Contrast the five bases of power

Provide two slides for a description of each 5 Bases of Power.

Also make sure there are speaker notes on the 2 slides!!

This is part of a group assignment that is why I only need 2 slides!!

8 GROUPS AND TEAMS How Can Working with Others Increase Everybody’s Performance? © 2014 Angelo Kinicki and Mel Fugate. All rights reserved. Reproduction prohibited without permission of the authors. MAJOR TOPICS I’LL LEARN AND QUESTIONS I SHOULD BE ABLE TO ANSWER 8.1GROUP CHARACTERISTICS MAJOR QUESTION: How can knowledge of groups and their key characteristics make me more successful? 8.2THE GROUP DEVELOPMENT PROCESS MAJOR QUESTION: How can understanding the group development process make me more effective at school and work? 8.3TEAMS AND THE POWER OF COMMON PURPOSE MAJOR QUESTION: What are the characteristics of effective team players and team building, and how does this knowledge improve my performance in various types of teams? 8.4TRUST BUILDING AND REPAIR—ESSENTIAL TOOLS FOR SUCCESS MAJOR QUESTION: How can I build and repair trust in ways that make me more effective at school, work, and home? 8.5KEYS TO TEAM EFFECTIVENESS MAJOR QUESTION: What are the keys to effective teams, and how can I apply this knowledge to give me an advantage? INTEGRATIVE FRAMEWORK FOR UNDERSTANDING AND APPLYING OB This chapter focuses on group and team dynamics. You will learn that these group-level processes relate to important outcomes at not only the group, but also the individual and organizational levels in the Integrative Framework. As such, group and team dynamics are critically important processes in the study and practice of OB. Page 255 winning at work USING TEAM CHARTERS TO BOOST EFFECTIVENESS When working in teams, most students, and employees, often hurry into the task at hand. While this works sometimes, social scientists and OB professionals have identified a better approach. They recommend that individuals in the team should first examine member strengths, share personal expectations, set common goals, ascertain levels of commitment, agree on processes for communication and decision making, and decide how to measure and control contributions from members. SOURCE: From “Increasing Student-Learning Team Effectiveness with Team Charters,” by Phillip Hunsaker, Cynthia Pavett, and Johanna Hunsaker, Journal of Education for Business 86, 2011, 127–138. (Figure 2, p. 130). Reprinted by permission of the publisher, Taylor & Frances Ltd., http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals. Without this preparation, many teams fail to realize the synergies of the collective input of team members and get bogged down in unproductive conflict. Team charters can help avoid or overcome many of these challenges. Charters outline why a team exists, what its goals are, and how members are expected to behave to achieve said goals. Charters also establish norms that govern individual behavior, provide criteria for measuring team outcomes, and develop guidelines for assessing member behavior. Effective team charters have the following components: 1.Mission statement: The team’s purpose; why the team exists; what the team needs to accomplish. 2.Team vision: A clear and concise statement of the ideal end state the team desires to achieve in terms of all of the entities that will be affected by the team’s outcomes. 3.Team identity: Includes a team name and logo that represent member composition and goals; a team roster with each member’s name, phone number, e-mail address; and an assessment of each member’s strengths and improvement goals. 4.Boundaries: Clarifies policies, procedures, and values the team subscribes to that cannot be violated; limitations on the team’s performance; the decisions the team can make on its own versus needing permission from others; the activities that are legitimate for the team to engage in; the stakeholders affected by the team’s activities. 5.Operating guidelines: Describes the team structure and processes including how leaders will function, how decisions will be made, how work will be allocated, communication procedures, how conflict will be managed, and how member growth and development will be facilitated. 6.Performance norms and consequences: Describes norms needed to facilitate goal attainment in member satisfaction, including the standards of performance; how team and member performance will be evaluated; how members will treat each other; how dysfunctional behaviors will be managed; how team members will be disciplined for not adhering to team norms; the due process for terminating a member from the team; expectations for team meetings; expectations for team project contributions; consequences for work that is late or is of poor quality; how grades for team projects will be allocated to individual team members. 7.Charter endorsement: All team members sign the team charter agreement to verify their endorsement and commitment to uphold the team charter. Those not agreeing to all terms should leave the team for reassignment. FOR YOUWHAT’S AHEAD IN THIS CHAPTER We begin Part Two of this book with a discussion of groups and teams. Your success at work or school improves when you understand the differences between formal and informal groups, as the two have different functions, roles, norms, and dynamics. Next we describe the group and team development process for the same reason. We then differentiate groups from teams and explore important team characteristics, such as team competencies, teamwork and team building, and finally two important types of teams—self-managed and virtual. The importance of trust is covered next as it is a critical element to group and team functioning. We close by exploring facilitators for team effectiveness such as common purpose, composition, cooperation, and team size. Page 256 8.1GROUP CHARACTERISTICS MAJOR QUESTION How can knowledge of groups and their key characteristics make me more successful? THE BIGGER PICTURE Groups are often labeled formal or informal and serve multiple functions. As a member of such groups, you can play many different roles. Group roles and norms are the means by which expectations are communicated to groups and their members. Roles and norms therefore are powerful forms of social control that influence group and member behavior. They also impact a number of important outcomes across levels in the Integrative Framework. Drawing from the field of sociology, we define a group as (1) two or more freely interacting individuals who (2) share norms and (3) goals and have a (4) common identity.1 People form groups for many reasons. Most fundamental among these reasons is that groups usually accomplish more than individuals. Furthermore, research consistently shows that groups routinely outperform the average of their individual members, particularly with quantitative tasks. Examples include financial forecasts, sales estimates, and climate change predictions. It seems that simply interacting with others improves both individual and team accuracy in such tasks. Building on what you learned in Chapter 6, these performance benefits increase further still if the team receives feedback that describes which member’s approach is most effective. The rationale is that the team becomes more efficient, focuses on the best approach, and then applies the knowledge and efforts to improving on the best approach, which raises performance even more.2 It is useful to distinguish the group from a crowd or organization. Here is how organizational psychologist E. H. Schein helps make the distinctions clear: The size of a group is . . . limited by the possibilities of mutual interaction and mutual awareness. Mere aggregates of people do not fit this definition because they do not interact and do not perceive themselves to be a group even if they are aware of each other as, for instance, a crowd on a street corner watching some event. A total department, a union, or a whole organization would not be a group in spite of thinking of themselves as “we,” because they generally do not all interact and are not all aware of each other. However, work teams, committees, subparts of departments, cliques, and various other informal associations among organizational members would fit this definition of a group.3 The size of a group is thus limited by the potential for mutual interaction and mutual awareness.4 Think of the various groups to which you belong. Does each group satisfy the four criteria in our definition? Have a look at Figure 8.1, which illustrates the four criteria. To increase your understanding of groups, we next address their functions, roles, norms, and dynamics. Formal and Informal Groups Individuals join or are assigned to groups for various purposes. A formal group is assigned by organizations or their managers to accomplish specific goals. Such groups often have labels: work group, team, committee, or task force. An informal group exists when the members’ overriding purpose of getting together is friendship or a common interest.5 Formal and informal groups often overlap, such as when a team of corporate auditors heads for the tennis courts after work. Friendships forged on the job can be so strong as to outlive the job itself in an era of job hopping, reorganizations, and mass layoffs. Page 257 FIGURE 8.1FOUR CRITERIA OF A GROUP Whole Foods has effectively applied the concept of formal groups to their stores. For instance, employees clearly identify with their particular store and compete against other stores. For example, membership in organized corporate “alumni” groups is increasingly popular. There are now alumni groups for hundreds of companies, including Hewlett-Packard, Ernst & Young, and Texas Instruments. Some groups are started by former employees, while others are formally sanctioned by employers as a way to stay in touch, creating a potential pool of boomerang workers that employers can draw from when hiring picks up.6 A quick Google search revealed more than 8,500 ex-employee groups, many of which are facilitated by Facebook. The desirability of overlapping formal and informal groups is debatable.7 Some managers firmly believe personal friendship fosters productive teamwork on the job, while others view such relationships as a serious threat to productivity. Both situations are common, and it is the manager’s job to strike a workable balance based on the maturity and goals of the people involved. A survey of 1,000 US adults revealed that 61 percent consider their bosses to be friends. However, approximately a third of those who are connected with their boss on a social networking site wish they weren’t!8 This is food for thought. Functions of Formal Groups Researchers point out that formal groups fulfill two basic functions: organizational and individual (see Table 8.1).9 Complex combinations of these functions can be found in formal groups at any given time. TABLE 8.1FORMAL GROUPS FULFILL ORGANIZATIONAL AND INDIVIDUAL FUNCTIONS ORGANIZATIONAL FUNCTIONS INDIVIDUAL FUNCTIONS 1. Accomplish complex, interdependent tasks that are beyond the capabilities of individuals. 1. Satisfy the individual's need for affiliation. 2. Generate new or creative ideas and solutions. 2. Develop, enhance, and confirm the individual's self-esteem and sense of identity. 3. Coordinate interdepartmental efforts. 3. Give individuals an opportunity to test and share their perceptions of social reality. 4. Provide a problem-solving mechanism for complex problems requiring varied information and assessments. 4. Reduce the individual's anxieties and feelings of insecurity and powerlessness. 5. Implement complex decisions. 5. Provide a problem-solving mechanism for personal and interpersonal problems. 6. Socialize and train newcomers. SOURCE: Adapted from E. H. Schein, Organizational Psychology, 3rd ed. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1980), 149–151. Page 258 TAKE-AWAY APPLICATION—TAAP 1.Think of a formal group in which you’re a member. 2.Describe how being a member of that group fulfills at least three of the five individual functions listed in Table 8.1. Be specific and use concrete examples. 3.Now describe in detail how the team fulfills at least two of the organizational functions. Consider, for example, the law firm of Baker Donelson. The firm highly values community service and has doubled its number of pro bono hours each year since 2008. To formalize their commitment to such work, they appointed Lisa Borden as pro bono shareholder and created a pro bono committee.10 Not only does this show the alignment of cultural values and norms you’ll learn about in Chapter 14, but it also illustrates both the organizational and individual functions of formal groups. Specifically, the committee helps coordinate pro bono work across the many offices and practice areas of the firm (organizational function). And free services support Baker Donelson’s organizational values and goals of being a good citizen in their communities and increasing attorney satisfaction (organizational functions). In addition, providing pro bono work most likely fulfills individual functions, such as confirming an attorney’s sense of identity (as a kind, caring individual), building strong work relationships, and living according to one’s values. Roles and Norms—Social Building Blocks for Group and Organizational Behavior Work groups transform individuals into functioning organizational members through subtle yet powerful social forces. These social forces, in effect, turn “I” into “we” and “me” into “us.” Group influence weaves individuals into the organization’s social fabric by communicating and enforcing both role expectations and norms. Group members positively reinforce those who adhere to current roles and norms with friendship and acceptance. On the other hand, nonconformists experience criticism and even ostracism or rejection by group members. Anyone who has experienced the “silent treatment” from a group of friends knows what a potent social weapon ostracism can be. The usefulness of roles and norms is enhanced by understanding how they develop and why they are enforced. RolesA role is a set of expected behaviors for a particular position, and a group role is a set of expected behaviors for members of the group as a whole.11 Therefore each role you play is defined in part by the expectations of that role. As a student, you are expected to be motivated to learn, conscientious, participative, and attentive. Professors are expected to be knowledgeable, prepared, and genuinely interested in student learning. Sociologists view roles and their associated expectations as a fundamental basis of human interaction and experience. In the many arenas of life (e.g., work, family, and school), people often play multiple roles. At work, for example, employees frequently play roles that go beyond duties in a job description, such as helping coworkers and suggesting improvements.12 Employees often serve in multiple groups and may play one or more roles within each. Two types of roles are particularly important—task and maintenance. Effective groups ensure that both roles are fulfilled (see Table 8.2).13 But before continuing with your learning about group roles, it will be helpful to learn about your own group role preferences by completing Self-Assessment 8.1. Knowing which types of roles you prefer can help you understand why you might have been more or less satisfied with a particular group or team of which you’ve been a member. Playing roles that don’t match your preferences is likely to be less satisfying. Moreover, if you understand your own preferences, you can set yourself up to win (be happy and productive) in future groups, as you can volunteer or position yourself to play the roles you prefer. Page 259 TABLE 8.2TASK AND MAINTENANCE ROLES TASK ROLES DESCRIPTION Initiator Suggests new goals or ideas Information seeker/giver Clarifies key issues Opinion seeker/giver Clarifies pertinent values Elaborator Promotes greater understanding through examples or exploration of implications Coordinator Pulls together ideas and suggestions Orienter Keeps group headed toward its stated goal(s) Evaluator Tests group's accomplishments with various criteria such as logic and practicality Energizer Prods group to move along or to accomplish more Procedural technician Performs routine duties (e.g., handing out materials or rearranging seats) Recorder Performs a “group memory” function by documenting discussion and outcomes MAINTENANCE ROLES DESCRIPTION Encourager Fosters group solidarity by accepting and praising various points of view Harmonizer Mediates conflict through reconciliation or humor Compromiser Helps resolve conflict by meeting others “halfway" Gatekeeper Encourages all group members to participate Standard setter Evaluates the quality of group processes Commentator Records and comments on group processes/dynamics Follower Serves as a passive audience SOURCE: Adapted from discussion in K. D. Benne and P. Sheats, “Functional Roles of Group Members,” Journal of Social Issues, Spring 1948, 41–49. SELF-ASSESSMENT 8.1Group and Team Role Preference Scale Go to connect.mheducation.com and take Self-Assessment 8.1 to learn which roles you prefer to play in group and team settings. 1.Does your preferred role match your perceptions? Justify your answer using examples of your behavior. 2.Given your preferred role (the one with the highest score), describe how you could be most effective in group assignments? What challenges might your preferred role cause for you? For your group? 3.Given your least preferred role (the one with the lowest score), describe how this has been problematic for you and one of your teams. Explain two ways you could improve your performance and that of your team by working on this deficiency. Page 260 Task roles enable the work group to define, clarify, and pursue a common purpose, and maintenance roles foster supportive and constructive interpersonal relationships. In short, task roles keep the group on track while maintenance roles keep the group together. A project team member is performing a task function when he or she says at an update meeting, “What is the real issue here? We don’t seem to be getting anywhere.” Another individual who says, “Let’s hear from those who oppose this plan,” is performing a maintenance function. Importantly, each of the various task and maintenance roles may be played in varying combinations and sequences by either the group’s leader or any of its members.14 TAKE-AWAY APPLICATION—TAAP 1.Think of a (formal or informal) group of which you’re a member. 2.Describe how at least three task roles are fulfilled. Explain how the roles are fulfilled using examples of specific people and behaviors. 3.Do the same for at least three maintenance roles. (Note: If necessary use more than one group, but be sure to describe at least three task and three maintenance roles.) Sallie Krawcheck, from interview on her purchase of the networking company 85 Broads. The task and maintenance roles listed in Table 8.2 can serve as a handy checklist for managers and group leaders who wish to ensure proper group effectiveness and development (discussed in the next section of this chapter). Roles that are not always performed when needed, such as those of coordinator, evaluator, and gatekeeper, can be performed in a timely manner by the formal leader or assigned to other members. Leaders can further ensure that roles are fulfilled by clarifying specifically what is expected of employees in the group. Sallie Krawcheck, one of the most powerful women on Wall Street and former executive at Citibank and Bank of America (B of A), provides an excellent example. When she took over as president of the Global Wealth and Investment Management (GWIM) group at B of A, she was quick to fulfill both task and maintenance roles. At the embattled bank she quickly tended to task roles and appointed eight executives to oversee various operations within the group, such as heads of the US brokerage force and private wealth management. New goals were set; she also worked diligently to integrate and harmonize the dual cultures (maintenance roles) of both B of A and Merrill Lynch, which it acquired at the height of the financial crisis.15 The task roles of initiator, orienter, and energizer are especially important because they are goal-directed roles. Research studies on group goal setting confirm the motivational power of challenging goals. As with individual goal setting (Chapters 5 and 6), difficult but achievable goals are associated with better group results.16 Also in line with individual goal-setting theory and research, group goals are more effective if group members clearly understand them and are both individually and collectively committed to achieving them. Initiators, orienters, and energizers can be very helpful in this regard. Moreover, international managers need to be sensitive to cultural differences regarding the relative importance of task and maintenance roles. For example, Asian cultures often value maintenance roles more than groups from the West. Many important maintenance roles are often fulfilled by people referred to as “office moms.” They may or may not have children of their own, but they are the colleagues who are most likely to remember birthdays, circulate cards, and bring cupcakes to celebrate. Office moms may play important mentoring-type roles—listening to employees and giving helpful advice regarding work and life more generally. Sometimes they even offer a shoulder to cry on. They are known to tell you what you need to hear, such as “she knows your significant other is all wrong for you—and will say so.” In short, office moms offer all kinds of support and advice, informally, for work and life matters that fall outside of more formal task roles and company infrastructure (e.g., human resources).17 Page 261 Norms“A norm is an attitude, opinion, feeling, or action—shared by two or more people—that guides behavior.”18 Norms help create order and allow groups to function more efficiently, as they prevent groups from having to progress through the development process each and every time they meet. Can you imagine having to establish guidelines over and over again? Norms are more encompassing than roles, which tend to be at the individual level in the Integrative Framework and pertain to a specific job or situation. Norms, in contrast, are shared phenomena and apply to the group, team, or organization level. Although norms are typically unwritten and seldom discussed openly, they have a powerful influence on group and organizational behavior. As you’ll learn in Chapter 14 (organizational culture), individual and group behavior are guided in part via the shared nature of expectations and norms. For example, the 3M Company has a norm wherein employees devote 15 percent of their time to think big, pursue new ideas, or further develop something spawned from their other work. The “15 percent time” program, as it is called, was started in 1948 and supports the culture of innovation 3M is known for. Google, as well as other tech companies, implements a similar program and allows employees to allocate 20 percent of their time to ideas and projects beyond their own jobs. It is alleged, but not confirmed, that projects developed during this time were Gmail and Google Earth.19 Norms serve many purposes and are thus reinforced. Some of these reasons are listed in Table 8.3. TABLE 8.3WHY NORMS ARE REINFORCED NORM REASON EXAMPLE “Make our department look good in top management's eyes.“ Group/organization survival After vigorously defending the vital role played by the Human Resources Management Department at a divisional meeting, a staff specialist is complimented by her boss. “Success comes to those who work hard and don't make waves.” Clarification of behavioral expectations A senior manager takes a young associate aside and cautions him to be a bit more patient with coworkers who see things differently. “Be a team player, not a star.” Avoidance of embarrassment A project team member is ridiculed by her peers for dominating the discussion during a progress report to top management. “Customer service is our top priority.” Clarification of central values/unique identity Two sales representatives are given a surprise Friday afternoon party for having received prestigious best-in-the-industry customer service awards from an industry association.Page 262 Norms emerge either on their own, over time, or as a more conscious effort. For instance, think of the group of friends you hung out with on Friday night. What are some of the common behaviors and unspoken norms of behavior? Were these norms the result of discussion or did they just kind of happen? In contrast, norms can also be purposefully created, which is what we advocate. (Why leave things to chance at work when you can directly influence them for the better?) The World Health Organization (WHO) provides an excellent example. The mission of the organization is to improve health for people around the world. The WHO took on the challenge of improving surgical outcomes. To do this, its member group World Alliance for Public Safety created the Safe Surgery Checklist that identifies three stages of surgery and the important tasks associated with each. They recommend that a surgery coordinator (a specific task role) be assigned to assure that each task is complete before moving to the next stage. Stage 1—(Sign In) Before Administering Anesthesia: Confirm patient identity, site, procedure, and consent; mark the site of the surgery; anesthesia safety check; pulse oximeter on. Stage 2—(Time Out) Before Incision: Confirm all team members have introduced themselves by name and role; surgeon, anesthesiologist, and nurse confirm patient, procedure, and site; surgeon reviews critical steps and potential challenges; anesthesiologist checks for potential problems; nursing team reviews that all equipment and personnel are in place; confirm appropriate medications have been administered. Stage 3—(Sign Out) Before Patient Leaves Operating Room: Nurse verbally confirms with the team—name of procedure recorded; instrument, sponge, and needle counts are correct; specimen is labeled and includes patient’s name; surgeon, anesthesiologist, and nurse review post-op concerns, medications, and pain management. “By following a few critical steps,” the World Alliance for Public Safety notes, “health care professionals can minimize the most common and avoidable risks endangering the lives and well-being of surgical patients.”20 solving application No Cash Bonuses at Wooga?! But Everybody Else Gets Them! Wooga, a German social gaming company, doesn’t pay performance bonuses. This is hard to believe given the common practice among its competitors to provide generous bonuses. SOURCE: Adapted from P. Glader, “Wooga, A Case Study in No-Cash Bonus Culture,” Fast Company, February 21, 2012, http://www.fastcompany.com/1816541/wooga-case-study-no-cash-bonus-culture, accessed April 28, 2013. For instance, rival Zynga pays top performers with lavish gifts, which can include $100,000 in stock. Its hard-driving culture promotes competition within, tracks individual performance, and demotes or fires those who don’t keep pace. These practices seem to work. Zynga has produced such online hits as Mafia Wars, Farmville, and Zynga Poker. Page 263 Wooga’s games are almost as well known, including Diamond Dash, Bubble Island, Pearl’s Peril, Monster World, and Jelly Splash. So Why Doesn’t Wooga Pay Bonuses? If bonuses work for Zynga, why not for Wooga? Jens Begemann, founder and CEO, says: “I don’t believe in them. . . . If people are not motivated, you may need bonuses to make sure they work. But I don’t think that’s the right incentive.” Bonuses work against Wooga’s culture of openness and collaboration. The company creates games for social platforms (e.g., Facebook) with teams of developers. Sharing all knowledge is essential—within and between teams as well as between management and employees. Begemann doesn’t want teams comparing and competing with each other for ideas, talent, or users (a critical performance measurement in gaming). He reasons that if a team competes for users, it may be unlikely to allow a user to be directed to a Wooga game from a competing team. Performance bonuses could get in the way of Wooga’s overall success. Besides, Begemann notes, in Germany cash bonuses are taxed at nearly 50 percent. “Sometimes, people don’t even realize they received a bonus.” Part of this nobonus practice can be attributed to the European approach to start-ups. In contrast to the winner-take-all approach in US companies, European companies tend not to single out individuals and differentiate their compensation so dramatically. Note, however, that Wooga does use a financial incentive—ownership. Wooga provides employees with initial shares in the company to give workers a stake in the company’s overall success. It Seems to Work and Venture Capital Agrees In 2011 alone, users grew by 185 percent to 40 million monthly users, up from 14 million a year earlier. The practice also has attracted private investors (the company is not yet public). One investor raved, “I fell in love with this philosophy. [Begemann] basically does not believe that running competitive teams is the best way to build the company.” In contrast to just having people work harder, the investor said, “It’s very important people work smarter.” Market Share Update Ranking changes fast in this market. Based on daily active users, Wooga—which by the end of 2012 was Zynga’s closest rival—had slipped to third place as King, the makers of Candy Crush Saga and Pet Rescue Saga, soared to number one. In the first half of 2013 Zynga claimed 52 million users and King 66 million.21 YOUR CALL Stop 1:What potential problems do you see with Wooga’s no-bonus policy? Stop 2:How can your knowledge of group norms help you explain why Wooga’s no-bonus practices foster effective groups? Stop 3:Describe what you would recommend, above and beyond what they already do, to help overcome the challenges associated with Wooga’s no-bonus policy. Another way to think about roles and norms is peer pressure. Peer pressure is about expectations, and we all know what peer pressure is and how effective or problematic it can be. But at its root, peer pressure is simply the influence of the group on the individual, and the expectations of associated roles and norms are the means of this influence. (You’ll learn much more about influencing others in Chapter 12.) Now that you’ve learned what groups are and the importance of roles and norms, let’s move on and explore how to develop effective groups. Combining this knowledge enables you to influence key outcomes at the individual, group, and organizational levels in the Integrative Framework. Page 264 8.2THE GROUP DEVELOPMENT PROCESS MAJOR QUESTION How can understanding the group development process make me more effective at school and work? THE BIGGER PICTURE You’ll find working in groups and teams much easier when you recognize and understand they often follow a five-stage development process. We put each stage in context to help you understand the problems and benefits common to groups and teams as they evolve. Your understanding and application of this knowledge will enable you to more effectively manage individual- and group-level outcomes in the Integrative Framework and perform more successfully in work and school groups. At work and school, groups and teams go through a maturation process. Their development is much like the life-cycle processes found in many disciplines—products in marketing and human development in biology. All of these processes are described in terms of stages that differ in terms of number, sequence, length, and nature.22 Bruce Tuckman formulated perhaps the most popular group development process. His process originally had four stages but was later expanded to five—forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning (see Figure 8.2).23 A word of caution: Similar to Maslow’s theory of needs discussed in Chapter 5, Tuckman’s theory has not withstood rigorous empirical testing. However, many researchers and practitioners like Tuckman’s five-stage model of group development because it is easy to remember and has commonsense appeal. Let’s learn a little bit about this process and its individual stages. Notice in Figure 8.2 how individuals give up a measure of their independence when they join and participate in a group. Also, the various stages are not necessarily of the same duration or intensity. For instance, the storming stage may be practically nonexistent or painfully long, depending on the goal clarity and the commitment and maturity of the members. You can make this process come to life by relating the various stages to your own experiences with work groups, committees, athletic teams, fraternities/sororities, religious groups, or class project teams. Some group experiences that surprised you when they occurred may now make sense or strike you as inevitable when seen as part of a natural development process. Stage 1: Forming During this “ice-breaking” stage, group members tend to be uncertain and anxious about such things as their roles, the people in charge, and the group’s goals. Mutual trust is low, and there is a good deal of holding back to see who takes charge and how. Interestingly, research has shown that this is just the time in a group’s development where some conflict among group members is beneficial. A study of 71 technology project teams revealed that conflict in the early stages of the group development process increased creativity.24 However, the results can be quite different in other situations. For example, in life-and-death situations sometimes faced by surgical teams and airline cockpit crews, the uncertainty inherent in the early stages of development (e.g., forming and storming) can be dangerous. According to the National Transportation Safety Board, “73% of commercial airline pilots’ serious mistakes happen on crews’ first day together.”25 If the formal leader (e.g., a supervisor) does not assert his or her authority, an emergent leader will often step in to fulfill the group’s need for leadership and direction (the details of leadership are discussed in Chapter 13). Page 265 FIGURE 8.2TUCKMAN’S FIVE-STAGE MODEL OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT Stage 2: Storming This is a time of testing. Individuals test the leader’s policies and assumptions as they try to determine how they fit into the power structure. Subgroups take shape, and subtle forms of rebellion, such as procrastination, occur. In fact, some management experts say the reason many new CEOs don’t survive is because they never get beyond the storming stage. Ron Johnson at JCPenney, for example, never really got employees and other top managers on board with his radical rebranding of the retailer. He fired thousands of employees, and much of the old guard, but many of those who remained resisted his plan. The situation was made worse still by a lack of support from the Board of Directors.26 Many groups stall in Stage 2 because of how power and politics (topics we’ll cover in Chapter 12) can erupt into open rebellion. Stage 3: Norming Groups that make it through Stage 2 generally do so because a respected member, other than the leader, challenges the group to resolve its power struggles so something can be accomplished. Page 266 Professional race car drivers, including Danica Patrick, shown here, rely on their teams to develop strategies and implement them effectively to win races. To do this, it is essential that such teams to both reach and maintain the performing stage of group development. Describe how you think the stages of group development unfold in race car teams? Questions about authority and power are best resolved through unemotional, matter-of-fact group discussion.