Data entry screen design examples

CHAPTER 8 User Interface Design

Chapter 8 is the first of three chapters in the systems design phase of the SDLC. This chapter explains how to design an effective user interface, and how to handle data security and control issues. The chapter stresses the importance of user feedback and involvement in all design decisions.

OBJECTIVES

When you finish this chapter, you will be able to :

· Explain the concept of user interface design and human-computer interaction, including basic principles of user-centered design

· Explain how experienced interface designers perform their tasks

· Describe rules for successful interface design

· Discuss input and output technology issues

· Design effective source documents and forms

· Explain printed output guidelines

· Describe output and input controls and security

· Explain modular design and prototyping techniques

INTRODUCTION

User interface design is the first task in the systems design phase of the SDLC. Designing the interface is extremely important because everyone wants a system that is easy to learn and use.

After discussing the user interface, human-computer interaction, and interface design rules, the chapter describes output, data security and control issues, prototyping, and the next steps in the systems design process.

PREVIEW CASE: Mountain View College Bookstore

Background: Wendy Lee, manager of college services at Mountain View College, wants a new information system that will improve efficiency and customer service at the three college bookstores.

In this part of the case, Tina Allen (systems analyst) and David Conroe (student intern) are talking about user interface design issues.

Participants:

Tina and David

Location:

Mountain View College Cafeteria, Monday afternoon, November 25, 2013

Project status:

Tina and David have examined development strategies for the new bookstore system. After performing cost-benefit analysis, they recommended in-house development of the new bookstore system. Now they are ready to begin the systems design phase by working on user interface design for the new system.

Discussion topics:

User interface design concepts and principles

Tina:

Hi, David. Ready to start work on user interface design?

David:

Sure. Will we start with output because it’s important to users?

Tina:

Output is very important, but the most important issue for users is the interface itself. For example, is it easy to learn? Is it easy to work with? We’ll try to design everything — output, input, and all the other elements — from a user’s point of view.

David:

How do we do that?

Tina:

Well, many sources of information about effective design concepts and principles are available. We’ll study those, and then ask our own users for their input and suggestions.

David:

What about input and data entry?

Tina:

Good question, You’ve heard the old saying, “garbage in, garbage out.” User interface principles apply to user input generally, but repetitive data entry deserves special attention. We need to create screen forms that are logical and easy to understand, as well as input masks and data entry validation rules. We also need to review any source documents that will be filled in manually.

David:

Anything else?

Tina:

Yes. The bookstore system probably will have some confidential data regarding budgets and markup policies, so we’ll have to consider security and control issues. If you’re ready, here’s a task list to get us started:

FIGURE 8-1 Typical user interface design tasks.

© Cengage Learning 2014

SYSTEMS DESIGN PHASE OVERVIEW

Because the components of a system are interdependent, the design phase is not a series of clearly defined steps. Although you might start in one area, you could find yourself working with several different elements at the same time. For example, a decision to change a report format might require changes in data design or input screens. Your design checklist will include the user interface, input and output procedures, data design, and system architecture. At the end of this phase, you will prepare a systems design specification and deliver a presentation to management.

The goal of systems design is to build a system that is effective, reliable, and maintainable.

· A system is reliable if it handles input errors, processing errors, hardware failures, or human mistakes. A good design will anticipate errors, detect them as early as possible, make it easy to correct them, and prevent them from damaging the system itself.

· A system is maintainable if it is flexible, scalable, and easily modified. Changes might be needed to correct problems, adapt to user requirements, or take advantage of new technology.

· A system is effective if it supports business requirements and meets user needs.

Although each project is different, the following basic principles usually apply.

Will It Succeed?

A system might have advanced technology and powerful features, but the real test is whether users like it and feel that it meets their needs. Here are some suggestions for successful design:

· Think like a user. Carefully examine any point where users provide input or receive output. The user interface must be easy to learn. Input processes should be easy to follow, intuitive, and forgiving of errors. Predesigned output should be attractive and easy to understand, with an appropriate level of detail.

· Anticipate future needs. Consider a parts inventory database that contains a one-character field for category, such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic. The design works well, but what if the company decides to break these overall groups down into more specific segments? A better design would anticipate possible expansion to two or more characters. For example, in 1999, there was widespread concern about what was called the Y2K issue because many older programs used only two characters to store the year, and might not recognize the start of a new century.

· Provide flexibility. Suppose that a user wants a screen display of all customer balances that exceed $5,000 in an accounts receivable system. How should you design that feature? The program could be coded to check customer balances against a fixed value of 5000, which is a simple solution for both the programmer and the user because no extra keystrokes are required to produce the display. However, that approach is inflexible. A better approach would be to let the user enter the amount. Or you could start with a default value that displays automatically. Users can press ENTER to accept the value, or type in another value. Often the best design strategy is to offer several alternatives, so users can decide what will work best for them.

· Manage data effectively. In addition to its effect on users, data management impacts company efficiency, productivity, and security. To reduce input errors, the system should enter and verify data as soon as possible, and each data item should have a specific type, such as alphabetic, numeric, or alphanumeric, and a range of acceptable values.

It is important to collect input data as close to its source as possible. For instance, using barcode scanners rather than manual forms on a warehouse freight dock, or having salespeople use tablets to record orders rather than filling in source documents. The easiest, most accurate, and least expensive data input strategy is automated data capture, such as the RFID scanner shown in Figure 8-2 .

In an efficient design, data is entered only once. For example, if input data for a payroll system also is needed for a human resources system, you can either design an interface to transfer data automatically, or create a central data storage area that both systems can access. In Chapter 9 , you will learn about normalization, which is a set of rules that can help you avoid data design problems. A secure system also includes audit trails that can log every instance of data entry and changes. For example, the system should record when a customer’s credit limit was set, by whom, and any other information necessary to construct the history of a transaction.

FIGURE 8-2 Automated data entry methods, such as the RFID scanner shown above, reduce input errors and improve employee productivity.

Courtesy of Intermec Technologies

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

Traditionally, a chapter on user interface design started with a discussion of output because output is what users touched, viewed, and needed to do their jobs. Today, the entire focus has shifted, for several important reasons:

· Users can design their own output. System designers are more aware of user needs and desires. A system can maintain data integrity and still allow users to view, sort, filter, and examine data in any way that helps them do their jobs. Years ago, the MIS department made those choices and users had little or no say in the matter. Today, successful applications are designed quite differently — the system developer identifies user needs, and then creates a design that will satisfy users and meet corporate requirements.

· Centralized IT departments no longer produce reams of printed reports. Those reports, called greenbar reports because of their appearance, often gathered dust while sitting on top of file cabinets. While a few examples might persist, the overwhelming trend has been to customer-designed output. The customer might be an individual user, or a community of users, such as a department. As Chapter 4 pointed out, the IT team must understand user requirements before creating a solution. That also was the message in the Dilbert cartoon on page 129 .

· The user interface itself has evolved into a two-way channel, with powerful output capability, and most user information needs can be met with screen-generated data, which a user can print, view, or save. Well into the 1980s and beyond, a user interface was a blank character-based screen, which might or might not offer menu choices. If a user entered a command improperly, the system responded with an error message, which frustrated users and stifled productivity. Many hardware-centric vendors did not understand the importance of the user interface and its implications.

Apple was a pioneer in user interface development, introducing the graphical user interface (GUI) , complete with mouse and screen icons, in the early 1980s. At that point, not many companies were ready for this concept. When software giant Microsoft finally jumped on the GUI bandwagon with its Windows® operating system, the corporate doors swung open, and everyone from managers on down said “How did we ever do without this?”

The user interface will continue to evolve, and it is difficult to predict the future. Advanced technology will support the evolution, but the real driving force will be user empowerment, which results in employee satisfaction, increased productivity, and bottom-line savings for a company.

WHAT IS A USER INTERFACE?

A user interface (UI) describes how users interact with a computer system, and consists of all the hardware, software, screens, menus, functions, output, and features that affect two-way communications between the user and the computer. The UI is the key to usability , which includes user satisfaction, support for business functions, and system effectiveness.

Figure 8-3 suggests an interesting viewpoint that interface designers should keep in mind: Industry leader IBM believes that the best interfaces are the ones that users do not even notice — they make sense because they do what users expect them to do.

When developing older systems, analysts typically designed all the printed and screen output first, then worked on the inputs necessary to produce the results. Often, the user interface mainly consisted of process-control screens that allowed the user to send commands to the system. That approach worked well with traditional systems that simply transformed input data into structured output.

FIGURE 8-3 According to IBM, the best user interfaces are the ones you don’t really notice.

© IBM Corporation 1994, 2012

As information management evolved from centralized data processing to dynamic, enterprise-wide systems, the primary focus also shifted — from the IT department to the users themselves. The IT group became a supplier of information technology, rather than a supplier of information. Today, the main focus is on users within and outside the company, how they communicate with the information system, and how the system supports the firm’s business operations.

In a user-centered system, the distinction blurs between input, output, and the interface itself. Most users work with a varied mix of input, screen output, and data queries as they perform their day-to-day job functions. Because all those tasks require interaction with the computer system, the user interface is a vital element in the systems design phase.

User interface design requires an understanding of human-computer interaction and user-centered design principles, which are discussed in the next section.

Human-Computer Interaction

A user interface is based on basic principles of human-computer interaction. Human-computer interaction (HCI) describes the relationship between computers and people who use them to perform their jobs, like the worker shown in Figure 8-4 . HCI concepts apply to everything from smartphones to global networks. In its broadest sense, a user interface includes all the communications and instructions necessary to enter input to the system and to obtain output in the form of screen displays or printed reports.

Early user interfaces involved users typing complex commands on a keyboard, which displayed as green text on a black screen. Then came the graphical user interface (GUI), which was a huge improvement because it used icons, graphical objects, and pointing devices. Today, designers strive to translate user behavior, needs, and desires into an interface that users don’t really notice. As IBM points out in Figure 8-3 , the best user interfaces are “almost transparent— you can see right though the interface to your own work.” In other words, a transparent interface does not distract the user and calls no attention to itself.

As a systems analyst, you will design user interfaces for in-house-developed software and customize interfaces for various commercial packages and user productivity applications. Your main objective is to create a user-friendly design that is easy to learn and use.

Industry leaders Microsoft and IBM both devote considerable resources to user interface research. Figure 8-5 on the next page describes Microsoft’s Redmond labs, where engineers observe volunteers who participate in software usability studies. Notice that the site invites visitors to watch an interesting video about Microsoft User Research.

Because HCI has a major impact on user productivity, it gets lots of attention — especially where multi-million dollar issues are concerned. For example, consider the article by Elizabeth Gardner in Health Data Management, which is shown in Figure 8-6 on the next page. The title tells the story, which involves government incentives for medical providers who use the new electronic health records (EHRs) . However, many physicians feel that EHR software is difficult to use and does not meet their needs.

FIGURE 8-4 HCI is essential to employee productivity, whether the work is done in a traditional office setting, or on a construction site like the one shown here.

© Goodluz/Shutterstock.com

FIGURE 8-5 Microsoft engineers observe volunteers who participate in usability studies. Notice the invitation to watch a video about Microsoft User Research.

Screenshots used with permission from Microsoft.

FIGURE 8-6 Software usability has a major impact on the medical profession, and not everyone is happy about it.

© 2012 Health Data Management and SourceMedia, Inc.

In her article, Ms. Gardner points out that physicians often multi task, answering a question about one patient while writing a prescription for another, and EHR software was not designed around that type of workflow.

The article also mentions Dr. Scott Finley, who consults on usability issues for the U.S. Department of Veterans’ Affairs and other agencies. Dr. Finley says that EHRs were designed to do a good job of gathering structured analytical data, but that approach does not promote usability. Dr. Finley says, “The data capture process needs to be judged on its own merits. It’s easier to make it hard than to make it easy.” Perhaps all systems analysts and UI designers should reflect on the implications of his comment.

CASE IN POINT 8.1: CASUAL OBSERVER SOFTWARE

Casual Observer Software’s main product is a program that monitors and analyzes user keystrokes and mouse clicks to learn more about the way employees use their computer systems. The problem is that some users feel this is an unwarranted intrusion into their privacy, and they prefer not to be observed. Some even fear that the data would be used for other reasons, including performance appraisal. You are a consultant who has been hired by a client firm that is trying to decide whether or not to use this software.

Before you advise the client, go back and review the Microsoft usability lab shown in Figure 8-5 , where the users being studied in the Redmond labs were willing participants. Then, refer to Chapter 4 , Requirements Modeling, page 155 , and consider the Hawthorne Effect, which suggests that employees might behave differently when they know they are being observed. Finally, think about the ethical issues that might be involved in this situation. What will you advise your client, and why?

SEVEN HABITS OF SUCCESSFUL INTERFACE DESIGNERS

Although IT professionals have different views about interface design, most would agree that good design depends on seven basic principles, which are described in the following sections.

Understand the Business

The interface designer must understand the underlying business functions and how the system supports individual, departmental, and enterprise goals. The overall objective is to design an interface that helps users to perform their jobs. A good starting point might be to analyze a functional decomposition diagram (FDD). As you learned in Chapter 4 , an FDD is a graphical representation of business functions that starts with major functions, and then breaks them down into several levels of detail. An FDD can provide a checklist of user tasks that you must include in the interface design.

Maximize Graphical Effectiveness

Studies show that people learn better visually. The immense popularity of Apple Mac OS and Microsoft Windows is largely the result of their graphical user interfaces that are easy to learn and use. A well-designed interface can help users learn a new system rapidly and be more productive. Also, in a graphical environment, a user can display and work with multiple windows on a single screen and transfer data between programs. If the interface supports data entry, it must follow the guidelines for data entry screen design that are discussed later in this chapter.

Think Like a User

A systems analyst should understand user experience, knowledge, and skill levels. If a wide range of capability exists, the interface should be flexible enough to accommodate novices as well as experienced users.

To develop a user-centered interface, the designer must learn to think like a user and see the system through a user’s eyes. The interface should use terms and metaphors that are familiar to users. Users are likely to have real-world experience with many other machines and devices that provide feedback, such as automobiles, ATMs, and microwave ovens. Based on that experience, users will expect useful, understandable feedback from a computer system.

Use Models and Prototypes

From a user’s viewpoint, the interface is the most critical part of the system design because it is where he or she interacts with the system — perhaps for many hours each day. It is essential to construct models and prototypes for user approval. An interface designer should obtain as much feedback as possible, as early as possible. You can present initial screen designs to users in the form of a storyboard , which is a sketch that shows the general screen layout and design. The storyboard can be created with software or drawn freehand. Users must test all aspects of the interface design and provide feedback to the designers. User input can be obtained in interviews, via questionnaires, and by observation. Interface designers also can obtain data, called usability metrics , by using software that can record and measure user interaction with the system.

TOOLKIT TIME

The Communication Tools in Part A of the Systems Analyst’s Toolkit can help you communicate effectively with users. To learn more about these tools, turn to Part A of the four-part Toolkit that follows Chapter 12 .

Focus on Usability

The user interface should include all tasks, commands, and communications between users and the information system. The opening screen should show the main options ( Figure 8-7 is an illustration). Each screen option leads to another screen, with more options. The objective is to offer a reasonable number of choices that a user easily can comprehend. Too many options on one screen can confuse a user — but too few options increase the number of submenu levels and complicate the navigation process. Often, an effective strategy is to present the most common choice as a default but allow the user to select other options.

Invite Feedback

Even after the system is operational, it is important to monitor system usage and solicit user suggestions. You can determine if system features are being used as intended by observing and surveying users. Sometimes, full-scale operations highlight problems that were not apparent when the prototype was tested. Based on user feedback, Help screens might need revision and design changes to allow the system to reach its full potential.

FIGURE 8-7 The opening screen displays the main options for a student registration system. A user can click an option to see lower-level actions and menu choices.

© Cengage Learning 2014

Document Everything

You should document all screen designs for later use by programmers. If you are using a CASE tool or screen generator, number the screen designs and save them in a hierarchy similar to a menu tree. User-approved sketches and storyboards also can be used to document the user interface.

By applying basic user-centered design principles, a systems analyst can plan, design, and deliver a successful user interface.

A HANDBOOK FOR USER INTERFACE DESIGN

What follows is a set of suggestions for user interface design, based on the author’s experience and observation. There is some overlap because many of the main rules share common elements.

Although there is no standard approach to interface design, these rules will get you started. Perhaps the most important rule is that you don’t have to follow all of these recommendations — the best interface is the one that works best for your users.

RULE 1: Create an Interface That Is Easy to Learn and Use

1.1 Focus on system design objectives, rather than calling attention to the interface.

1.2 Create a design that is easy to understand and remember. Maintain a common design in all modules of the interface, including the use of color, screen placements, fonts, and the overall “look and feel.”

1.3 Provide commands, actions, and system responses that are consistent and predictable.

1.4 Allow users to correct errors easily.

1.5 Clearly label all controls, buttons, and icons.

1.6 Select familiar images that users can understand, and provide on-screen instructions that are logical, concise, and clear. For example, the top screen in Figure 8-8 shows four control buttons, but none of them has an obvious meaning. In the bottom screen, the first five messages provide little or no information. The last message is the only one that is easy to understand.

1.7 Show all commands in a list of menu items, but dim any commands that are not available to the user.

1.8 Make it easy to navigate or return to any level in the menu structure.

RULE 2: Enhance User Productivity

The interface is where a user interacts with the system, so it can have a dramatic effect on productivity. If the interface empowers a user and enables him or her to handle more complex tasks, the user becomes more productive. Conversely, if the interface is difficult to work with, productivity declines.

FIGURE 8-8 In the example at the top, the icons do not have a clear message. In the Help text examples at the bottom, only one message is understandable. The others would frustrate and annoy most users.

© Cengage Learning 2014

2.1 Organize tasks, commands, and functions in groups that resemble actual business operations. You should group functions and submenu items in a multilevel menu hierarchy, or tree, that is logical and reflects how users typically perform the tasks. Figure 8-9 shows an example of a menu hierarchy for an order tracking system.

2.2 Create alphabetical menu lists or place the selections used frequently at the top of the menu list. No universally accepted approach to menu item placement exists. The best strategy is to design a prototype and obtain feedback from users. Some applications even allow menus to show recently used commands first. Some users like that feature, but others find it distracting. The best approach is to offer a choice, and let users decide.

2.3 Provide shortcuts for experienced users so they can avoid multiple menu levels. You can create shortcuts using hot keys that allow a user to press the Alt key + the underlined letter of a command.

2.4 Use default values if the majority of values in a field are the same. For example, if 90% of the firm’s customers live in Albuquerque, use Albuquerque as the default value in the City field.

2.5 Use a duplicate value function that enables users to insert the value from the same field in the previous record, but allow users to turn this feature on or off as they prefer.

2.6 Provide a fast-find feature that displays a list of possible values as soon as users enter the first few letters.

2.7 If available, consider a natural language feature that allows users to type commands or requests in normal text phrases. For example, many applications allow users to request Help by typing a question into a dialog box. The software then uses natural language technology to retrieve a list of topics that match the request. Natural language technology is used in speech recognition systems, text-to-speech synthesizers, automated voice response systems, Web search engines, text editors, and language instruction materials.

RULE 3: Provide Users with Help and Feedback

This is one of the most important rules because it has a high impact on users. Never allow Help to slow a user down. Instead, make Help easy to find, but not around when you users don’t need it.

FIGURE 8-9 This menu hierarchy shows tasks, commands, and functions organized into logical groups and sequences. The structure resembles a functional decomposition diagram (FDD), which is a model of business functions and processes.

© Cengage Learning 2014

FIGURE 8-10 The main Help screen for a student registration system.

© Cengage Learning 2014

FIGURE 8-11 A context-sensitive dialog box displays if a user requests help while entering data into the ADVISOR ASSIGNED field. Clicking the Close button returns the user to the task.

© Cengage Learning 2014

3.1 Ensure that help is always available on demand. Help screens should provide information about menu choices, procedures, shortcuts, and errors.

3.2 Provide user-selected help and context-sensitive help. User-selected help displays information when the user requests it. By making appropriate choices through the menus and submenus, the user eventually reaches a screen with the desired information. Figure 8-10 shows the main Help screen for the student registration system. Context-sensitive help offers assistance for the task in progress. Figure 8-11 shows a Help dialog box that is displayed if a user requests help while entering data into the ADVISOR ASSIGNED field. Clicking the Close button returns the user to the current task.

3.3 Provide a direct route for users to return to the point from where help was requested. Title every help screen to identify the topic, and keep help text simple and concise. Insert blank lines between paragraphs to make Help easier to read, and provide examples where appropriate.

3.4 Include contact information, such as a telephone extension or e-mail address if a department or help desk is responsible for assisting users.

3.5 Require user confirmation before data deletion (Are you sure?) and provide a method of recovering data that is deleted inadvertently. Build in safeguards that prevent critical data from being changed or erased.

3.6 Provide an Undo key or a menu choice that allows the user to eradicate the results of the most recent command or action.

3.7 When a user-entered command contains an error, highlight the erroneous part and allow the user to make the correction without retyping the entire command.

3.8 Use hypertext links to assist users as they navigate help topics.

3.9 Display messages at a logical place on the screen, and be consistent.

3.10 Alert users to lengthy processing times or delays. Give users an on-screen progress report, especially if the delay is lengthy.

3.11 Allow messages to remain on the screen long enough for users to read them. In some cases, the screen should display messages until the user takes some action.

3.12 Let the user know whether the task or operation was successful or not. For example, use messages such as Update completed, All transactions have been posted, or The ID Number was not found.

3.13 Provide a text explanation if you use an icon or image on a control button. This helps the user to identify the control button when moving the mouse pointer over the icon or image.

3.14 Use messages that are specific, understandable, and professional. Avoid messages that are cute, cryptic, or vague, such as: ERROR — You have entered an unacceptable value, or Error DE-4-16. Better examples are:

• Enter a number from 1 (low) to 5 (high)

• Customer number must be numeric

• Please re-enter a numeric value

• Call the Accounting Department, Ext. 239 for assistance

RULE 4: Create an Attractive Layout and Design

This is a subjective area because reasonable people can differ on what is attractive. You should consider color, layout, and ease of use. You might create some screen mock-ups and menu trees and try them out on users to get their input. If in doubt, err on the side of doing a bit less. Although you might love blinking messages, they might not be the best choice for your interface design. Also try to avoid too many fonts, styles, and sizes, which can be distracting. Each separate style should communicate something — a different level of detail, another topic, mandatory versus optional actions, and so on.

4.1 Use appropriate colors to highlight different areas of the screen; avoid gaudy and bright colors.

4.2 Use special effects sparingly. For example, animation and sound might be effective in some situations, but too many special effects can be distracting and annoying to a user, especially if he or she must view them repeatedly.

4.3 Use hyperlinks that allow users to navigate to related topics.

4.4 Group related objects and information. Visualize the screen the way a user will see it, and simulate the tasks that the user will perform.

4.5 Screen density is important. Keep screen displays uncluttered, with enough white space to create an attractive, readable design.

4.6 Display titles, messages, and instructions in a consistent manner and in the same general locations on all screens.

4.7 Use consistent terminology. For example, do not use the terms delete, cancel, and erase to indicate the same action. Similarly, the same sound always should signal the same event.

4.8 Ensure that commands always will have the same effect. For example, if the BACK control button returns a user to the prior screen, the BACK command always should perform that function throughout the application.

4.9 Ensure that similar mouse actions will produce the same results throughout the application. The results of pointing, clicking, and double-clicking should be consistent and predictable.

4.10 When the user enters data that completely fills the field, do not move automatically to the next field. Instead, require the user to confirm the entry by pressing the Enter key or Tab key at the end of every fill-in field.

4.11 Remember that users are accustomed to a pattern of red = stop, yellow = caution, and green = go. Stick to that pattern and use it when appropriate to reinforce on-screen instructions.

4.12 Provide a keystroke alternative for each menu command, with easy-to-remember letters, such as File, Exit, and Help.

4.13 Use familiar commands if possible, such as Cut, Copy, and Paste.

4.14 Provide a Windows look and feel in your interface design if users are familiar with Windows-based applications.

4.15 Avoid complex terms and technical jargon; instead, select terms that come from everyday business processes and the vocabulary of a typical user.

RULE 5: Enhance the Interface

A designer can include many features, such as menu bars, toolbars, dialog boxes, text boxes, toggle buttons, list boxes, scroll bars, drop-down list boxes, option buttons, check boxes, command buttons, and calendar controls, among others. Screen design requires a sense of aesthetics as well as technical skills. You should obtain user feedback early and often as the design process continues.

5.1 The opening screen is especially important because it introduces the application and allows users to view the primary options. The starting point can be a switchboard with well-placed command buttons that allow users to navigate the system. Figure 8-12 shows the switchboard and a data entry screen for a project management system. Notice the drop-down list box that allows users to enter a status code by clicking a selection.

FIGURE 8-12 An example of a switchboard and data entry screen for a project management system.

© Cengage Learning 2014

5.2 Use a command button to initiate an action such as printing a form or requesting help. For example, when a user clicks the Find Student command button in Figure 8-13 , a dialog box opens with instructions.

5.3 If you are using a software package, check to see if it allows you to create customized menu bars and toolbars. If so, consider these options.

5.4 Add a shortcut feature that lets a user select a menu command either by clicking the desired choice or by pressing the Alt key + the underlined letter. Some forms also use a toolbar that contains icons or buttons that represent shortcuts for executing common commands.

5.5 If variable input data is needed, provide a dialog box that explains what is required.

5.6 A toggle button makes it easy to show on or off status — clicking the toggle button switches to the other state.

5.7 Use list boxes that display the available choices. If the list does not fit in the box, a scroll bar allows the user to move through the available choices. Also, be sure to provide another way to enter data that does not align with a specific list choice.

5.8 Use an option button , or radio button , to control user choices. For example, if the user can select only one option, display a suitable message (Choose one item), but if there is no restriction, display a different message (Choose all that apply). Use a black dot to show selected options.

FIGURE 8-13 A data entry screen for the student registration system. This screen uses several design features that are described in the text. When a user clicks the Find Student command button, a dialog box is displayed with instructions.

© Cengage Learning 2014

5.9 If you use check boxes to select one or more choices from a group, show the choices with a checkmark or an X.

5.10 When dates must be entered, use a calendar control that allows the user to select a date that the system will use as a field value.

RULE 6: Focus on Data Entry Screens

Data entry is especially important because it is in the job description of so many users.

6.1 Whenever possible, use a data entry method called form filling , where a blank form that duplicates or resembles the source document is completed on the screen.

6.2 Restrict user access to screen locations where data is entered. For example, when the screen in Figure 8-14 appears, the system should position the insertion point in the first data entry location. After the operator enters a Customer ID, the insertion point should move automatically to the entry location for the next field (Item). A user should be able to position the insertion point only in places where data is entered on the form.

6.3 Provide a way to leave the data entry screen at any time without entering the current record. This feature is not available in the screen shown in Figure 8-14 , but is provided in the enhanced version of the same screen shown in Figure 8-15 on the next page. Notice that the new version has command buttons that provide flexibility and allow the user to perform various functions. For example, clicking the Cancel Order button cancels the current order and moves the insertion point back to the beginning of the form.

6.4 Provide a descriptive caption for every field, and show the user where to enter the data and the required or maximum field size. Typically, white boxes show the location and length of each field. Other methods used to indicate field locations are video highlighting, underscores, special symbols, or a combination of these features.

FIGURE 8-14 In this data screen for customer orders, the system generates an order number and logs the current date and time. The user enters a customer ID. If the entry is valid, the system displays the customer name so the user can verify it. The user then enters the item and quantity. Note that the description, price, extended price, total price, sales tax, and grand total are retrieved automatically or calculated by the system.

© Cengage Learning 2014

FIGURE 8-15 This is an enhanced version of the data entry screen shown in Figure 8-14 .The new version has command buttons that allow the user to perform various functions.

© Cengage Learning 2014

6.5 Provide a means for users to move among fields on the form in a standard order or in any order they choose. For example, when a user opens the form shown in Figure 8-15 , the insertion point automatically will be in the first field. After the user fills in each field and confirms the entry, the insertion point moves to the next field, in a predetermined order. In a graphical user interface (GUI), the user can override the standard field order and select field locations using the mouse or arrow keys.

6.6 Allow users to add, change, delete, and view records. Figure 8-15 helps users enter orders, find items, and find customers. After the user enters a customer code, the form displays current values for all appropriate fields. Then the operator can view the data, make changes, enter the order, or cancel the order. Messages such as: Apply these changes? (Y/N) or Delete this record? (Y/N) should require users to confirm the actions. Highlighting the letter N as a default response will avoid problems if the user presses the Enter key by mistake.

6.7 Design the screen form layout to match the layout of the source document. If the source document fields start at the top of the form and run down in a column, the input screen should use the same design.

6.8 Display a sample format if a user must enter values in a field in a specific format. For example, provide an on-screen instruction to let users know that the date format is MMDDYY, and provide an example if the user must enter separators, such as slashes.

6.9 In addition to the sample format in the preceding rule, it might be better to use an input mask , which is a template or pattern that restricts data entry and prevents errors. Microsoft Access provides standard input masks for fields such as dates, telephone numbers, postal codes, and Social Security numbers. In addition, you can create custom input masks, as shown in Figure 8-16 . Notice that a mask can have a specific format. For example, if a user enters text in lowercase letters, the input mask >L

FIGURE 8-16 Microsoft Access 2010 provides various input masks for dates, phone numbers, and postal codes, among others. In addition, it is easy to create a custom mask using the characters shown here.

Screenshots used with permission from Microsoft.

6.10 Require an ending keystroke for every field. Pressing the Enter key or the Tab key should signify the end of a field entry. Avoid a design that moves automatically to the next item when the field is full. The latter approach requires an ending keystroke only when the data entered is less than the maximum field length. It is confusing to use two different data entry procedures.

6.11 Do not require users to type leading zeroes for numeric fields. For example, if a three-digit project number is 045, the operator should be able to type 45 instead of 045 before pressing the Enter key. An exception to that rule might occur when entering a date, where a leading zero is needed to identify single-digit months or days, such as 06-04-2013.

6.12 Do not require users to type trailing zeroes for numbers that include decimals. For example, when a user types a value of 98, the system should interpret the value as 98.00 if the field has been formatted to include numbers with two decimal places. The decimal point is needed only to indicate nonzero decimal places, such as 98.76.

6.13 Display default values so operators can press the Enter key to accept the suggested value. If the default value is not appropriate, the operator can change it.

6.14 Use a default value when a field value will be constant for successive records or throughout the data entry session. For example, if records are input in order by date, the date used in the first transaction should be used as the default date until a new date is entered, at which time the new date becomes the default value.

6.15 Display a list of acceptable values for fields, and provide meaningful error messages if the user enters an unacceptable value. An even better method, which was described under Rule 5: Enhance the Interface, is to provide a drop-down list box containing acceptable values that allows the user to select a value by clicking.

6.16 Provide users with an opportunity to confirm the accuracy of input data before entering it by displaying a message such as, Add this record? (Y/N). A positive response (Y) adds the record, clears the entry fields, and positions the insertion point in the first field so the user can input another record. If the response is negative (N), the current record is not added and the user can correct the errors.

RULE 7: Use Validation Rules

Reducing input errors improves data quality. One way to reduce input errors is to eliminate unnecessary data entry. For example, a user cannot misspell a customer name if it is not entered, or is entered automatically based on the user entering the customer ID. Similarly, an outdated item price cannot be used if the item price is retrieved from a master file instead of being entered manually. The best defense against incorrect data is to identify and correct errors before they enter the system by using data validation rules, as shown in Figure 8-17 . A data validation rule improves input quality by testing the data and rejecting any entry that fails to meet specified conditions. In your design, you can include at least eight types of data validation rules.

7.1 A sequence check can be used when the data must be in some predetermined sequence. If the user must enter work orders in numerical sequence, for example, then an out-of-sequence order number indicates an error, or if the user must enter transactions chronologically, then a transaction with an out-of-sequence date indicates an error.

FIGURE 8-17 Validation rules can improve data quality by requiring the input to meet specific requirements or conditions.

Screenshots used with permission from Microsoft.

7.2 An existence check can apply to mandatory data items. For example, if an employee record requires a Social Security number, an existence check would not allow the user to save the record until he or she enters a suitable value in the Social Security number field.

7.3 A data type check can test to ensure that a data item fits the required data type. For example, a numeric field must have only numbers or numeric symbols, and an alphabetic field can contain only the characters A through Z (or a through z).

7.4 A range check can be used to verify that data items fall between a specified minimum and maximum value. The daily hours worked by an employee, for example, must fall within the range of 0 to 24. When the validation check involves a minimum or a maximum value, but not both, it is called a limit check . Checking that a payment amount is greater than zero, but not specifying a maximum value, is an example of a limit check.

7.5 A reasonableness check identifies values that are questionable, but not necessarily wrong. For example, input payment values of $.05 and $5,000,000.00 both pass a simple limit check for a payment value greater than zero, and yet both values could be errors. Similarly, a daily hours worked value of 24 passes a 0 to 24 range check; however, the value seems unusual, and the system should verify it using a reasonableness check.

7.6 A validity check can be used for data items that must have certain values. For example, if an inventory system has 20 valid item classes, then any input item that does not match one of the valid classes will fail the check. Verifying that a customer number on an order matches a customer number in the customer file is another type of validity check. Because the value entered must refer to another value, that type of check also is called referential integrity, which is explained in Chapter 9 , Data Design. Another validity check might verify that a new customer number does not match a number already stored in the customer master file.

7.7 A combination check is performed on two or more fields to ensure that they are consistent or reasonable when considered together. Even though all the fields involved in a combination check might pass their individual validation checks, the combination of the field values might be inconsistent or unreasonable. For example, if an order input for 30 units of a particular item has an input discount rate applicable only for purchases of 100 or more units, then the combination is invalid; either the input order quantity or the input discount rate is incorrect.

7.8 Batch controls are totals used to verify batch input. Batch controls might check data items such as record counts and numeric field totals. For example, before entering a batch of orders, a user might calculate the total number of orders and the sum of all the order quantities. When the batch of orders is entered, the order system also calculates the same two totals. If the system totals do not match the input totals, then a data entry error has occurred. Unlike the other validation checks, batch controls do not identify specific errors. For example, if the sum of all the order quantities does not match the batch control total, you know only that one or more orders in that batch were entered incorrectly or not input. The batch control totals often are called hash totals because they are not meaningful numbers themselves, but are useful for comparison purposes.

RULE 8: Reduce Input Volume

This is the final rule, but in some ways it should be the first because it affects all the rest. When you reduce input volume, you avoid unnecessary labor costs, get the data into the system more quickly, and decrease the number of errors. You should start by reducing the number of data items required for each transaction.

8.1 Input necessary data only. Do not input a data item unless it is needed by the system. A completed order form, for example, might contain the name of the clerk who took the order. If that data is not needed by the system, the user should not enter it.

8.2 Do not input data that the user can retrieve from system files or calculate from other data. In the order system example shown in Figure 8-15 on page 314 , the system generates an order number and logs the current date and time. Then the user enters a customer ID. If the entry is valid, the system displays the customer name so the user can verify it. The user then enters the item and quantity. Note that the description, price, extended price, total price, sales tax, and grand total are retrieved automatically or calculated by the system.

8.3 Do not input constant data. If orders are in batches with the same date, then a user should enter the order date only once for the first order in the batch. If orders are entered online, then the user can retrieve the order date automatically using the current system date.

8.4 Use codes. Codes are shorter than the data they represent, and coded input can reduce data entry time. You will learn more about various types of codes in Chapter 9 , Data Design.

CASE IN POINT 8.2: BOOLEAN TOYS

When should a systems analyst decide a design issue, and when should users be allowed to select what works best for them? The field of ergonomics is concerned with improving the work environment and studying how users interact with their environment.

Suppose you are a systems analyst studying the order processing system at Boolean Toys, a fast-growing developer of software for preschool children. You know that many data entry users have complained about the input screens. Some users would prefer to rearrange the order of the fields; others would like to change the background color on their screens; still others want shortcuts that would allow them to avoid a series of introductory screens.

What if Boolean’s users could customize their own data entry screens without assistance from the IT staff by using a menu-driven utility program? What would be the pros and cons of such an approach?

SOURCE DOCUMENT AND FORM DESIGN

No matter how data enters an information system, the quality of the output is only as good as the quality of the input. The term garbage in, garbage out (GIGO) , is familiar to IT professionals, who know that the best time to avoid problems is when the data is entered. The main objective is to ensure the quality, accuracy, and timeliness of input data. Unfortunately, the dream of a “paperless office” has never been realized. Even with RFID technology and automated data capture, we still enter data on source documents and forms, and instead of a human-computer interface, systems analysts must deal with the challenge of a human-paper interface.

A source document collects input data, triggers or authorizes an input action, and provides a record of the original transaction. During the input design stage, you develop source documents that are easy to complete and use for data entry. Source documents generally are paper-based, but also can be provided online. Either way, the design considerations are the same.

FIGURE 8-18 Source document zones.

© Cengage Learning 2014

Consider a time when you struggled to complete a poorly designed form. You might have encountered insufficient space, confusing instructions, or poor organization, all symptoms of incorrect form layout .

Good form layout makes the form easy to complete and provides enough space, both vertically and horizontally, for users to enter the data. A form should indicate data entry positions clearly using blank lines or boxes and descriptive captions. Also consider using check boxes whenever possible, so users can select choices easily. However, be sure to include an option for any input that does not match a specific check box.

The placement of information on a form also is important. Source documents typically include most of the zones shown in Figure 8-18 . The heading zone usually contains the company name or logo and the title and number of the form. The control zone contains codes, identification information, numbers, and dates that are used for storing completed forms. The instruction zone contains instructions for completing the form. The main part of the form, called the body zone , usually takes up at least half of the space on the form and contains captions and areas for entering variable data. If totals are included on the form, they appear in the totals zone . Finally, the authorization zone contains any required signatures. Information should flow on a form from left to right and top to bottom to match the way users read documents naturally. That layout makes the form easy to use for the individual who completes the form, and for users who enter data into the system using the completed form.

The same user-friendly design principles also apply to printed forms such as invoices and monthly statements, except that heading information usually is preprinted. You should make column headings short but descriptive, avoid nonstandard abbreviations, and use reasonable spacing between columns for better readability.

The order and placement of printed fields should be logical, and totals should be identified clearly. When designing a preprinted form, you should contact the form’s vendor for advice on paper sizes, type styles and sizes, paper and ink colors, field placement, and other important form details. Your goal is to design a form that is attractive, readable, and effective.

Layout and design also are important on Web-based forms, and you can find many resources that will help you design efficient, user-friendly forms. For example, Luke Wroblewski, a well-known author and consultant, maintains a Web site at www.lukew.cam. His site offers valuable suggestions, guidelines, and examples of Web-based forms.

PRINTED OUTPUT

Before designing printed output, ask yourself several questions:

· Why is this being delivered as printed output, rather than screen-based information, with an option for users to view, print, or save as needed?

· Who wants the information, why is it needed, and how will it be used?

· What specific information will be included?

· Will the printed output be designed for a specific device?

· When and how will the information be delivered, and how often must it be updated?

· Do security or confidentiality issues exist? How will they be managed?

The design process should not begin until you have answered the questions. Some information probably was gathered during the systems analysis phase. To complete your understanding, you should meet with users to find out exactly what kind of output they are requesting. You can use prototypes and mock-ups to obtain feedback throughout the design process.

Overview of Report Design

Although many organizations strive to reduce the flow of paper and printed reports, few firms have been able to eliminate printed output totally. Because they are portable, printed reports are convenient, and even necessary in some situations. Many users find it handy to view screen output, then print the information they need for a discussion or business meeting. Printed output also is used in turnaround documents , which are output documents that are later entered back into the same or another information system. In some areas, your telephone or utility bill, for example, might be a turnaround document printed by the company’s billing system. When you return the required portion of the bill with your check, the bill is scanned into the company’s accounts receivable system to record the payment accurately.

Designers use a variety of styles, fonts, and images to produce reports that are attractive and user friendly. Whether printed or viewed on-screen, reports must be easy to read and well organized. Rightly or wrongly, some managers judge an entire project by the quality of the reports they receive.

Database programs such as Microsoft Access include a variety of report design tools, including a Report Wizard, which is a menu-driven feature that designers can use to create reports quickly and easily. Microsoft Access also provides a comprehensive guide to designing reports, as shown in Figure 8-19 .

FIGURE 8-19 Microsoft offers suggestions, tips, and a video that can help you design better forms and reports.

Screenshots used with permission from Microsoft.

Although the vast majority of reports are designed graphically, some systems still produce one or more character-based reports that use a character set with fixed spacing. Printing character-based reports on high-speed impact printers is a fast, inexpensive method for producing large-scale reports, such as payroll or inventory reports, or registration rosters at a school. This is especially true if multiple copies are required.

Types of Reports

To be useful, a report must include the information that a user needs. From a user’s point of view, a report with too little information is of no value. Too much information, however, can make a report confusing and difficult to understand. When designing reports, the essential goal is to match the report to the user’s specific information needs. Depending on their job functions, users might need one or more of the reports described in the following sections.

DETAIL REPORTS A detail report produces one or more lines of output for each record processed. Because it contains one or more lines for each record, a detail report can be quite lengthy. Consider, for example, a large auto parts business. If the firm stocks 3,000 parts, then the detail report would include 3,000 detail lines on approximately 50 printed pages. A user who wants to locate any part in short supply has to examine 3,000 detail lines to find the critical items. A better alternative might be an exception report.

EXCEPTION REPORTS An exception report displays only those records that meet a specific condition or conditions. Exception reports are useful when the user wants information only on records that might require action, but does not need to know the details. For example, a credit manager might use an exception report to identify only those customers with past-due accounts, or a customer service manager might want a report on all packages that were not delivered within a specified time period.

SUMMARY REPORTS Upper-level managers often want to see total figures and do not need supporting details. A sales manager, for example, might want to know total sales for each sales representative, but not want a detail report listing every sale made by them. In that case, a summary report is appropriate. Similarly, a personnel manager might need to know the total regular and overtime hours worked by employees in each store but might not be interested in the number of hours worked by each employee.

User Involvement

Users should approve all report designs in advance. The best approach is to prepare a sample report, called a mock-up , or prototype, for users to review. The sample should include typical field values and contain enough records to show all the design features. Depending on the type of printed output, you can create a Microsoft Word document or use a report generator to create mock-up reports.

Report Design Principles

Printed reports must be attractive, professional, and easy to read. For example, a well-designed report should provide totals and subtotals for numeric fields. In the report shown in Figure 8-20 , notice that when the value of a control field, such as Store Number, changes, a control break occurs. A control break usually causes specific actions, such as printing subtotals for a group of records. That type of detail report is called a control break report . To produce a control break report, the records must be arranged, or sorted, in control field order .

Good report design requires effort and attention to detail. To produce a well-designed report, the analyst must consider design features such as report headers and footers, page headers and footers, column headings and alignment, column spacing, field order, and grouping of detail lines.

REPORT HEADERS AND FOOTERS Every report should have a report header and a report footer. The report header , which appears at the beginning of the report, identifies the report, and contains the report title, date, and other necessary information. The report footer , which appears at the end of the report, can include grand totals for numeric fields and other end-of-report information, as shown in Figure 8-20 .

PAGE HEADERS AND FOOTERS Every page should include a page header , which appears at the top of the page and includes the column headings that identify the data. The headings should be short but descriptive. Avoid abbreviations unless you know that users will understand them clearly. Either a page header or a page footer , which appears at the bottom of the page, is used to display the report title and the page number.

FIGURE 8-20 The Employee Hours report is a detail report with control breaks, subtotals, and grand totals. Notice that a report header identifies the report, a page header contains column headings, a group footer contains subtotals for each store, a report footer contains grand totals, and a page footer identifies the page number.

© Cengage Learning 2014

FIGURE 8-21 Microsoft Access includes an easy-to-use tool for grouping data.

Screenshot used with permission from Microsoft.

Database programs such as Microsoft Access make it easy to create groups and subgroups based on particular fields. You also can have the report calculate and display totals, averages, record counts, and other data for any group or subgroup. For example, in a large company, you might want to see total sales and number of sales broken down by product within each of the 50 states. The screen shown in Figure 8-21 is an Access Help screen that refers to a step-by-step process for creating multilevel grouping.

REPEATING FIELDS Report design is an art, not a science. User involvement is essential, but users often don’t know what they want without seeing samples. For example, consider the issue of repeating fields. The sample report in Figure 8-20 repeats the store number on every row. Is that a good thing? The best advice is to ask users what they think and be guided accordingly. A similar issue exists with regard to the overtime hours column. Is it better to print the zero overtime data, or only print actual hours, so the data stands out clearly? Again, the best answer is usually the one that works best for users.

CONSISTENT DESIGN Look and feel are important to users, so reports should be uniform and consistent. When a system produces multiple reports, each report should share common design elements. For example, the date and page numbers should print in the same place on each report page. Abbreviations used in reports also should be consistent. For example, when indicating a numeric value, it is confusing for one report to use #, another NO, and a third NUM. Items in a report also should be consistent. If one report displays the inventory location as a shelf number column followed by a bin number column, that same layout should be used on all inventory location reports.

CASE IN POINT 8.3: LAZY EDDIE

Lynn Jennings is the IT manager at Lazy Eddie, a chain that specializes in beanbag chairs and recliners. She asked Jan Lauten, a senior systems analyst, to review the large number of printed reports that are distributed to Lazy Eddie’s 35 store managers. “Jan, I just can’t believe that our people really read all of those reports,” Lynn said. “We constantly add new reports, and we never seem to eliminate the old ones. Sometimes I think all we’re doing is keeping the paper companies in business!” Jan replied, “I agree, but what can we do? The managers say they want the reports, but I always see them stacked on top of file cabinets. I’ve never seen anyone read a report.”

“I have an idea,” Lynn said. “I want you to come up with a procedure that requires users to review and justify their information needs to see if they really use the reports we send them. You could design a form that asks if the information still is required, and why. Try to get users to decide if a report is worth the cost of producing it. Do you think you can do it?”

“Sure I can,” Jan replied. When Jan returned to her office, she wondered where to begin. What advice would you give to Jan?

CASE IN POINT 8.4: TRUSTWORTHY INSURANCE COMPANY

Trustworthy Insurance maintains its headquarters in a large Midwestern city. Right now, a debate is raging in the IT department Several analysts want to use standard, company-wide desktop screen layouts and icons. Others want to allow users to set up their screens any way they choose. Those who argue for standardization point out that Trustworthy employs a number of part-time employees, who fill in for employees on vacation. Without a standard interface, these people would have to reorient to every workstation, and the proponents of standardization claim that would reduce productivity and increase costs. Those opposed to standardization believe that employees are most productive when they have control over their workplace, including the ability to design an interface they feel is attractive, even if no one else does.

You are on a committee that was charged with resolving this issue, and yours is the tie-breaking vote. What will you decide, and why?

TECHNOLOGY ISSUES

Unlike early innovations such as the mouse and the inkjet printer, most technology advances today affect both output and input. In a very real sense, output and input have become interdependent, as they are in a user interface, and it is difficult to cite examples of changes in one that would not cause, or at least encourage, changes in the other. For example, new touch-screen input technology generates output that must be properly designed and sized for a particular device, which might be a smartphone, a tablet, or a 23-inch desktop monitor.

The following sections discuss output and input technology separately, but interface designers should always be alert to the possible opportunities, or potential problems, of input/output linkage.

Output Technology

Although business information systems still provide most output as screen displays and printed matter, technology is having an enormous impact on how people communicate and obtain information. This trend is especially important to firms that use information technology to lower their costs, improve employee productivity, and communicate effectively with their customers.

In addition to screen output and printed matter, output can be delivered in many ways. The system requirements document probably identified user output needs. Now, in the systems design phase, you will create the actual forms, reports, documents, and other types of output that might be accessed from workstations, notebooks, tablets, smartphones, and other devices. Also, you must consider how the information will be used, stored, and retrieved. The following subsections explain various output types and technologies.

INTERNET-BASED INFORMATION DELIVERY Millions of firms use the Internet to reach new customers and markets around the world. To support the explosive growth in e-commerce, Web designers must provide user-friendly screen interfaces that display output and accept input from customers. For example, a business can link its inventory system to its Web site so the output from the inventory system is displayed as an online catalog. Customers visiting the site can review the items, obtain current prices, and check product availability.

Another example of Web-based output is a system that provides customized responses to product or technical questions. When a user enters a product inquiry or requests technical support, the system responds with appropriate information from an on-site knowledge base. Web-based delivery allows users to download a universe of files and documents to support their information needs. For example, the Web provides consumers with instant access to brochures, product manuals, and parts lists; while prospective home buyers can obtain instant quotes on mortgages, insurance, and other financial services.

To reach prospective customers and investors, companies also use a live or prerecorded Webcast , which is an audio or video media file distributed over the Internet. Radio and TV stations also use this technique to broadcast program material to their audiences.

TOOLKIT TIME

The Communication Tools in Part A of the Systems Analyst’s Toolkit can help you communicate effectively with e-mail and other written communications. To learn more about these tools, turn to Part A of the four-part Toolkit that follows Chapter 12 .

E-MAIL E-mail is an essential means of internal and external business communication. Employees send and receive e-mail on local or wide area networks, including the Internet. Companies send new product information to customers via e-mail, and financial services companies use e-mail messages to confirm online stock trades. Employees use e-mail to exchange documents, data, and schedules and to share business-related information they need to perform their jobs. In many firms, e-mail has virtually replaced traditional memos and printed correspondence.

BLOGS Web-based logs, called blogs , are another form of Web-based output. Because blogs are journals written from a particular point of view, they not only deliver facts to Web readers, but also provide opinions. Blogs are useful for posting news, reviewing current events, and promoting products.

INSTANT MESSAGING This popular form of communication is another way for individuals and companies to communicate effectively over the Internet. Although some users feel that it can be a distraction, others like the constant flow of communication, especially as a team member in a collaborative situation.

WIRELESS DEVICES Messages and data can be transmitted to a wide array of mobile devices, including tablet computers, smartphones, and similar wireless products that combine portable computing power, multimedia capability, and Internet access.

DIGITAL AUDIO, IMAGES, AND VIDEO Sounds, images, and video clips can be captured, stored in digital format, and transmitted as output to users who can reproduce the content.

Audio or video output can be attached to an e-mail message or inserted as a clip in a Microsoft Word document. Businesses also use automated systems to handle voice transactions and provide information to customers. For example, using a telephone keypad, a customer can confirm an airline seat assignment, check a credit card balance, or determine the current price of a mutual fund.

If a picture is worth a thousand words, then digital images and video clips certainly are high-value output types that offer a whole new dimension. For example, an insurance adjuster with a digital camera phone can take a picture, submit the image via a wireless device, and receive immediate authorization to pay a claim on the spot. If images are a valuable form of output, video clips are even better in some situations. For example, video clips provide online virtual tours that allow realtors to show off the best features of homes they are marketing. The user can zoom in or out, and rotate the image in any direction.

PODCASTS A podcast is a specially formatted digital audio file that can be downloaded by Internet users from a variety of content providers. Many firms use podcasts as sales and marketing tools, and to communicate with their own employees. Using software such as iTunes, you can receive a podcast, launch the file on your computer, and store it on your portable player. Podcasts can include images, sounds, and video.

AUTOMATED FACSIMILE SYSTEMS An automated facsimile or faxback system allows a customer to request a fax using e-mail, via the company Web site, or by telephone. The response is transmitted in a matter of seconds back to the user’s fax machine. Although most users prefer to download documents from the Web, many organizations, including the U.S. Department of Transportation, still offer an automated faxback service as another way to provide immediate response 24 hours a day.

COMPUTER OUTPUT TO MICROFILM (COM) Computer output to microfilm (COM) is often used by large firms to scan and store images of original documents to provide high-quality records management and archiving. COM systems are especially important for legal reasons, or where it is necessary to display a signature, date stamp, or other visual features of a document.

COMPUTER OUTPUTTO DIGITAL MEDIA This process is used when many paper documents must be scanned, stored in digital format, and retrieved quickly. For example, if an insurance company stores thousands of paper application forms, special software can treat the documents as data and extract information from a particular column or area on the form. Digital storage media can include magnetic tape, CDs, DVDs, and high-density laser disks.

SPECIALIZED FORMS OF OUTPUT An incredibly diverse marketplace requires many forms of specialized output and devices. For example:

· Portable, Web-connected devices that can run multiple apps, handle multimedia output, and provide powerful, multipurpose communication for users

· Retail point-of-sale terminals that handle computer-based credit card transactions, print receipts, and update inventory records

· Automatic teller machines (ATMs) that can process bank transactions and print deposit and withdrawal slips

· Special-purpose printers that can produce labels, employee ID cards, driver’s licenses, gasoline pump receipts, and, in some states, lottery tickets

· Plotters that can produce high-quality images such as blueprints, maps, and electronic circuit diagrams

· Electronic detection of data embedded in credit cards, bank cards, and employee identification cards

Input Technology

Input technology has changed dramatically in recent years. In addition to traditional devices and methods, there has been a rapid expansion of new hardware and ways to capture and enter data into a system, some of which are shown in Figure 8-22 . Businesses are using the new technology to speed up the input process, reduce costs, and capture data in new forms, such as the digital signature shown in Figure 8-23 .

FIGURE 8-22 Input devices can be very traditional, or based on the latest technology.

© Cengage Learning 2014

Input methods should be cost-efficient, timely, and as simple as possible. Systems analysts study transactions and business operations to determine how and when data should enter the system. Usually, the first decision is whether to use batch or online input methods. Each method has advantages and disadvantages, and the systems analyst must consider the following factors.

BATCH INPUT Using batch input , data entry usually is performed on a specified time schedule, such as daily, weekly, monthly, or longer. For example, batch input occurs when a payroll department collects time cards at the end of the week and enters the data as a batch . Another example is a school that enters all grades for the academic term in a batch.

ONLINE INPUT Although batch input is used in specific situations, most business activity requires online data entry . The online method offers major advantages, including the immediate validation and availability of data. A popular online input method is source data automation , which combines online data entry and automated data capture using input devices such as RFID tags or magnetic data strips . Source data automation is fast and accurate, and minimizes human involvement in the translation process.

FIGURE 8-23 When a customer’s signature is stored in digital form, it becomes input to the information system.

© tirc83/ iStockphoto.com

Many large companies use a combination of source data automation and a powerful communication network to manage global operations instantly. Some common examples of source data automation are:

· Businesses that use point-of-sale (POS) terminals equipped with bar code scanners and magnetic swipe scanners to input credit card data.

· Automatic teller machines (ATMs) that read data strips on bank cards.

· Factory employees who use magnetic ID cards to clock on and off specific jobs so the company can track production costs accurately.

· Hospitals that imprint bar codes on patient identification bracelets and use portable scanners when gathering data on patient treatment and medication.

· Retail stores that use portable bar code scanners to log new shipments and update inventory data.

· Libraries that use handheld scanners to read optical strips on books.

TRADE-OFFS Although online input offers many advantages, it does have some disadvantages. For example, unless source data automation is used, manual data entry is slower and more expensive than batch input because it is performed at the time the transaction occurs and often done when computer demand is at its highest.

The decision to use batch or online input depends on business requirements. For example, hotel reservations must be entered and processed immediately, but hotels can enter their monthly performance figures in a batch. In fact, some input occurs naturally in batches. A cable TV provider, for example, receives customer payments in batches when the mail arrives.

SECURITY AND CONTROL ISSUES

A company must do everything in its power to protect its data. This includes not only the firm’s own information, but that of its customers, employees, and suppliers. Most assets have a value, but corporate data is priceless because without safe, secure, accurate data, a company cannot function.

The following sections discuss output and input data security and control.

Output Security and Control

Output must be accurate, complete, current, and secure. Companies use various output control methods to maintain output integrity and security. For example, every report should include an appropriate title, report number or code, printing date, and time period covered. Reports should have pages that are numbered consecutively, identified as Page nn of nn, and the end of the report should be labeled clearly. Control totals and record counts should be reconciled against input totals and counts. Reports should be selected at random for a thorough check of correctness and completeness. All processing errors or interruptions must be logged so they can be analyzed.

Output security protects privacy rights and shields the organization’s proprietary data from theft or unauthorized access. To ensure output security, you must perform several important tasks. First, limit the number of printed copies and use a tracking procedure to account for each copy. When printed output is distributed from a central location, you should use specific procedures to ensure that the output is delivered to authorized recipients only. That is especially true when reports contain sensitive information, such as payroll data. All sensitive reports should be stored in secure areas. All pages of confidential reports should be labeled appropriately.

FIGURE 8-24 To maintain output security, it is important to shred sensitive material.

© Cupertino/ Shutterstock.com

As shown in Figure 8-24 , it is important to shred sensitive reports, out-of-date reports, and output from aborted print runs. Blank check forms must be stored in a secure location and be inventoried regularly to verify that no forms are missing. If signature stamps are used, they must be stored in a secure location away from the forms storage location.

In most organizations, the IT department is responsible for output control and security measures. Systems analysts must be concerned with security issues as they design, implement, and support information systems. Whenever possible, security should be designed into the system by using passwords, shielding sensitive data, and controlling user access. Physical security always will be necessary, especially in the case of printed output that is tangible and can be viewed and handled easily.

Enterprise-wide data access creates a whole new set of security and control issues. Many firms have responded to those concerns by installing diskless workstations. A diskless workstation is a network terminal that supports a full-featured user interface, but limits the printing or copying of data, except to certain network resources that can be monitored and controlled. This concept worked well with terminals that had limited hardware and software features.

However, over time, the number of removable media devices has expanded greatly, along with a wide variety of physical interfaces such as USB, FireWire, and PCMCIA, as well as wireless interfaces such as Wi-Fi and Bluetooth. A popular security solution is the use of a network-based application, often called a port protector , that controls access to and from workstation interfaces.

Input Security and Control

Input control includes the necessary measures to ensure that input data is correct, complete, and secure. You must focus on input control during every phase of input design, starting with source documents that promote data accuracy and quality. When a batch input method is used, the computer can produce an input log file that identifies and documents the data entered.

Every piece of information should be traceable back to the input data that produced it. That means that you must provide an audit trail that records the source of each data item and when it entered the system. In addition to recording the original source, an audit trail must show how and when data is accessed or changed, and by whom. All those actions must be logged in an audit trail file and monitored carefully.

A company must have procedures for handling source documents to ensure that data is not lost before it enters the system. All source documents that originate from outside the organization should be logged when they are received. Whenever source documents pass between departments, the transfer should be recorded.

Data security policies and procedures protect data from loss or damage, which is a vital goal in every organization. If the safeguards are not 100% effective, data recovery utilities should be able to restore lost or damaged data. Once data is entered, the company should store source documents in a safe location for some specified length of time. The company should have a records retention policy that meets all legal requirements and business needs.

Audit trail files and reports should be stored and saved. Then, if a data file is damaged, you can use the information to reconstruct the lost data. Data security also involves protecting data from unauthorized access. System sign-on procedures should prevent unauthorized individuals from entering the system, and users should change their passwords regularly. Having several levels of access also is advisable. For example, a data entry person might be allowed to view a credit limit, but not change it. Sensitive data can be encrypted , or coded, in a process called encryption , so only users with decoding software can read it.

WHERE DO WE GO FROM HERE?

The systems design phase begins with user interface design, followed by chapters on data design and system architecture. At this point, you should keep in mind that the deeper you go in the systems design process, the more expensive it will be to make changes and correct mistakes. You must be sure that you are aligned with users, and be alert for any changes or modifications that would affect your timetable or development costs. Two strategies that will help avoid major problems are a modular design approach and the use of prototyping. The following sections discuss these topics.

Modular Design

· In a modular design , you create individual components, called modules , which connect to a higher-level program or process. In a structured design, each module represents a specific process, which is shown on a DFD and documented in a process description. If you are using an object-oriented design, as described in Chapter 6 , object classes are represented by code modules. You will learn more about modular design in Chapter 11 , which describes systems implementation.

· You should try to design modules that perform a single function. Independent modules provide greater flexibility because they can be developed and tested individually, and then combined or reused later in the development process. Modular design is especially important in designing large-scale systems because separate teams of analysts and programmers can work on different areas and then integrate the results.

Prototyping

Prototyping produces an early, rapidly constructed working version of the proposed information system, called a prototype . Prototyping, which involves a repetitive sequence of analysis, design, modeling, and testing, is a common technique that can be used to design anything from a new home to a computer network. For example, engineers use a prototype to evaluate an aircraft design before production begins, as shown in the wind tunnel testing in Figure 8-25 on the next page.

User input and feedback is essential at every stage of the systems development process. Prototyping allows users to examine a model that accurately represents system outputs, inputs, interfaces, and processes. Users can “test-drive” the model in a risk-free environment and either approve it or request changes. In some situations, the prototype evolves into the final version of the information system. In other cases, the prototype is intended only to validate user requirements and is discarded afterward.

FIGURE 8-25 Wind tunnel testing is a typical example of prototyping.

Courtesy of NASA

FIGURE 8-26 The end product of system prototyping is a working model of the information system, ready for implementation.

© Cengage Learning 2014

Perhaps the most intense form of prototyping occurs when agile methods are used. As you learned in Chapter 1 , agile methods build a system by creating a series of prototypes and constantly adjusting them to user requirements. As the agile process continues, developers revise, extend, and merge earlier versions into the final product. An agile approach emphasizes continuous feedback, and each incremental step is affected by what was learned in the prior steps.

Systems analysts generally use two prototyping methods, system prototyping and design prototyping.

SYSTEM PROTOTYPING System prototyping produces a full-featured, working model of the information system. A system prototype that meets all requirements is ready for implementation, as shown in Figure 8-26 . Because the model is “on track” for implementation, it is especially important to obtain user feedback, and to be sure that the prototype meets all requirements of users and management.

DESIGN PROTOTYPING Systems analysts also use prototyping to verify user requirements, after which the prototype is discarded and implementation continues, as shown in Figure 8-27 . The approach is called design prototyping , or throwaway prototyping . In this case, the prototyping objectives are more limited, but no less important. The end product of design prototyping is a user-approved model that documents and benchmarks the features of the finished system. Design prototyping makes it possible to capture user input and approval while continuing to develop the system within the framework of the SDLC. Systems analysts typically use design prototyping as they construct outputs, inputs, and user interfaces.

TRADE-OFFS Prototyping offers many benefits, including the following:

· Users and systems developers can avoid misunderstandings.

· System developers can create accurate specifications for the finished system based on the prototype.

· Managers can evaluate a working model more effectively than a paper specification.

· Systems analysts can use a prototype to develop testing and training procedures before the finished system is available.

· Prototyping reduces the risk and potential financial exposure that occur when a finished system fails to support business needs.

Although most systems analysts believe that the advantages of prototyping far outweigh any disadvantages, you should consider the following potential problems:

· The rapid pace of development can create quality problems, which are not discovered until the finished system is operational.

· Other system requirements, such as reliability and maintainability, cannot be tested adequately using a prototype.

· In very complex systems, the prototype can become unwieldy and difficult to manage.

FIGURE 8-27 The end product of design prototyping is a user-approved model that documents and benchmarks the features of the finished system.

© Cengage Learning 2014