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chapter 11

Forms of Poetry

“Breathe-in experience, breathe-out poetry.”

—Muriel Rukeyser, American Jewish poet, a voice for feminism and social justice

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CHAPTER 11Section 11.1 Narrative Poetry

William Wordsworth’s observation that poetry is “the imagi- native expression of strong feelings, usually rhythmic” implies that poetry is likely to be written in numerous ways. Over time, the conventions of narrative poetry and lyric poetry have become most popular; specific forms of narrative and lyric poetry are recognized across the world’s cultures and used by poets globally.

11.1  Narrative Poetry

Narrative poetry tells a story. Its grandest form, and perhaps the oldest, is the epic, a story about momentous occurrences that have universal significance. The Greek epics the Iliad and the Odyssey, for example, trace Trojan War events and Ulysses’s long journey home after the war. John Milton’s epic Paradise Lost is a lofty story about the fall of humankind from an Edenic existence into a world of suffering.

Another form of narrative poetry is the ballad, a story that’s sung. In ancient oral traditions, bal- lads were used to celebrate shared experiences involving adventure, war, love, death, and the supernatural. Ballads still incorporate these themes and portray situations in which violence and betrayal occur. John Keats’s “La Belle Dame sans Merci,” written in the 19th century, is a literary ballad, not intended to be sung. It is patterned after earlier popular ballads. Typically, the person featured in a ballad, as in this case, is an adventurer, a romantic figure. But the story here is being told after a particular adventure has taken its toll. The knight-at-arms is looking pale, haggard, and woebegone. In true ballad style, the story is told without background or much detail; the empha- sis is on the action in a human dilemma, its outcome, and the feelings it produces.

La Belle Dame sans Merci John Keats (1819)

O what can ail thee, knight-at-arms, So lone and palely loitering? The sedge has wither’d from the lake, And no birds sing.

O what can ail thee, knight-at-arms! So haggard and so woe-begone? The squirrel’s granary is full, And the harvest’s done.

I see a lily on thy brow With anguish moist and fever dew, And on thy cheeks a fading rose Fast withereth too.

Knight-at-arms: medieval ideal of

manhood Sedge: grasslike

plant

Having described the knight’s down- trodden condition,

the storyteller proceeds to give

an explanation in the knight’s

words.

5

The ballad’s typical themes

of romance and love are central in

Keat’s ballad.

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CHAPTER 11Section 11.1 Narrative Poetry

I met a lady in the meads, Full beautiful—a faery’s child, Her hair was long, her foot was light, And her eyes were wild.

I made a garland for her head, And bracelets too, and fragrant zone; She look’d at me as she did love, And made sweet moan.

I set her on my pacing steed, And nothing else saw all day long, For sidelong would she bend, and sing A faery’s song.

She found me roots of relish sweet, And honey wild, and manna dew, And sure in language strange she said— “I love thee true.”

She took me to her elfin grot, And there she wept, and sigh’d full sore, And there I shut her wild wild eyes With kisses four.

And there she lull’d me asleep, And there I dream’d—Ah! woe betide! The latest dream I ever dream’d On the cold hill’s side.

I saw pale kings and princes too, Pale warriors, death-pale were they all; They cried—“La Belle Dame sans Merci Hath thee in thrall!”

I saw their starved lips in the gloom, With horrid warning gaping wide, And I awoke and found me here, On the cold hill’s side.

And this is why I sojourn here, Alone and palely loitering, Though the sedge is wither’d from the lake, And no birds sing.

This piece is in the public domain

15

20

25Manna: physical/ spiritual food

provided in the wilderness in the

biblical story. Literally, refers to

hoarfrost here. elfin grot:

enchanted, remote cave

full sore: suffering

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35

Ballads often include dreams.

In this dream, betrayal and tragic conse-

quences are inter- woven into the

story.

40

The final image, “And no birds

sing,” is an image of total

desolation.

45

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CHAPTER 11Section 11.1 Narrative Poetry

“The Boxer” is a modern rock ballad. In several ways, its style is strikingly different from Keats’s style: its rhythm is irregular rather than repetitive; its stanzas have varied lengths, whereas Keats’s stanzas each have four lines. In “La Belle Dame sans Merci” the second and last line in each stanza rhyme; in “The Boxer” line-end rhyming is not used. But both poems incorporate several charac- teristics of the ballad tradition.

The Boxer Paul Simon and Bruce Woodley (1968) Click here to listen: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ky57Jo3-BaU

I am just a poor boy Though my story’s seldom told I have squandered my resistance For a pocketful of mumbles Such are promises All lies and jests Still, a man hears what he wants to hear And disregards the rest

5

Responding and Reflection—Questions

Connecting What traditional ballad characteristics are evident in this ballad?

Considering The closing stanza is almost identical to the opening stanza. How does use of this tech- nique contribute to the tone of the poem? What other contributions are made through this technique?

Concluding What emotion do you associate with the “withered sedge” image, which appears twice? Examine the other images of nature in the poem. What emotion does each one express?

John Keats (1795–1821)

An English Romantic poet, he lived only 29 years, suffering from tuber- culosis at the end. His letters to Fanny Brawne, an 18-year-old Londoner he met in 1818, are filled with sensitive imagery that reflect the search for beauty and truth, which underlies his poems as well. Keats’ life was dif- ficult; he cared for his mother and his brother during their major illnesses; both died of tuberculosis in the last seven years of his life. His epitaph reads, “Here lies one whose name was writ in water.”

. Bettmann/CORBIS

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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ky57Jo3-BaU
CHAPTER 11Section 11.1 Narrative Poetry

When I left my home and my family I was no more than a boy In the company of strangers In the quiet of the railway station Running scared Laying low, seeking out the poorer quarters Where the ragged people go Looking for the places only they would know Lie-la-lie . . .

Asking only workman’s wages I come looking for a job But I get no offers Just a come-on from the whores On Seventh Avenue I do declare, There were times when I was so lonesome I took some comfort there Lie-la-lie . . .

Now the years are rolling by me They are rocking evenly And I am older than I once was And younger that I’ll be, but that’s not unusual No it isn’t strange After changes more changes We are more or less the same After changes we are more or less the same Lie-la-lie . . .

Then I’m laying out my winter clothes And wishing I was gone, Going home Where the New York City winters Aren’t bleeding me Leading me, going home

In the clearing stands a boxer And a fighter by his trade And he carries the reminders Of ev’ry glove that laid him down And cut him till he cried out In his anger and his shame, “I am leaving, I am leaving.” But the fighter still remains Lie-la-lie . . .

Copyright . 1968 Paul Simon and Bruce Woodley Used by permission of the Publisher: Paul Simon Music

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35

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CHAPTER 11Section 11.1 Narrative Poetry

There are many narrative poems that are not ballads. Gary Soto’s “Oranges” is an example. These poems—narratives in rhythmic form—are popular because they appeal to the universal interest in stories that lies deep within the human imagination.

Oranges Gary Soto (1995)

The first time I walked With a girl, I was twelve, Cold, and weighted down With two oranges in my jacket. December. Frost cracking Beneath my steps, my breath Before me, then gone, As I walked toward Her house, the one whose Porch light burned yellow Night and day, in any weather. A dog barked at me, until

Almost a “once- upon-time” begin-

ning to the story

Winter setting and the barking dog are subtle, omi-

nous details.

5

10

Paul Simon (b. 1941)

Simon and his singing partner for “The Boxer,” Art Garfunkel, attended school together and grew up in New York City. They copyrighted their first composition in 1955, became widely recognized musicians in the 1960s, split up in 1970, and Paul Simon has maintained a successful solo career since then. “The Boxer,” a folk rock ballad written in 1968, reflects the turbulent mood and trials that characterized social change in the 1960s.. Bettmann/CORBIS

Responding and Reflection—Questions

Connecting What traditional ballad characteristics are evident in this ballad?

Considering The poem’s story deals with things learned between the point of leaving home (stanza 2) and going home (stanza 5). What insights are associated with: “pocketful of mumbles,” “laying out my winter clothes,” “I am leaving, I am leaving,” and the refrain “Lie-la-lie”?

Concluding What contribution does the image of the boxer make to the poem—besides providing its title?

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CHAPTER 11Section 11.1 Narrative Poetry

She came out pulling At her gloves, face bright With rouge. I smiled, Touched her shoulder, and led Her down the street, across A used car lot and a line Of newly planted trees, Until we were breathing Before a drugstore. We Entered, the tiny bell Bringing a saleslady Down a narrow aisle of goods. I turned to the candies Tiered like bleachers, And asked what she wanted— Light in her eyes, a smile Starting at the corners Of her mouth. I fingered A nickel in my pocket, And when she lifted a chocolate That cost a dime, I didn’t say anything. I took the nickel from My pocket, then an orange, And set them quietly on The counter. When I looked up, The lady’s eyes met mine, And held them, knowing Very well what it was all About.

Outside, A few cars hissing past, Fog hanging like old Coats between the trees. I took my girl’s hand In mine for two blocks, Then released it to let Her unwrap the chocolate. I peeled my orange That was so bright against The gray of December That, from some distance, Someone might have thought I was making a fire in my hands.

From New and Selected Poems . 1995 by Gary Soto. Used with permission of Chronicle Books LLC, San Francisco. Visit www.ChronicleBooks.com

15

20

25

30

Crisis point in the narrative, after

mounting suspense 35

Resolution of the crisis

Boy’s character revealed through

his resourceful actions. 40

45

50

Boy’s reflective response from a somewhat more

informed point of view. A beginning

look back on innocence.

55

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CHAPTER 11Section 11.2 The Limerick

Gary Soto (b. 1952)

He was born into a Mexican American family in Fresno, California. A popular Chicano writer, he has published several books of poetry, taught at the University of California, and been a resonant voice for social change.

11.2  The Limerick

The limerick is another form of narrative poetry, a jingle usually created with humorous intent. The limerick was popularized in English literature by Edward Lear in his Book of Nonsense in 1846. Ogden Nash is famously known in American literature for his limericks. Presently, the limerick appears primarily in children’s books. Its structure consist of five lines: The first two lines and the third and fourth lines have rhyming end words, and the first and last lines often end with the same word. In the second example below, the ending word is a pun in addition to being the same word that ends line one. A pun is created when two separate sounds or mean- ings of a word are aligned to create humor through a play on words. An example is “We’re not sure how worms reproduce, but we often find them in pears.”

Lady from Cork Anonymous

There once was a lady from Cork Who lived on a diet of pork; She looked a bit chubby, “Because,” said her hubby, “She seldom will put down her fork.”

End-line rhym- ing words: cork,

pork, fork/chubby, hubby

Responding and Reflection—Questions

Connecting At what point did you feel yourself being drawn into the story this poem tells? Did a par- ticular experience in your own life draw you into the story?

Considering What emotions are most evident in this poem? How are they expressed?

Concluding Oranges are identified three times in the poem: in the boy’s pocket, on the store counter, and in the boy’s hands. What does each of these instances contribute to the story?

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CHAPTER 11Section 11.3 Lyric Poetry

Man from Nantucket Anonymous

There once was a man from Nantucket Who kept all his cash in a bucket, But his daughter named Nan Ran away with a man, And as for the bucket, Nantucket.

Nantucket as a pun means “a city in Massachusetts”

and “Nan tuck (took) it.”

5

Connecting What tone is established by the familiar wording used in the opening line of each poem? Explain the benefits and limitations of this approach.

Considering In the limerick form, lines 3 and 4 each have fewer syllables than the other lines. What effect on the rhythm does this create?

Concluding Sometimes punning creates obscure connections between words and lessens the intended humor. Keeping this in mind, how suitable is the pun in the last line of “Man from Nantucket”?

11.3  Lyric Poetry

Lyric poetry is more subjective than narrative poetry. Usually brief, a lyric poem expresses a poet’s thoughts and imagination. Its melody and emotion create a dominant, unified impression. Popularity of the lyric form rose as expressions of humanism increased during the Renaissance; lyrics were particularly popular in Shakespearean England and reached their prominence in English literature with the birth of Romanticism in the early 19th century.

Here is an example, written in 1815 by the Romantic poet, Lord Byron. Because beauty is an abstract concept, it has to be approached subjectively. Byron imagines a dark night with bright stars and compares the beauty he sees in a particular woman to the interwoven beauty (“tender light”) of a starlit night. Light and darkness are combined in this beautiful woman—magnificence is evident in her features in exactly the right proportions, not requiring adjustment by even “one shade the more, one ray the less.”

She Walks in Beauty Lord Byron (1815)

She walks in beauty, like the night Of cloudless climes and starry skies; And all that’s best of dark and bright Meet in her aspect and her eyes: Thus mellowed to that tender light Which heaven to gaudy day denies.

There is no punctuation, or pause, at the end of the first line—because the

thought is carried over to the next line. This technique is called enjambment.

Central impression of her represented by a balance between light and dark. Images in the second stanza provide

further details.

5

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CHAPTER 11Section 11.3 Lyric Poetry

One shade the more, one ray the less, Had half impaired the nameless grace Which waves in every raven tress, Or softly lightens o’er her face; Where thoughts serenely sweet express How pure, how dear their dwelling place. And on that cheek, and o’er that brow, So soft, so calm, yet eloquent, The smiles that win, the tints that glow, But tell of days in goodness spent, A mind at peace with all below, A heart whose love is innocent!

This piece is in the public domain

raven tress: dark hair

10

Rhythm of the two phrases in this suggests her gracefulness

Rhythm emphasizes emotional expressiveness

15

Awareness of her mental and spiritual sensitivity; holistic view

Responding and Reflection—Questions

Connecting What tone is established in the opening of the poem? Byron frequently sang this poem, which was thought to be written in honor of a person he knew. Which details contribute to its musical quality?

Byron uses both “dark” and “light” contrasts to develop the woman’s elegance and beauty. Find examples of this technique.

Concluding Think about these two phrases: “She is beautiful” and “She walks in beauty.” What are the connotations of each? What connections do you see between the speaker’s observations in the opening image of the poem and the observations made in the last three lines?

Gordon, George, Lord Byron (1788–1824)

Lord Byron, a charismatic poet, famous initially after he published his romantic poem “Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage,” became prominent enough to be in the House of Lords. Yet, in his 36 years he was often in moral disgrace; his dishonor included marriage to his half sister and vari- ous romances. Literary characters patterned after his melancholic, defi- ant, searching characters are known as “Byronic heroes.” Byron died on his way to Greece to engage in a military encounter when his brig sank. Although his family sought permission for his burial in both Westminster Abbey and St. Paul’s Cathedral, it was not granted in either place.

. Getty Images/Photos. com/Thinkstock

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CHAPTER 11Section 11.4 The Sonnet

11.4  The Sonnet

The sonnet is a highly structured form of lyric poetry with different specifications for the Italian (Petrarchan) sonnet and for the English (Shakespearean) sonnet. Deriving its name from an Italian word that means “little song,” the Petrarchan sonnet originated in Europe in the Middle Ages. Both sonnet versions have 14 lines and usually the same meter, but each has a different rhyme scheme and a different thought development pattern, as illustrated in Tables 11.1 and 11.2 and the sonnets by John Milton and William Shakespeare. You can readily see that fitting thoughts and images into such a fixed structure is a daunting task; Shakespeare apparently didn’t mind it because he wrote 154 sonnets that we know of. But first, here is an example of an Italian-style sonnet by John Milton.

Table 11.1 Italian Sonnet Characteristics in “On His Blindness”

•  14 lines

octave—first 8 lines sestet—last 6 lines

•  Change in thought at the end of the octave—

The octave presents the troubling matter of blindness and resulting inability to work (John Milton became blind in his forties). The sestet offers a resolution: humble service in God’s eyes may be sufficient.

•  Rhyme scheme in the octave—

Lines 1, 4, 5, and 8 have rhyming end words Lines 2, 3, 6, and 7 have rhyming end words

•  Rhyme scheme in the sestet—

Lines 9 and 12 have rhyming end words Lines 10 and 13 have rhyming end words Lines 11 and 14 have rhyming end words

•  Meter (rhythm pattern )—iambic pentameter—

A line with 10 syllables, arranged in a pattern in which an unemphasized syllable is followed by an emphasized one

•  Iambic foot—

Consists of an unemphasized syllable followed by an emphasized syllable. When five of these feet are included in a line, the meter (rhythm) is identified as iambic pentameter (see Figure 11.1).

ˇ / ˇ / ˇ / ˇ / ˇ / “They al so serve who on ly stand and wait.”

ˇ unstressed syllable / stressed syllable Each iambic foot is underlined.

Figure 11.1 Iambic Pentameter

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CHAPTER 11Section 11.4 The Sonnet

On His Blindness John Milton (1655) Click here to listen: http://www.shmoop.com/consider-light-spent-blindness/botw/resources?

d=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q0RrfIEmYj0

When I consider how my light is spent  a Ere half my days, in this dark world and wide, b And that one talent which is death to hide, b Lodged with me useless, though my soul more bent a To serve therewith my Maker, and present a My true account, lest he returning chide; b “Doth God exact day-labor, light denied?” b I fondly ask; but Patience to prevent a That murmur, soon replies, “God doth not need  c Either man’s work or his own gifts; who best d Bear his mild yoke, they serve him best. His state e Is kingly. Thousands at his bidding speed c And post o’er land and ocean without rest; d They also serve who only stand and wait.” e

This piece is in the public domain

5

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John Milton (1608–1674)

He was born in London and earned a master’s degree at Oxford. In addi- tion to writing poetry, he loved music and wrote political tracts. He pub- lished a treatise supporting divorce and was married three times. He completed Paradise Lost, the epic poem for which he is renowned, after he became blind. Through his various writings he was an advocate for education, Protestantism, the right to free speech and the separation of church and state. At one point he was imprisoned for his advocacy.

.iStockphoto/Thinkstock

Table 11.2 English Sonnet Characteristics in Shakespeare’s Sonnet 29

•  14 lines

First 12 lines are divided into three quatrains (stanzas containing four lines). Last two lines are a rhyming couplet (two lines with the same number of syllables).

•  Change in thought at the end of the last quatrain, line 12

The discouragement and low self-esteem shown in lines 1–12 are superseded by a sense of fulfill- ment and satisfaction when a particular person’s love is recalled.

•  Rhyme scheme—

Lines 1 and 3 in each quatrain have rhyming end words. Lines 2 and 4 in each quatrain have rhyming end words.

•  Meter (rhythm pattern)—iambic pentameter

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CHAPTER 11Section 11.4 The Sonnet

Here is an example of an English-style sonnet by William Shakespeare.

Sonnet 29 William Shakespeare (1609) Click here to listen: http://www.uoguelph.ca/shakespeare/multimedia/ audio/wainwright.cfm

When, in disgrace with Fortune and men’s eyes, a I all alone beweep my outcast state, b And trouble deaf heaven with my bootless cries, a And look upon myself and curse my fate, b

Wishing me like to one more rich in hope, c Featured like him, like him with friends possessed, d Desiring this man’s art, and that man’s scope, c With what I most enjoy contented least, d

Yet in these thoughts myself almost despising, e Haply I think on thee, and then my state, f Like to the lark at break of day arising e From sullen earth, sings hymns at heaven’s gate f

For thy sweet love remembered such wealth brings g That then I scorn to change my state with kings. g

This piece is in the public domain

5

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William Shakespeare (1564–1616)

Records show that he was baptized in Holy Trinity Church in Stratford- upon-Avon in 1564 and that he married Anne Hathaway at age 18. But details of his life are sketchy. Arguably, he is the greatest English-language writer of drama and poetry. His epitaph reads:

Good friend for Jesus’ sake forbear, To dig the dust enclosed here: Blest be the man that spares these stones, And curst be he that moves my bones.

© iStockphoto/ Thinkstock

Ozymandias Percy Bysshe Shelley (1817) Click here to listen: http://poetryoutloud.org/audio/16%20Track%2016.mp3

I met a traveller from an antique land Who said: “Two vast and trunkless legs of stone Stand in the desert. Near them on the sand, Half sunk, a shattered visage lies, whose frown And wrinkled lip and sneer of cold command

antique: ancient

desert: Sahara Desert

visage: face 5

cLu66049_11_c11_233-256.indd 245 11/8/10 5:32 PM

http://www.uoguelph.ca/shakespeare/multimedia/audio/wainwright.cfm
http://www.uoguelph.ca/shakespeare/multimedia/audio/wainwright.cfm
Click here to listen: http://poetryoutloud.org/audio/16%20Track%2016.mp3
CHAPTER 11Section 11.5 The Ode

Tell that its sculptor well those passions read Which yet survive, stamped on these lifeless things, The hand that mocked them and the heart that fed. And on the pedestal these words appear: “My name is Ozymandias,1 King of Kings: Look on my works, ye mighty, and despair!” Nothing beside remains. Round the decay Of that colossal wreck, boundless and bare, The lone and level sands stretch far away.

This piece is in the public domain.

10

1. An Egyptian king, also known as Ramses II, who was born in 1314 BCE and ruled Egypt for 66 years. He was a warrior and a builder of temples and monuments. His colossal statue was 57 feet tall. Sometime later it fell; eventually only pieces remained. Its original inscription, according to the Greek historian Diodorus Siculus, was “I am Ozymandias, King of Kings. If anyone would know how great I am and where I lie, let him surpass one of my works.”

Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792–1822)

One of England’s most famous Romantics, he was a passionate vision- ary—poet, essayist, dramatist—who lived unconventionally and argued for social and intellectual changes. A strong believer in the human spirit as the source for unlimited progress, Shelley upheld concepts of beauty and grandeur in many of his works. He drowned on his way to partici- pate in a military venture in Greece at age 29.

. Getty Images/Photos. com/Thinkstock

Responding and Reflection—Questions

Connecting Is “Ozymandias” written in Italian sonnet form or English sonnet form? Explain.

Considering What effect is created by Shelley’s use of alliteration in the last two lines of the poem: “boundless and bare” and “lone and level”? How does this effect support the poem’s cen- tral thought?

11.5  The Ode

The ode is a form of lyric poetry in which a single subject or purpose is exalted in a serious, dignified way. Odes are imaginative, expressed with a meditative, intellectual tone, but do not have a prescribed pattern. Eleanor Farjeon’s poem might have been called “An Ode to Morning.” Its sparkling description of the beauty of morning is also a meditation on the wonder of morning, considered within a spiritual and theological framework. Farjeon wrote the poem in 1931 to fit an old Gaelic tune, making it a song as well—one that the singer Cat Stevens popular- ized forty years later.

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CHAPTER 11Section 11.5 The Ode

A Morning Song Eleanor Farjeon (1931/1957) Click here to listen: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1TWd3skb-Rw

Morning has broken, like the first morning, Blackbird has spoken, like the first bird: Praise for the singing, praise for the morning, Praise for the springing fresh from the word.

Sweet the rain’s new fall, sunlit from heaven, Like the first dewfall, on the first grass: Praise for the sweetness of the wet garden, Sprung in completeness where his feet pass.

Mine is the sunlight, mine is the morning, Born of the one light, Eden saw play: Praise with elation, praise every morning, God’s recreation of the new day.

“Morning Has Broken,” by Eleanor Farjeon. Reprinted by permission of Harold Ober Associates Incorporated. Copyright . 1957 by Eleanor Farjeon.

Morning (or the first morning in creation) is

the subject.

Judeo-Christian idea that the world was spo-

ken into being by God

Imaginative details suggesting perfection,

satisfaction

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“Mine is the sunlight” introduces a meditative

tone.

Eden: further refer- ence to first morning in

creation

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Eleanor Farjeon (1881–1965)

She began writing when she was seven and was widely recognized and received various awards for several volumes of stories, poems, and plays she wrote for children—which delightfully mocked the behavior of adults. In 1956 she received the Hans Christian Andersen Award in recog- nition for works in children’s literature. She maintained friendships with Robert Frost, Walter de la Mare, and other well-known poets.

Responding and Reflection—Questions

Connecting Which details in the poem besides the opening simile (“like the first morning”) indicate that the wonder of creation is being considered?

Considering In the last stanza, the speaker seems to be internalizing the experience of morning. What par- ticular effects has the experience had on the speaker, and how are they shown?

public domain

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Click here to listen: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1TWd3skb-Rw
CHAPTER 11Section 11.6 The Elegy

11.6  The Elegy

The elegy is a lyric poem that expresses the poet’s thoughts about death; it is usually initi-ated by the death of a person highly regarded by the poet. The tone in the elegy is somber, as the poet laments the loss of the person being remembered, but may, depending on the meditation of the poet, offer glimmers of hope—as this short segment of Tennyson’s “In Memo- riam” does. He wrote this elegy following the death of his poet friend, Arthur Hallam, who died suddenly at age 22. His reflection includes the possibility that hope may be a sustaining factor in the face of death, a resource both an individual and his Victorian society might seek.

In Memoriam (section 54) Alfred, Lord Tennyson (1850)

Oh, yet we trust that somehow good Will be the final end of ill, To pangs of nature, sins of will, Defects of doubt, and taints of blood;

That nothing walks with aimless feet; That not one life shall be destroy’d, Or cast as rubbish to the void, When God hath made the pile complete;

That not a worm is cloven in vain; That not a moth with vain desire Is shrivell’d in a fruitless fire, Or but subserves another’s gain.

Behold, we know not anything; I can but trust that good shall fall At last—far off—at last, to all, And every winter change to spring.

So runs my dream: but what am I? An infant crying in the night: An infant crying for the light: And with no language but a cry.

This piece is in the public domain.

Specifically, Tenny- son was lament- ing the loss of a dear friend, but he also laments

the uncertainty of life in which loss

seems to prevail. 5

An accumulation of images of loss and uncertainty

cloven: sliced

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Renewal of the uncertainty and

lament stated at the outset

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CHAPTER 11Section 11.6 The Elegy

Alfred, Lord Tennyson (1809–1892)

His life practically spans the 19th century. He served as Great Britain’s poet laureate during most of Queen Victoria’s reign; she particularly appreciated “In Memoriam.” Many of his other poems, some noted for their musical qualities, remain among those most quoted in the English language. Because of weak eyesight, Tennyson had great difficulty read- ing. This disability made writing difficult as well. As a result, apparently, he formed many of his poetic expressions in his head rather than creating them on paper with a pen.

. Bettmann/CORBIS

Responding and Reflection—Questions

Considering Locate the various contrasts that are used in the poem as a means of illustrating hope and purpose.

Concluding Describe the difference in tone that is expressed in the last stanza. What does this change in tone imply?

Futility Wilfred Owen (1920/1963) Click here to listen: http://www.englishclub.com/listening/poetry-futility.htm

Move him into the sun— Gently its touch awoke him once, At home, whispering of fields unsown. Always it woke him, even in France, Until this morning and this snow. If anything might rouse him now The kind old sun will know.

Think how it wakes the seeds, Woke, once, the clays of a cold star. Are limbs, so dear-achieved, are sides, Full-nerved,—still warm,—too hard to stir? Was it for this the clay grew tall? O what made fatuous sunbeams toil To break earth’s sleep at all?

This piece is in the public domain.

France: site of the battlefield

5

10 clay: metaphor comparing the

soldier’s body to clay

fatuous; foolish

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CHAPTER 11Section 11.7 The Dramatic Monologue

11.7  The Dramatic Monologue

Elements that are essential in drama—conflict, action, and characterization—are also essen-tial in the dramatic monologue. But the element of dialogue or discourse is treated differ-ently. In the dramatic monologue, only one person’s contribution to the conversation is revealed. Through it, a silent listener is identified, the circumstances are made known, and the thoughts, struggles, and nature of the speaking character are laid bare. This process creates sharp awareness of point of view, values, and tone. Often the tone is ironic.

Because the dramatic monologue form allows exploration of subjects through the mind of an invented character, the poet is free to express a point of view that is more extreme or exaggerated than his or her own—as is the case in “My Last Duchess,” where the speaker shows no remorse whatsoever for having disposed of his wife. Robert Browning used this form in the late 19th cen- tury to explore, and attempt to influence, a number of social and aesthetic subjects, analyzing them through the minds of a different speaker in each case.

In “My Last Duchess,” Browning imagines the speaker to be the Duke of Ferrara, a 16th-century historical figure, who, it is believed, poisoned his wife in order to marry someone better suited to his social status. In the poem, the reader hears only one side of a conversation between the duke and the emissary who has come to make arrangements for the new marriage. The duke is pointing out his works of art and focuses on a painting of his deceased wife, which normally is hidden by a curtain. In the course of the duke’s comments and answers to questions apparently asked by the emissary (but not included), the reader gains insights into the duchess’s flirtatious nature and the duke’s response. The duke admits that he “gave commands” and all her smiles stopped. As the

Responding and Reflection—Questions

Connecting Owen wrote this poem during World War I. Find images that suggest his lament is about both (a) the war and (b) the loss of one soldier in the war.

Considering In what ways is the tone in the poem representative of the tone expected in an elegy?

Concluding How is the sun used symbolically in this poem?

Wilfred Owen (1893–1918)

He was born in England, served as a British soldier in World War I, and was killed in action one week before the war ended. Most of his works were published after his death, revealing his shockingly realistic perspec- tive on war. One of his most famous poems, “Anthem to Doomed Youth,” stands as an elegy for all who were victims in World War I. Within the British Empire alone, there were more than 900,000 military

. Bettmann/CORBIS

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CHAPTER 11Section 11.7 The Dramatic Monologue

poem ends, the two men leave the room to discuss the marriage plans further. Through this one- sided conversation—and a highly imaginative situation—Browning is able to create an intriguing narrative. But in doing so, he also subtly explores social issues related to marriage, aristocratic status, power, and egotistical behavior that were part of his own culture.

My Last Duchess Ferrara Robert Browning (1842) Click here to listen: http://poetryoutloud.org/audio/33%20Track%2033.mp3

That’s my last duchess painted on the wall, Looking as if she were alive. I call That piece a wonder, now; Fra Pandolf’s hands Worked busily a day, and there she stands. Will’t please you sit and look at her? “Fra Pandolf” by design, for never read Strangers like you that pictured countenance, That depth and passion of its earnest glance, But to myself they turned (since none puts by The curtain drawn for you, but I) And seemed as they would ask me, if they durst, How such a glance came there; so not the first Are you to turn and ask thus. Sir, ’twas not Her husband’s presence only, called that spot Of joy into the Duchess’ cheek: perhaps Fra Pandolf chanced to say “Her mantle laps Over my lady’s wrist too much” or “Paint Must never hope to reproduce the faint Half-flush that dies along her throat:” such stuff Was courtesy, she thought, and cause enough For calling up that spot of joy. She had A heart—how shall I say?—too soon made glad, Too easily impressed: she liked whate’er She looked on, and her looks went everywhere. Sir, ’twas all one! My favour at her breast, The dropping of the daylight in the West, The bough of cherries some officious fool Broke in the orchard for her, the white mule She rode with round the terrace—all and each Would draw from her alike the approving speech, Or blush, at least. She thanked men—good! but thanked Somehow—I know not how—as if she ranked My gift of a nine-hundred-years-old name With anybody’s gift. Who’d stoop to blame This sort of trifling? Even had you skill In speech—(which I have not)—to make your will Quite clear to such a one, and say, “Just this Or that in you disgusts me; here you miss Or there exceed the mark”—and if she let

The speaker points out a portrait of his deceased

wife.

Fra Pandolf: The artist who painted the Duchess’s

portrait 5

Apparently, the listener asks the speaker to repeat

the name of the artist.

The listener is studying the Duchess’s image and, like

others, is fascinated by her appearance.

10

Complaints the speaker had about the Duchess: Each reveals the Duke’s

character.

15

She smiled too readily and for anyone. 20

She did not respond to him in a special way.

25

30

She did not appear to respect his heritage.

35

His response and actions: his actions further reveal

his character

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http://poetryoutloud.org/audio/33%20Track%2033.mp3
CHAPTER 11Section 11.7 The Dramatic Monologue

Herself be lessoned so, nor plainly set Her wits to yours, forsooth, and made excuse —E’en then would be some stooping; and I choose Never to stoop. Oh sir, she smiled, no doubt, Whene’er I passed her; but who passed without Much the same smile? This grew; I gave commands, Then all smiles stopped together. There she stands As if alive. Will’t please you rise? We’ll meet The company below, then. I repeat, The Count your master’s known munificence Is ample warrant that no just pretence Of mine for dowry will be disallowed; Though his fair daughter’s self, as I avowed At starting is my object. Nay, we’ll go Together down, sir. Notice Neptune, though, Taming a sea-horse, thought a rarity, Which Claus of Innsbruck cast in bronze for me.

This piece is in the public domain.

40

He did not intend to “stoop,” to initi-

ate change.

He arranged her death.

45

Speaker asks the guest to accom- pany him out of

the room, noting his works of art as

they go.

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Neptune and sea- horse: a bronze

sculpture 55

Claus of Inns- bruck: the person

who created the bronze artwork

Robert Browning (1812–1889)

Born near London, he became one of the most popular Victorian poets. After his marriage, he and his wife, poet Elizabeth Barrett, lived in Italy for a number of years. He is remembered especially for his dramatic writing style and his mastery of the dramatic monologue form. A well- rounded person, Browning learned Greek, Latin, and French; became an accomplished pianist; and engaged in collecting books throughout his life.

. Getty Images/Photos. com/Thinkstock

Responding and Reflection—Questions

Connecting Which images reflect the duke’s impressions of his wife? What, apparently, were the duch- ess’s outstanding characteristics?

Considering Identify details in the poem that suggest (a) the duke’s power and (b) his aesthetic and cultured sensitivity. These attributes seem contradictory, yet they are evident in the duke. What message is Browning conveying about influence of aesthetics and culture by devel- oping the duke in this way?

Concluding What message is Browning conveying about the limitations of Victorian society by devel- oping the duke in this way?

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CHAPTER 11Section 11.8 Haiku and Free Verse

11.8  Haiku and Free Verse

Haiku is a poetic form that had its beginnings in Japanese culture, popularized by poet Masaoka Shiki in the late nineteenth century. It has a compact 17-syllable structure, con-sisting of three lines of five, seven, and five syllables, respectively. Overall, a haiku poem creates a clear picture that stimulates a distinct emotion or spiritual insight. There is no rhyme pattern in haiku. The poem below illustrates the sudden break in imagery and tone in the final line, which is typical of haiku.

A boy not ten years old they are giving to the temple! Oh, it’s cold!

The Apprentice Priestling, Masaoka Shiki. Translated by H. G. Henderson. From An Introduction to Haiku by Harold G. Henderson, Doubleday and Company, 1958

Responding and Reflection—Questions

Connecting What action is occurring in the poem? From whose point of view is it described?

Considering Which aspects contribute most to the emotion of the poem?

Concluding Do you think the people involved in the action of the poem necessarily share the emotions that the speaker conveys? Identify details in the poem that seem to suggest that their emo- tions are different from the speaker’s.

Masaoka Shiki (1867–1902)

Known by this pen name, his birth name was Masaoka Tsunenori. He was a popular Japanese poet and is recognized as the person who introduced the term haiku to replace earlier terms that described single image poetry.

public domain

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CHAPTER 11Section 11.8 Haiku and Free Verse

Free Verse

Free verse is distinguished by its irregular rhythm. Its lines are of varying lengths and lack rhyme. Without the restrictions associated with other forms of poetry, it offers great potential for spon- taneity and is widely used by contemporary writers. William Carlos Williams’s poem “The Red Wheelbarrow” is an example of free verse. It also is considered an Imagist poem. Williams was part of a group of American poets in the early part of the 20th century who moved away from use of conventional forms and created artistic images in their poems in order to suggest an idea rather than convey it fully. They were influenced by the Japanese haiku.

The Red Wheelbarrow William Carlos Williams (1883–1963) See biographic information in section 9.2.

so much depends upon a red wheel barrow glazed with rain water beside the white chickens.

This piece is in the public domain

5

Responding and Reflection—Questions

Connecting Because the title of the poem is “The Red Wheelbarrow,” do you focus on the wheelbarrow image immediately as you read, or are you more aware of a landscape that includes the red wheelbarrow?

Considering In his free verse Williams places “wheel” and “barrow” on separate lines and “rain” and “water” as well. What effect do you think he creates in doing this? Is the same effect cre- ated by placing “white” and “chickens” on separate lines?

Concluding The poem suggests that “so much” depends on the red wheelbarrow. What might “so much” refer to or include? Identify images in the poem that relate to the idea of vital relationships.

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CHAPTER 11Section 11.9 Summary

11.9  Summary

Chapter 11 emphasizes the unique ways that particular forms of poetry are used to create clar-ity, variety, and purpose in poetic expression. Specifically, it discusses narrative, lyric, and dra-matic genres and provides examples of unique poetic forms within each genre. These include the ballad, the limerick, the sonnet, the ode, the elegy, the dramatic monologue, and the haiku.

Some of these forms are demanding, requiring particular line formations or a particular number of lines or specific rhyme schemes. In these ways the form serves as an organizational principle; the form helps shape thought. Consequently, as demonstrated in this chapter, it’s important to identify the form of a poem you are reading. The form itself can provide essential clues to the poet’s intentions.