most intriguing or surprising? Why is it intriguing or surprising to you?

2. What was the Canton System and what did McCartney hope to achieve in his mission? Using primary sources from this week, how would you describe the interaction between McCartney and Qianlong?

3. How did Chinese elite and commoners respond to the coming of the West? Please use the examples of Lin Zexu, Wei Yuan and commoners in Guangzhou to illustrate your points.

ASSIGNMENT 2:

After finishing this week’s readings((The reader(Reader 11-13 & reader 14-16 I uploaded in the below attachment)), please focus this week’s post on the questions below.

Remember: the idea here is to think carefully about the questions, but you don’t need to worry as much about producing a perfectly polished text. Your post should be a few sentences for each question and please write this post on your own before you look at your classmates’ posts. I want you to first think independently.

1. What’s one idea about this week’s lectures and readings that you found most intriguing or surprising? Why is it intriguing or surprising to you?

2. What were the social origins of the Taiping Rebellion/War? What do you think about the Taiping version of Christianity?

3. What were the main principles of the Tongzhi Restoration? What were the main agendas of the Self-Strengthening movement?

Each question minimum 150 words>

In de Bary and Lufrano, Sources of Chinese Tradition, vol. 2, 201-212.

I, THE LESSON OF LIN ZEXU

Lin Zexu, a native of the southeast coastal province of Fujian, was all exemplary product of the Chinese educational and civil service system. After winning the jinshi degree in 1811, he rose rapidly through the official ranks and served with particular distinction in posts concerned with fiscal matters and public works, gaining a wide reputation for his competence, integrity, and humaneness. By the late thirties, when opium smuggling became a pressing question, Lin had ,ilready established himself as an able governor and then governor-general of rich and populous provinces in central China. In such a position a man less deeply concerned over the fate of his people might have been content to enjoy the measure of personal success that was already assured him. But Lin, having taken strong measures to encl the opium traffic in his own sphere of jurisdiction, placed himself in the forefront of those who called upon the court for a full­ scale assault on the opium menace. The result was his appointment as imperial commissioner at Guangzhou, with full powers to deal with the problem.

On his arrival in Guangzhou in March 1839, Lin demonstrated that he was a man of serious and inflexible purpose, not the type of official wbo could be wheedled, bribed, or stalled off. Within a few rnonths he had taken such strong action against the Hong merchants [Chinese Merchant Guild] and Western traders that existing stocks of opium had been destroyed and the cessation of the traffic was all but accepted by the foreigners. It was at this time that Lin addressed his celebrated letter to Queen Victoria demanding assurances of an end to the trade.

Were opium, then, the sole or chief issue between the Chinese and British, there would presumably have been no cause for the outbreak of the first Anglo­ Chinese \Var later that same year. To the British on the scene, however, Lin's uncompromising policies seemed not just firm or tough but arrogant and un­ reasonable. Though ready to make substantial concessions with regard to the drug traffic in order not to lose all opportunities for trade, for them the lure of profits did not suffice lo overcome strong feelings in what they regarded as matters of principle. The lack of treaty relations meant that there was no estab­ lished procedure for the administration of justice in incidents involving Chinese and foreigners. Commissioner Lin was determined that Chinese authorities should rnete out punishment for crimes on Chinese soil of which foreigners had been accused. The British were equally adamant in refusing to turn over suspects, whose guilt was by no means established, lo the mercies of Chinese officials whom they considered vindictive and inhumane. VVhcn Lin countered

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with the breaking off of all trade and expulsion of the British from China, full­ scale hostilities broke out.

The Chinese, as is well known, were pitifully unprepared on land and sea to resist the force of British arms, and it was only a matter of weeks before the underlying weakness of Lin's "get-tough" policy became fully exposed. Offi­ cially disgraced, the erstwhile viceroy and commissioner was eventually ban­ ished to Xinjiang, in the far west of the empire. In the meantime, he had become fully persuaded of the need for strengthening China through the adop­ tion of\Vestern arms and methods of warfare, though he could make no progress in gaining acceptance of this view al court. Even when later restored to the official ranks, partly on account of bis accomplishments in flood control and land reclamation work, Lin lacked any real opportunity to influence state policy in the direction of greater realism and reform. The lesson he bad learned in Guangzhou remained largely his own. It would be decades more before the court could be moved by further misfortunes to take such warnings to heart.

LETI'ER TO THE ENGLISH RULER

In this celebrated letter to Queen Victoria (1839), prepared as a memorial for the emperor's endorsement, Lin argues against the opium trade with all the moral ear­ nestness of the Confucian scholar and lofty condescension of one speaking for the imperial court. On its own terms > of course, Lin's argument is unanswerable. Yet his tone indicates bow unready the Chinese were to deal with the British as diplomatic equals or to negotiate outstanding difference on other scores.

Intransigent as he appeared, Lin nonetheless compelled admiration. His likeness appeared later in Mme Tussaud's Wax iVluseum in London, and the distinguished, British consular official and sinologist H. A. Giles said of Lin: "I-le was a fine scholar, .. a just and merciful official and a true patriot."

A communication: rvlagnificently our great emperor soothes and pacifies China ,'J and the foreign countries, regarding all with the same kindness. If there is profit,· ·' then he shares it with the peoples of the world; if there is harm, then he removes :i it on behalf of the world. This is because he takes the mind of Heaven-and•':' earth as his mind.

The kings of your honorable country by a tradition banded down from gen- :: eration to generation have always been noted for their politeness and submis0 :'I siveness. 'v\le have read your successive tributary memorials saying: "In general) our countrymen who go to trade in China have always received His Majesty";:! the Emperor's gracious treatment and equal justice," and so on. Privately we:-i, are delighted with the way in which the honorable rulers of your co,mtry deeply"!; understand the grand principles and are grateful for the Celestial grace. For J

., ,:r

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this rea1>on the Celestial Com1 in soothing those from afor bas redoubled its polite and kind treatment The profit from lrade has bt~n enjoyed by them continuously for two hundred years. '!"his is the source from ,vbich your country lrns become known for lt, wealth.

Hllt afleI a long period of commercial intercourse, there appear among the crowd of barharians both good persons and bHd, unevenly. Consequently there are those who smuggle opium to seduce the Chinese people and so ;;;ausc the spread of the poison to all provinces. Such persons who only care lo profit themselves, and

We find that your country is sixty or seventy thousan

204 'l'H;;; l\lATURATION OF CHINESE Cl\'II.IZATION

begrudging it in the slightest. This is for no other reason but to share the benefit with the people of the whole world.

The goods from China c,mied away by your country not only supply your own consumption and use but also can he divided up and sold to other coun- tries, producing a triple profit. Even if you do not sell opium, you still have this threefold profit. How can you bear to go furi:her, selling products injurious to others in order to fulfill your insatiable desire? ...

\Ve have further learned that in London, the capital of your honorable rule, and in Scotland, Ireland. and other places originally no opium has been pro- duced. Only in several places of India under your control, such as Bengal, Madras, Bombay, Patna, Bcnarcs, and Malwa, has opium been planted from hill to hill and ponds have been opened for its manufacture. For months and years work is continued in order to accumulate the poison. The obnoxious odor ascends, irrib1ting Heaven and frightening the spirits. Indeed you, 0 King, can erndicatc the opium plant in these places, hoe over the fields entirely, and sow in its stead the live grains [i.e., millet, barley, wheat, and so on]. Anyone who dares again ,lttempt to plant and manufacture opium should be severely pun- ished. This would really he a great, benevolent government policy tlwt will increase the commomve,11 and get rid of evil. For this, Heaven must support you and the spirits must bring you good fortune, prolonging your old age and extending your descendants. All will depend on this acL ...

Now we have set up regulations governing the Chinese people. He who sells opium shall receive the death penalty and be who smokes it also the death} penalty. Now consider this: If the barbarians do not bring opium, then how can !i the Chinese people resell it, and how can they smoke it? The fact is that the ': wicked barbarians beguile the Chinese people into a death trap. How then car! i we grant life only to these barbarians? IIe who takes the life of even one perso~J still has to atone for it with his own life; yet is the harm done by opium limited ; to the taking of one i ifc only? Therefore in the new regulations, in regard ti:i those barbarians who bring opium to China, the penalty is fixed at decapitation): or strangulation. This is what is called getting rid of a harmful thing on behalf) of mankind. . . . ·

Om Celestial Dynastv rules over and supervises the myriad states and surel)'fJJ possesses tmfathomable spiritual dignity. Yet the emperor cannot bear to exe;•. cute people without having first tried to reform them by instruction .... MaY:'c! you, 0 King, check your wicked and sift out your vicious people before the%1!ji come to China, iu order to guarantee the peace of your mitinn, to show further!'.li! the sincerity of your politeness and submissiveness, and to let the two countrieSCJi enjoy together the blessings of peace. How fortunate, hovv fortunate indeedl.li After receiving this dispatch will you immediately give us a prompt reply re;,,rn garding the details and circumstances of your cutting off the opium traffic. Bili sure not to pnt this off. The above is what hns to be c:omrntmicated. [Vennilion,;1'

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emlorncrnent of the emperor: j This is appropriately worded and quite: comprehensive,

[From and Fairbank, Cllimls ResJxmse lo 1/w West, pp.

LEYrER TO WU ZlXU ON nm Nln:n FOR WESTr;:RN GUNS AND SHIPS

This letter to hi:; friend Wn Zixu, writlcn two year~ after the debacle ,1! Guangzhou, exi:.resses Lin's realization of the need for adopting modem weapm1s :md method~ of

'"'"' """· A, ont' in official disgrace, however, Lin dared not speak out, nor <:vcn com- municate thoughts privately exci:pl in guarded f,i~hion. Under such eircu1nsfanees it is understandable that the. advocacy of refom1 slwuld have been hampered and lhe ti1king of concrete s!cps so long ddayed.

·rhe relx:ls' ships OH open sea came and went as they pleased, nmv in the south anti now suddenly in the north, changing sm:cessively between moming and If we tried to put up n defense eve1ywhere, not only would we toil :md expend ourselves without limit, but also how could we recruit ;incl t:ramport so many troops, milifo,, mti!lcry, and ammunition, and come to their support qnickly? ...

When l was in office in Guangdong Guangxi, I had plans re-- garding the p1·oblerns of ships and cannon and a waler force. Afrnid that there was not enough lime to huild ~hips, I at first rented them. Afmid that there was not enough time to cast cannon and that it would not be done according to the regulations, I at first bought foreign ones, T'be most painful thing wns that when the Hitmen [the Bogue or 'Tiger's rvlouth," the entrnnce to the Pearl Riv<,r} was broke'n iHto, a 1mmbcr c•f good cannon fell iuto the hands of the rebellious barbarians. I rec11ll that after l had punished two ago, l still took the risk calling the empemr's attenticm to two thing~: ships aml guns. At that lime, if these things could have been made and prepared, they ~till could have been used with effect to fight against the em:my in Zhejiang last fall [1841]. it is even more difficult to check the wildfire. After all, ships, guns, and a water force are absolutely indispernmhle. Even if the rebd- liom barbarians had fled and returned beyo!ld the seas, these things would still h:ive to urgently planned for- in order to work out th,:, permanent defense of our sea frontiers ....

But at this time [ must strictlv the advice to my lips as one corb the mouth H bottle. 'Ibward tl,ose with identical aims and iutere$lx, however, I suddenly spit' out the trnth and Hm unable to c,1n!to! I extremely regret iny foolishness and carek:s$ness. Nevertheless, when l tum my thoughts to tht d(,pth of yom attention to me, l t·annot c.·cmceal these thi11gs from mvselt

206 TM1£ MATURATION ()fl (;!·l!NESE ClV!Ll,.ATJON

I only beg you to keep them confidential. By all means, please do not tdl other persons.

[Frnm Teng and Vilirbank China's ResfJ011se to the West, p. 28}

2, \VE[ YUAN AND THE \VEST

Wei Yuan's Milita1)' History of the Qing Dynasty (Slumgwu jixu) and Jllustrated Gazetteer of the 1\Jlaritime Countries (Haiguo twdii) are landmarks in China's ' modern history, for they represent the first systematic attempts by a dedicated Confucian lo provide his countrymen with a realistic picture of military affairs

and the outside world. A sizable compilation running to sixty' chapters, the: Ga.zetteer owed its inception to the pioneering work of Lin Zexu, who, whilt: . in Guangzhou, niadc strenuous efforts to gather inform

:i

In the background of the Gazetteer was Wei's interest in military and finan• cial history. For most of the decade beginning in 1814, Wei had lived in Beijing,} trying without success to pass the metropolitan examination; he purchased a;i minor official position and retid voraciously on problems of statecraft. Servicei:': as a tutor in the home of a leading military commander stimulated his interest:!: in Qing military history. He took extensive notes on archival ,md other source~i':: to which he was able to gain access. During the Opium War (1839-1842), Weiidf; then living in Yangzhou, in the Lower Yangzi me,i, was stimulated enough by:!i the events taking place to complete hi:; book Military Histor)' of the Qing Dy\,'. nasty, ending with chapters on the current debacle and on the need for reformiS Wei traced the weaknesses of the Qing military system to the late eighteent~J: century-weaknesses in the system of finance, in weaponry, and above all, i1'1'il: low morale and the lack of vigor with which the court's orders were carried " Wei came to rc,1lize that the "barbarians" from the maritirnc countries advanced in the matter of technology, military as well as industrial. Moreovd,.J! although peace was signed at the Tiealy of Nanjing (August i.842), the contiifi! uing threat from the British was iuiplicil. Other Western countries, includin~I!!

France and the United States, were seeking t.o be recognized. Only five montlis,j!! after he completed 1\1ilitary History of the Qing Dynasty, Wei finished an earlf!iii edition of the lllustrated Gazetteer of the Maritim& Countries. ''\!:i

Wei's general thesis in the Gazetteer is this: the Western barbarians, bent o~ii~ power and profit, have devised techniques and machines by which to subv · · or conquer the civilized world. China, dedicated as she is to virtue, learni and the ways of peace, possesses a spiritual ,md moral strength that c,m . triumph over the enerny if only the Chinese awaken to the danger and ap themselves to the practical problems involved, 'Trnditiom1! military sciern::e su&,

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gests that the first requisite is intelligence of the enemy- of his strengths and weaknesses. The second requisite is to match these strengths and exploit the weaknesses. ff the natural abilities of the Chinese are devoted to the study and adoption of Western military methods, and there is not too great an impatience with the achievement of immediate results, the time will come when China can reas$crt itself. In the meantime, it should seek to exploit the prime weakness of the \Vest- its inherent disunity, which derives from the lack of a common niornl basis and consequent anarchy of selfish ambitions among the nations. 'fo play the Western powers off against one another is then the obvious strategy.

Despite the violent and contemptuous tone of his language, Wei is careful to state that his is a policy valid for either war or peace. He admits the possibility that China's military preparations may not enable her soon to resist or ath1ck the 'iVest. Peace negotiations could prove necessary ag,iin, as they were in the Opium War. Yet a policy of playing the Western powers off against each other, while gaining time for reform and stJengthening within, would be appropriate even in these circumstances.

Wei's Illustrated Gazetteer of the Nforitime Countries was reprinted many limes, expanded, and supplemented. Japanese editions of this work and Wei's Militaiy History came to the attention of tbe samurai reformer Sakuma Shozm1, who spoke of Wei as a "comrade in another land." Sakuma also commented, however, that .in practical matters like gunnery Wei lacked firsthand experience and his information was often inaccurate. 1')

Thus Wei's approach to the problem of national defense may be said to reflect his Confucian concern for the state, a more realistic estimate of Western power, Hnd the Qing scholar's penchant for works of compilation based on critical, though not necessarily empirical, research. He had neither the oppor- hmi!y, nor perhaps l'he inclination, to take up the practical art of war, which in the past had proven so uncongenial to Chinese Confucian tastes.

PREFACE TO ltfILl'l'.<\RY HISTORY OF THE Qli\lG DYNASTY (SFl/:;;NCWU pxu), 184-2

This prefoce indicates Wei Yuan's considerable emphasis on state power as manifested

in wealth and military strength. At the same time, seeking to rouse the emperor and his ministers to action, Wei appeals lo trm:!ition,tl Confucian moral sentiments, wherein all problems are seen a,, fundamcnta!lr reducible to the need for men of ability and firm will, inspired by classic icleah. It begins with an autobiographical sketch, relating the major events of his times to his own reactions to such events.

ln my later years, I have lived between the Yangzi and the Huai Rivers and

H;,, Cf. Tsunoda, de Bary, and Keene, Svurce. ol]<1panese '/'r(ldi/ion, ch. 24.

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208 nu,: MATURA'l'IOJ'< OF CHINES!,: C!V!LlZATl()N

have frequently been disturbed by alarms from the sea and reports of war. \Vith the sensitivity I have accumulated over the years, I can only sigh over the recent news. f have therefore opened up my files of historical sources, arrnngcd them chronologically and topically, and gone over them many times. 'l'he sources touching on militarv matters as well as mv comments on them are herewith , ' presented in fourteen chapl:ers, a total of more than 400,000 words. The work is completed in the same month [August 1842} that the maritime barbarians [i.e., the British] have accepted the peace agreement in Nanjing ....

Now the state is not poor when there is a deficit in its finances, it is poor when vigorous and competitive hilents are wanting. 'T'he state is not weak when its decrees are not obeyed abroad, but the state is weak when its decrees are not obeyed within its own territories, Therefore the former kings did not worry about revenues but regarded human talent as the urgent matter, They did not worry about their will being thwarted by the barbarians from all directions, but they did worry about their will being thv,mrted any-where within the realm. When its officials are all chosen from among human talents, the wealth of the state is, assured; when none of its decrees are disregarded within its territories, the state's) power is enhanced. When the state is rich and powerful, it will be effective-: it deals with the traitnrs and they will not persist in their ways; it administersj revenue and [the revenue] will not. be wasted; it acquires weapons and they will i not be flawed; it organizes armed forces and the troops will not he undet strength. What then is there to fear about barbarians anywhere -what is there ,f to worry about as to defense against aggression? . . . ·

fn the Record of Rites it is said, "Hurniliation stimulates effort; when the?; countiy is humiliated, its spirit will be aroused. ",n This is why ancient sovereign('i who inherited realms that had long seen peace and security would realize that·;. their own pronouncements were irreversible. Inspiring fear, they issued milital)':·; commands so as to strengthen the morale of all-under-Heaven. In a munificenf!H m,inner, they gave out military provisions to attract the talents of all-under~·i;J Heaven. With talents advanced, military affairs are in good order. When th~m morale of the people is stern, the state inspires gre;it awe. When the sovereigll ; is pleased, it will be spring in all the four seas; when he is angry, it will be>/: autumn. The Five Senses [those of ears, eyes, mouth, nose, and heart~an4~,t mind] are strong, and the Five Weapons [knife, sword, spear, lance, and bo,~i:J and arrow] are in good supply. Prohibitions and decrees are strictly followed~i,,j and barbarians from all direction, come to pay tribute to the sovereign ..... It/i is thus that the later sages !cam from the early sages, and later kings learn fr the early kings. To learn from early sages and early kings - the closest to achi ing this were our great and heroic early emperors fof the Qing dynasty]. Classic of Documents says, "Have in good order also your military m:•L.:u1.,v'",;:;1

20. '·Aigong ,ven.'' Liji jijie 2.7:9)"

Chinese Statecrafi and the Opening of China to !he West 209

ments and weapons, so that you may go forth beyond the steps of Yn, and be able to trnvel over all the realm, even beyond the seas, everywhere rneeting with submission - so shall you display the bright glory of King \,Ven and render more illustrious the great achievements of King Wu. "21

I therefore am daring enough to present this military history of the sacred Qing dynasty, with folded hancfa and bowing my hei1d lo the ground.

[Wei Yuan ji v. 1, pp. 166-168 - KCL]

PREFACE TO JLU1S11MTED GAZETTl':lm OF THE 1'WAJUTll\11': COUNTRIES

(HA!GUO TU:CHT)

[n the preface to his work, Wei, characteristically for the Qing scholar. starts with a discussion of the sm1rces he has drawn upon. Then he explains the nature and purpose:s of the work ,md provides a conspectus of the contents, chapter by chapter. 'The whole is in a highly rhetorical style, replete with classical allusions and the usnal assumptions in regard f() Chinese cultural supcrioritv.

The present work, Illustrated Gazetteer of the Maritime Countries, contain8 sixty chapters. Upon \.Vhat is it based? It is based, on the one hand, upon the Gazetteer of the Four Continents, which was translated by Lin [Zexu], former governor- general of Guangdong and Gmmgxi, and, on the other hand, upou the histories and gazetteers of different previous dynasties, and the different series of Island Ga,zetteers published since the Ming period, and also upon many barbarian atla$cS and books published in recent years. Ther were brought together, and thoroughly searched. Many diffieulties had to be worked out in order that this pioneer work might he vublisbed.

At a ro11gh estimate, about 80 percent of the source materials used in this book covering the Southeastern Ocean [Southenst A,ia] and the Southwestern Ocean [South and West Asia] and about 60 percent covering the Great Western Ocean [Western Europe], the Little Western Ocean !North Africa], the North- ern Ocean (Russia and Eastern Europe], and the Outer Great Western Ocean [North and South America] ,He new materials supplementing the original [Lin's] hook covering the same areas. They are also illustrated with maps, tahle8, !ind diagrams. A varie~, of opinion from different schools is presented in the interests of broad coverage.

In what respect does this work differ from the gazetteers of earlier writers? 'fhe answer is that l:hose earlier works all described the \Vest as it appeared to Chinese writers, while this book describes the \Vest as it appears to Westerners.

\Vhat is the purpose of the present work? Its purpose is to show how to use barbarians to fight barbarians, how to make the barbarians pacifv one another

21, Cf. Legge, 111e Chinese CfoH11b, +5~!.

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[to our advantage!, and how to employ the techniques of the barbarians in order to bring the barbarians under control. ... In ancient times those who succeeded in driving off the barhariam knew the enemy's position as clearly as if it were spread out upon their own desk or carpet; they ,vere informed of the enemy's condition as intimately as if the enemy were dining or sleeping with them.

With this book in hand, then, will it be possible to drive off the barbarians? Perhaps so, perhaps not This book provides only military tactics, not the

basic strategy. It provides the tangible means for making war, but not the intan- gible ones ....

Our present emperor, His Majesty, is benevolent and diligent. His virtue matches that of His ancestors. The operations of Heaven in time and of man through his own efforts are conjoined for our advantage. \Vhy should we fear that the time is not ripe for extermination of the barbarians; why should we fear that there may be no chance to show our might? Thus all of om courageous·' people must show their eagerness for the achievement of such .1 task, and any~J one who has not Jost his senses must devise some means for its accomplishment; ,f Away with hypocrisy! Away with all window dressing! Away with the dread of,;[ difficulty! Away with the nurturing of internal evils and the tolerating of private!! gain at the expense of the public interest! Then the minds of men will b~ l!i aroused from their ignorant lethargy.

First of all, through practical projects we must advance practical effort; ancl. through practical effort advance practical projects .... We must not try to drow11 · ourselves in the river merely to show our heroism, nor must we try to ap1pe11se ,: our hunger by drawing picture-cakes. Then we shall no longer be plagued a dearth of men with practical abilities.

Second, once we are rid of our ignorant lethargy, the sun will shine brightly in the sky; once the dearth of men with practical abilities is rennecne<•,•:H government orders will be carried out with the speed of wind and lll'.""·""'ISS:, 1

Defensive measures may serve offensive purpo,es as well as pmposes peaceful negotiation. Use the barbarians to control the barbarians, so that our borders may be strongly held. Thus the first section of this book deals wi . maritime defense.

Down through three thousand years [ of world history], over the ninety tho sand Ii of the world's circumference, both vertically in time and horizon in space, with geographical charts and historical datl!, tl•e second section pr ents a general survey of historical and territorial changes for all nations in world.

Neither the barbarian religion nor the barbarian opium can penetrate th borders of om vassal states [to the south]. Alas, that they can show their will I: resist [while we cannot]. So the third section deals with the nations along coast of the Southeastern Ocean [i.e., Indochina, Thailand, and so on].

The Isles of Luzon and Java ! i.e., the Philippines and Indonesia] are equ.

Chinese Stat('cmft and the 0/Jening of China to the We1,l 211

in extent to Japan, but they are either encroached upon or absorbed [by the Western barbariansj. 'faking heed of the ovcrtnrncd cart ahead l to avert a similar disaster for ourselves], the fourth section deals with the Isles of the Southeastern Ocean [Southe,istern Asiaj.

'f11e religion has heen changed three times [Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam] and the land cut into Five Regions. The magpies' nest is now occupied by the turtledoves,22 which arc also a threat to China. This fifth section deals with India.

Both whites and bl,1cks are from remote and isolated are,1s. They ,,re forced to serve as a vitngmml, collaborating with the seafarers of the West. This sixth ,ection deals with North Africa of the Little \-Vestern Ocean.

'T'he western part of the l\ileditemmean Sea is inhabited by many barbarian tribes, who cherish only profit and power, and indeed arc as treacherous as the owls. 'fhis seventh section deals with the European countries in the Great Western Ocean.

Her [Russia's] tail lies in the East and her head in the West; her northern borders extend to the sea of ice. If we make alliances with the nearby countries in order to attack those afar, she may he our friend in a land war. This eighth section deals with Russia in the Northern Ocean. [In this section Wei set~ forth his hope that Russia may distract Englnnd by invading India. In the next he suggests that the United States would be a natural ally in rn1val warfare.]

It has effectively resisted the violent invasion of the English barbarians and faithfol.ly guarded the central phiin. If we make allianees with those afar, in order to attack those ne;irby, it may be of assistance in a sea war. This ninth section deals with the United States in the Outer Great [Western] Oce:m.

Every man has Heaven as his source; religious teachings derive from th<;: sages. Though the different teachings meet and part, agree and disagree, they are all orderly and logical. The tenth section deals with religions of the \:Vestern nations.

It is China alone that embraces ten thm1s.ind fi under one sovereignty. ln contrast with one another and unconnected are Europe and Arabia. 'I'his elev- enth section present, a chronologicnl table of events in China and the \Vest.

'foe Chinese calendar has been supplemented by the Western; the 'Western calendar differs from the Chinese. As a guide for the people in their seasonal labors., ours takes the place of honor. This twelfth section presents a table of sin1ilarities and differences between the Chinese and the Western calendars.

In wanopogrnphy is of first importance, however remote and wild the region. By the gathering of supplies and sketching of plans, a war cun be won in the 0 ffiec. T'his thirteenth section presents a general survey of geographical con- ditions in each country.

'Topography, important though it be, is nothing compared to cooperation

22. So stupid they cannot nrn kc a nest for \h~mselve,.

212 TH[,: :'v!A'l'VHATION OF CHINESE CtVJLJZ:\TIO:'-i

among men. Snrprise ladies and orthodox strategy are to be used according to circmnstanccs, so that there will be the least expenditure of force and a maxi­ mum of concerted planning. This fourteenth section presents a program for controlling the barbarians.

Knowing one· s own plans and being familiar with those of the enemy, one may judge whether to wage war or negotiate peace. \Vithout knowing the right rnedicine, how can one cnre the disease of shortsightedness and stupidity? The fifteenth section offers a compilation of data on the barbarian situation.

Maritime warfare depends upon warships, as land wmfore depends upon battlements. \Vithout mastering the best techniques, how cm, the stormy seas be tamed? T'he sixteenth section presents a detailed discussion of warships.

'fhe Five Phases arc able to subdue one another. Among them metal and fire arc the most fierce. A thunder blast from the earth can serve both offensive and defensive pmposcs. 'T'he seventeenth section presents a cletiii.lcd discussion of fireanns and their use in warfare.

·rhe languages and conveyances of different peoples me not the same, but their currencies are similaL Tei make skillfol use of them, one must make the utmost nsc of one's intelligence. The eighteenth section deals with 1:westem] currency, goods ) and contrivances.

'fhis preface is written by Wei Yuan of Shaoyang, Secretary to the Cabinet, on the twelfth moon of the twenty-second year of Daoguang ( Fcbmary 1843) at Yangzhou.

[Fron, original preface, l·laiguo tuchi, rn-6b]

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In Ebrey, Chinese Civilization: A Sourcebook, 3 I 1-312.

68

PLACARDS POSTED IN GUANGZHOU

The Opium War between China and Great Britain ( 1839-1842) was fought over issues of trade and diplomatic access. The Chinese were trying to suppress the importation of opium and the British were trying to expand the rights of British merchants to trade freely in China. When the British Navy showed it could take China's coastal cities easily, the Chinese bad little choice but to accept British terms. In the treaties signed in 1842 and 1843 the Chinese ceded Hong Kong, opened five treaty ports, and gave British subjects in China special legal privi- leges.

In the Guangzhou (Canton) area, passions had been roused by the efforts of officials to suppress opium a1t11 resist the British, and it was not easy to get the population to accept the terms of the treaties. As seen in the following placards which local gentry posted, many local residents were determined not to let the foreigners enter.

1 mation granting permission to enter the city. They have not considered that the English barbarians,

We, the literati and righteous people of Guang· born and raised in noxious regions beyond the zhou, including those who live on the land and on bounds of civilization, having the hearts of the water, those who live inside and outside the wolves, the visage of tigers, and the cunning of city, publish these instructions to let the barbar- foxes, plan to take possession of our province and ian merchants of all nations understand our in• only desire to enter the walls so that they may spy tentions. out the !and. Now having received a prodama-

The injuries, deceits, cruel deeds, and evil acts tion allowing their entrance, they will not only . of the English resident barbarians are as innumer- exercise violence and usurpation, but will insult h, · ''"able as the hairs of the head. Now they plot to and injure the people to an unspeakable degree.

coerce our high authorities. They have long Therefore, we, the literati and the people of wished to enter the city; and our superiors, from Guangzhou, however small our strength, have thedepthsoftheirvirtueandthegreatnessoftheir prepared ourselves for the contest. We declare benevolence, have given in and issued a proda• that sooner than obey the prod,imation and suf-

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312 The Qing Dynasty

fer these wild barbarians, we will act in opposi• tion and adhere to the old regulations of our government. In public assembly, we decided to await the day they enter the city, then exterminate their odious race and burn their houses. With united hearts, we will destroy them in order to display celestial vengeance and manifest public in- dignation.

But we are aware that at the thirteen factories barbarian merchants of all nations are assembled together for commerce, the good. and the bad mixed together. When the standard of righteous- ness is raised, the precious and the vile might be consumed together if they were not warned in ad- vance. Therefore we give this· special early"an- nouncement.

All the good barbarians who intend to remain in their places quietly and do not contemplate en• tering the city shall come to no harm if they prompty leave. As regards all the people whQ live in the vicinity of the factories, if they wish to guard themselves and their establishments, they should not go out of doors to protect or save the barbar- ians. Otherwise calamity will overtake them, and they will have no time for regrets. Be warned. Tremble. Be on your guard. These are special commands.

Posted in front of the thirteen factories on the 18th day of the twelfth month of 1845.

2

When the English barbarians started the quarrel about opium, our august sovereign, out of con• sideration for the people of the seas, and unwill- ing to make them suffer the horrors of war, consented to free trade [at the five ports). He thereby manifested the highest degree of tender regard. All of our high provincial authorities have also in every way possible manifested their gener- osity. Bu:t the desires of the barbarians cannot be fathomed, and their repeated wanton deeds are already sufficient to make men's hair stand on end. Often of late they have, under the pretext of

entering the city to take exercise and relaxation, hoped to get secret opportunities for spying out and usurping the land. Nothing can exceed their violent insults.

Consider how different our case is from the oth· ers. In our metropolis, Guangzhou, commercial· transactions are all conducted outside the walls of the city, while the opposite is the case at Fuzhou and Ningbo. Therefore they have no real reason to enter the city. In asking to enter the city to take exercise and relaxation, they reveal their opposi- tion to the old regulations. Moreover the city isan important site. Here are not only the offices of gov- ernment, the granaries and prisons, but also the family residences of all the people. If a perverse line · of action is allowed to begin, violent opposition to authority will shortly follow, which will lead on to shameless usurpation and eventually to mutual " slaughter. War will recommence.

For the protection of our families and the pres• ervation of their lives, we will firmly maintain the oaths we have taken and never swerve from our determination. If they truly keep to their intention to enter the city, every house and every family will prepare heaps of stones and bricks at their doors, and when the gong is sounded, every streetand · lane shall be closed to prevent their escape. If the · barbarians use force and attack the gates, the peo- ple of every street will shower down their bricks and stories, and, shouting to each other from ev• · ery quarter, will advance, slaughter the whole multitude, and then demolish their factories and burn up their ships, not allowing one to escape,

Notice has already been given to the people and scholars in every direction to assemble and train the righteous and valiant among them and to place guards at the important and dangerous passes, ready for all emergencies.

We, the inhabitants of the whole city, ought and must, with one heart and united strength, de• fend our ancestral city. Anyone who dares to op- pose us, may both the gods and men dash to pieces.

This manifesto is issued by the united gentry and people of all Guangzhou.