Dr farheen fahim livingston nj

Racial and Ethnic Groups

Fourteenth Edition

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Racial and Ethnic Groups

Fourteenth Edition

Richard T. Schaefer

DePaul University

PEARSON

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Schaefer, Richard T.

Racial and ethnic groups/ Richard T. Schaefer, DePaul University.-Fourteenth edition. pages cm

Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-0-13-377099-5 ISBN-IO: 0-13-377099-0 1. Minorities-United States. 2. United States-Race relations. 3. United States-Ethnic relations.

4. Prejudices. I. Title. El84.AIS3 2014 305.800973-dc23

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 I

PEARSON

2013041297

Student Edition ISBN-IO: 0-13-377099-0 ISBN-13: 978-0-13-377099-5

A la Carte ISBN-IO: 0-13-377365-5 ISBN-13: 978-0-13-377365-l

To my grandson, may he grow to flourish

in our multicultural society

V

vi

Brief Contents

Chapter 1 Exploring Race and Ethnicity

Chapter 2 Prejudice 31

Chapter 3 Discrimination 58

Chapter 4 Immigration 83

Chapter 5 Ethnicity and Religion 111

Chapter 6 Native Americans: The First Americans 140

Chapter 7 African Americans 167

Chapter 8 African Americans Today 187

Chapter 9 Latinos: The Largest Minority 207

Chapter 10 Mexican Americans and Puerto Ricans 225

Chapter 11 Muslim and Arab Americans: Diverse Minorities 242

Chapter 12 Asian Americans: Growth and Diversity 261

Chapter 13 Chinese Americans and Japanese Americans 283

Chapter 14 Jewish Americans: Quest to Maintain Identity 301

Chapter 15 Women: The Oppressed Majority 323

Chapter 16 Beyond the United States: The Comparative Perspective 345

Chapter 17 Overcoming Exclusion 366

Contents

Features xvii

Preface xix

About the Author xxviii

PARTI Perspectives on Racial and Ethnic Groups

1 Exploring Race and Ethnicity 1 Ranking Groups 4

Types of Groups 6 Racial Groups 6 Ethnic Groups 6

• Speaking Out: Problem of the Color Line 7

Religious Groups 8

Gender Groups 8

Other Subordinate Groups 8

Does Race Matter? 8 Biological Meaning 9

Absence of Pure Races 9

Intelligence Tests 9

Social Construction of Race 10

Biracial and Multiracial Identity: Who Am I? 11

• Research Focus: Multiracial Identity 12

Sociology and the Study of Race and Ethnicity 13 Stratification by Class and Gender 14

Theoretical Perspectives 14 Functionalist Perspective 14 Conflict Perspective 15

Labeling Theory 16

The Creation of Subordinate-Group Status 17 Migration 18

Annexation 18

Colonialism 19

Spectrum of Intergroup Status 20

The Consequences of Subordinate-Group Status 20 Extermination 20

Expulsion 21

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Secession 21 Segregation 22 Fusion 23 Assimilation 24 The Pluralist Perspective 26

Resistance and Change 26

2 Prejudice 31 Prejudice and Discrimination 33

• Research Focus: Virtual Prejudice and Anti-Prejudice 33

Merton's Typology 34 LaPiere 's Study 34

White Privilege 36

Theories of Prejudice 37 Scapegoating Theory 37 Authoritarian Personality Theory 37 Exploitation Theory 38 Normative Approach 38

Stereotypes 39 What Are Stereotypes? 39

• Speaking Out: Gangsters, Gooks, Geishas, and Geeks 40

Stereotyping in Action: Racial Profiling 41

Color-Blind Racism 42

The Mood of the Oppressed 43

Intergroup Hostility 45

Reducing Prejudice 47 Education 48 Mass Media 48 Avoidance Versus Friendship 50

The Social Distance Scale 50 Equal Status Contact 51 Avoidance Via the Internet 52

Corporate Response: Diversity Training 52

3 Discrimination 58 Understanding Discrimination 60

Relative vs. Absolute Deprivation 60

• A Global View: The Roma: A Thousand Years of Discrimination 60

Hate Crimes 61 What Are Hate Crimes? 61 Why Do Hate Crimes Carry Harsher Penalties? 62

Institutional Discrimination 63

Discrimination Today 64 Discrimination Hits the Wallet 65 Eliminating Discrimination 67

Wealth Inequality: Discrimination's Legacy 69

• Research Focus: The Unequal Wealth Distribution 70

Environmental Justice 71

Affirmative Action 72 Affirmative Action Explained 72

The Legal Debate 73

• Speaking Out: The Conversation We're Not Having When We Talk About Affirmative Action 75

Reverse Discrimination 76

The Glass Ceiling 77

PART II Ethnic and Religious Sources of Conflict

4 Immigration 83 Patterns of Immigration to the United States 85

Early Immigration 87 The Anti-Chinese Movement 87

• Speaking Out: Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 89

Restrictionist Sentiment Increases 90 The National Origin System 90 The Immigration and Nationality Act 91

Contemporary Social Concerns 92 The Brain Drain 93 Population Growth 94

Mixed-Status Families 94 Language Barriers 94 The Economic Impact 96

• Research Focus: The Hispanic Dairyland 97

Illegal Immigration 99

• A Global View: Immigration and South Africa 102

Path to Citizenship: Naturalization 102

Women and Immigration 103

The Global Economy and Immigration 104

The Environment and Immigration 106

Refugees 1 06

5 Ethnicity and Religion 111 Studying Whiteness 113

Rediscovering Ethnicity 114 The Third-Generation Principle 115 Ethnic Paradox 115

• Speaking Out: The Next Americans 116

Symbolic Ethnicity 117

Contents ix

x Contents

The German Americans 117 Settlement Patterns 118 Twenty First-Century German America 118

The Irish Americans 119 Irish Immigration 119 Becoming White 120 The Contemporary Picture 121

The Italian Americans 122 Early Immigration 122 Constructing Identity 123 The Contemporary Picture 124

• Research Focus: Immigrants: Yesterday and Today 125

The Polish Americans 125 Early Immigration 126 Polonia 126 The Contemporary Picture 127

Religious Pluralism 128 Diversity among Roman Catholics 132 Diversity among Protestants 132

Religion and the Courts 134 School Prayer 134 Secessionist Minorities 135

Creationism and Intelligent Design 136 Public Displays 136

PART Ill Major Racial and Ethnic Minority Groups in the United States

6 Native Americans: The First Americans 140 Early European Contacts 142

Treaties and Warfare 143 The Allotment Act 145 The Reorganization Act 145

• A Global View: Australia's Aboriginal People 146

Reservation Life and Federal Policies 146

Legal Claims 14 7 The Termination Act 148 Employment Assistance Program 148

Collective Action 150 Protest Efforts 151

• Speaking Out: Holocaust Museum of the Indigenous People Should Be Built at Wounded Knee 151

Collective Action: An Overview 153

American Indian Identity 153 Sovereignty 153 Individual Identity 154

• Research Focus: Sovereignty of the Shinnecock Nation 155

Native Americans Today 155 Economic Development 156

Tourism 156 Casino Gambling 157

Education 159 Healthcare 161

Religious and Spiritual Expression 161

Environment 162

7 African Americans 167 Slavery 168

Slave Codes 169 The Attack on Slavery 170 Slavery's Aftermath 171

• A Global View: France Noire: Black France 172

Reflecting on Slavery Today 172

The Challenge of Black Leadership 173 The Politics of Accommodation 173 The Niagara Movement 174

• Research Focus: Sundown Towns, USA 176

Reemergence of Black Protest 176

The Civil Rights Movement 177 Struggle to Desegregate the Schools 178 Civil Disobedience 178

The Urban Stage 180 Urban Violence and Oppression 180 Black Power 181

• Speaking Out: The New Jim Crow 182

The Religious Force 183

The New Immigration 184

8 African Americans Today 187 • Speaking Out: On the 50th Anniversary of the March on Washington 188

Education 189 School Segregation 190 Acting White, Acting Black, or Neither 191 Higher Education 192

The Economic Picture 193 The Middle Class 193

• Research Focus: Moving on Up, or Not 194

Employment 195

Family Life 196 Challenges to Family Stability 196 Strengths of African American Families 197

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xii Contents

Housing 197

Criminal Justice 198

Healthcare 200

Politics 202

9 Latinos: The Largest Minority 207 Latino Identity 209

The Economic Picture 210

Education 211

• Research Focus: English-Language Acquisition 212

The Political Presence 213

Religion 214

Cuban Americans 215 Immigration 216

• Speaking Out: Leaving Cuba 217

The Current Picture 217

Central and South Americans 219 Immigration 219

• A Global View: The Salvadoran Connection 221

The Current Picture 221

1 0 Mexican Americans and Puerto Ricans 225 Mexican Americans 226

The Immigrant Experience 227 Chavez and the Farm Laborers 229 The Borderlands 231 Healthcare 232

Family Life 232

• Research Focus: The Latino Family Circle: Familism 233

Puerto Ricans 233 The Bridge Between the Island and the Mainland 234 The Island of Puerto Rico 235

• Speaking Out: Puerto Ricans Cannot Be Silenced 236

Issues of Statehood and Self-Rule 237 The Social Construction of Race 238 The Island Economy 238

11 Muslim and Arab Americans: Diverse Minorities 242 Arab Americans 244

Muslim Americans 246

• Research Focus: Self-Identifying as "Arab American" 247

Black Muslims 249

Immigration to the United States 251

lslamophobia 252

• Speaking Out: Arab Problem 253

Contemporary Life in the United States 254 Family Life and Gender 255 Education 256

Politics 256

• A Global View: Muslims in France 257

12 Asian Americans: Growth and Diversity 261 Is There a Model Minority? 264

Political Activity and Pan-Asian Identity 267

Asian Indians 268 Immigration 268 The Current Picture 269

• Research Focus: Arranged Marriages in America 270

Filipino Americans 270 Immigration Patterns 270

The Current Picture 271

Korean Americans 272 Historical Background 272 The Current Picture 273

Southeast Asian Americans 27 4 The Refugees 275

The Current Picture 275 Case Study: A Hmong Community 276

Hawai'i and Its People 277 Histmical Background 277 The Sovereignty Movement 278

• Speaking Out: Recognizing Native Hawaiians 279

13 Chinese Americans and Japanese Americans 283 Chinese Americans 284

Early Settlement Patterns 285 Occupational Profile of Chinese Americans 286 Chinatowns Today 286

Organizational Life 286 Social Problems 287

Family Life 288

• Research Focus: Tiger Mothers 289

Japanese Americans 290 Early Japanese Immigration 290 The Wartime Evacuation 291

Executive Order 9066 291

The Camps 292 The Evacuation: What Does It Mean ? 294

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xiv Contents

• Speaking Out: Anti-Bullying 295

The Economic Picture 296 Family Life 296

Remnants of Prejudice and Discrimination 297

14 Jewish Americans: Quest to Maintain Identity 301 • A Global View: Argentina's Jewish Community 303

The Jewish People: Race, Religion, or Ethnic Group? 303

Immigration of Jews to the United States 304

Anti-Semitism: Past and Present 306 Origins 306 The Holocaust 308

• Speaking Out: Night 309

U.S. Anti-Semitism: Past 309 Contemporary Anti-Semitism 310

Incidents of Anti-Semitism 311

American Jews and Israel 311

Position of Jewish Americans 312 Employment and Income 312 Education 313 Political Activity 313

Religious Life 314 The Orthodox Tradition 314 The Reform Tradition 315

Jewish Identity 317 Role of the Family 318 Role of Religion 318

• Research Focus: Intermarriage: The Final Step to Assimilation? 319

Role of Cultural Heritage 319

PART IV Other Patterns of Dominance

15 Women: The Oppressed Majority 323 Gender Roles 325

Sociological Perspectives 326

The Feminist Movement 327 The Suffrage Movement 327 The Women's Liberation Movement 327 Feminism Today 328

The Economic Picture 329

• Research Focus: Give Me a Male Boss 331

• A Global View: Gender Inequality in Japan 332

Sources of Discrimination 332

Sexual Harassment 335 Feminization of Poverty 335

Education 336

Family Life 337 Childcare and Housework 338 Abortion 339

• Speak ing Out: What Do Women and Men Want? 340

Political Activity 341

Matrix of Domination: Minority Women 341

16 Beyond the United States: The Comparative Perspective 345 Mexico: Diversity South of the Border 34 7

The Mexican Indian People and the Color Gradient 348

The Status of Women 349

Canada: Multiculturalism Up North 350 The First Nations 350 The Quebecois 351

Immigration and Race 352

Brazil: Not a Racial Paradise 353 The "Racial Democracy" Illusion 353 Brazilian Dilemma 354

Israel and the Palestinians 356 Arab-Israeli Conflicts 356

The Intifada 358 The Search for Solutions amid Violence 358

Republic of South Africa 359 The Legacy of Colonialism 360 Apartheid 360

• Speak ing Out: Africa, It Is Ours! 361

The Era of Reconciliation and Moving On 362

• Research Focus: Intergroup Contact and South Africa 362

17 Overcoming Exclusion 366 The Aged: A Social Minority 367

Who Are the Elderly? 368 Ageism 369

• Research Focus: The Three Maxes 369

The Economic Picture 370 Advocacy Efforts by the Elderly 371

People with Disabilities: Moving On 372 Disability in Contemporary Society 372

Labeling People with Disabilities 373

• Speak ing Out: My Journey Into the Deaf World 374

Advocacy for Disability Rights 376

Contents xv

xvi Contents

Gays and Lesbians: Coming Out for Equality 377 Being Gay and Lesbian in the United States 378 Prejudice and Discrimination 379 Advocacy for Gay and Lesbian Rights 381

Glossary 385

References 390

Photo Credits 412

Index 413

Features

Q Research Focus • Multiracial Identity (Chapter 1)

• Virtual Prejudice and Anti-Prejudice (Chapter 2)

• The Unequal Wealth Distribution (Chapter 3)

• The Hispanic Dairyland (Chapter 4)

• Immigrants: Yesterday and Today (Chapter 5)

• Sovereignty of the Shinnecock Nation (Chapter 6)

• Sundown Towns , USA (Chapter 7)

• Moving on Up , or Not (Chapter 8)

• English-L anguage Acquisition (Chapter 9)

( lfJ) Speaking Out

• Problem of the Color Llne , by W. E. B. Du Bois (Chapter 1)

• Gangsters , Gooks , Geish as, and Geeks , by Helen Zia (Chapter 2)

• The Convers ation We're Not Having When We Talk About Affirmative Action , by Gail Christopher (Chapter 3)

• Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 , by Judy Chu (Ch apter 4)

• The Next Americans , by Tomas Jimenez (Ch apter 5)

• Holocaust Museum of the Indigenous People Should Be Built at Wounded Knee , by Tim Giago (Chapter 6)

• The New Jim Crow, by Michelle Alex ander (Chapter 7)

• On the 50th Anniversary of the March on Washington , by Ch arles Rangel (Chapter 8)

• Leaving Cub a, by J. Alfredo Jimenez ( Chapter 9)

• The Latino Family Circle: Familism (Ch apter 10)

• Self-Identifying as "Arab American " (Ch apter 11)

• Arr anged Marriages in America (Chapter 12)

• Tiger Mothers (Chapter 13)

• Intermarriage: The Final Step to Assimilation ? (Chapter 14)

• Give Me a Male Boss (Chapter 15)

• Intergroup Cont act and South Africa (Chapter 16)

• The Three Maxes (Chapter 17)

• Puerto Ricans Cannot Be Silenced , by Luis Gutierrez (Chapter 10)

• Arab Problem , by Moustafa Bayoumi ( Ch apter 11)

• Recognizing Native Hawaiians , by Daniel Akaka (Chapter 12)

• Anti-Bullying , by Mike Hond a (Ch apter 13)

• Night , by Elie Wiesel (Ch apter 14)

• What Do Women and Men Want? , by Kathleen Gerson ( Chapter 15)

• Afric a, It Is Ours! , by Nelson Mandel a (Chapter 16)

• My Journey Into the Deaf World , by Erik Olin Wright ( Chapter 1 7)

xvii

xviii Features

~~ A Global View • The Roma: A Thousand Years of Discrimination • The Salvadoran Connection (Chapter 9)

(Chapter 3) • Muslims in France ( Chapter 11)

• Immigr ation and South Africa (Chapter 4) • Argentina's Jewish Community (Chapter 14)

• Australia's Aboriginal People (Chapter 6) • Gender Inequ ality in Japan (Chapter 15)

• France Noire: Black France (Chapter 7)

Preface

The first fifteen years of the 21st century have witnessed significant changes. The heavily written about growth in the Latino population has overtaken the African American population with the Asian American population growing faster than either. Meanwhile, the number of White non-Hispanic youth has actually become a numerical minority when compared collectively to the other racial and ethnic groups. Yet along- side these demographic changes has been a series of events that serve to underscore the diversity of the American people.

People cheered on May 1, 2011, upon hearing that Osama bin Laden had been found and killed. However, the always patriotic American Indian people were very troubled to learn that the military had assigned the code name "Geronimo" to the infamous terrorist. The Chiricahua Apache of New Mexico were particularly disturbed to learn the name of their freedom fighter was used in this manner.

Barack Obama may be the son of an immigrant and the first African American president, but that is not the end of his ethnicity. On an official state visit to Ireland, the president made a side trip to the village of Moneygall in County Offaly from where his great-great- grandfather Falmouth Kearney, a shoemaker's son, came to the United States in 1850.

Race and ethnicity are an important part of the national agenda. Thirty years ago, when the first edition of this book was being written, it was noted that race is not a static phenomenon and that, although it is always a part of the social reality, specific aspects change. At that time, the presence of a new immigrant group, the Vietnamese, was duly noted, and the efforts to define affirmative action were described . Today, we seek to describe the growing presence of Salvadorans, Haitians, Tongans, Somalis, Hmong, and Arab Americans.

Specific issues may change over time, but they continue to play out against a backdrop of discrimination that is rooted in the social structure and changing population composi- tion as influenced by immigration and reproduction patterns . One unanticipated change is that the breakup of the Soviet Union and erosion of power of totalitarian leaders in the Middle East have made ethnic, language, and religious divisions even more significant sources of antagonism between and within nations. The old ideological debates about communism and capitalism have been replaced by emotional divisions over religious dogma and cultural traditions.

Changes in the Fourteenth Edition We continue to take full advantage of the most recent data releases from the Census Bureau through the annual American Community Survey. This allows the timelier updat- ing of information, instead of waiting for the results of the census every ten years. The reader will find updated and revised tables, figures, maps, and Internet sources. As one example of the thorough updating, we note that over 30 percent of the citations in the references are new since the last edition.

Learning Objectives are explicitly identified at the beginning of each chapter with the numbered Summary points and Review Questions at the conclusion of each chapter tied specifically to each objective.

Relevant scholarly findings in a variety of disciplines, including economics, anthro- pology, social psychology, and communication sciences, have been incorporated. The

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xx Preface

Speaking Out feature appears in every chapter. These selections provide firsthand commentaries on race and ethnicity in America. This helps us appreciate the expres- sion and passion of racial and ethnic groups in response to prejudice and challenges. Excerpts are included from the writings or speeches of noted members of racial and ethnic groups, such as Elie Wiesel, W. E. B. DuBois, Tomas R. Jimenez, Helen Zia, and Nelson Mandela. Their writings will help students appreciate the emotional and the intellectual energies felt by subordinate groups.

New to this edition are Key Terms of environmental refugees, feminism, kanaka maoli, medical apartheid, religion, segmented assimilation, and two-state solution. Previous users will see a definite increase in the effort to introduce key terms throughout the book in an effort to make them a part of the reader's working vocabulary.

Along with the Speaking Out feature, the Research Focus and Global View boxes offer new insights into the ever-changing nature of race and ethnicity. Eighteen of these boxes are new to the fourteenth edition.

The Spectrum of Intergroup Relations figure now appears in sixteen of the chapters. Included among these is a large, comprehensive Spectrum at the end of the final chapter, which ties the observations together from throughout the textbook.

The fourteenth edition includes entirely new sections on why hate crimes carry harsher penalties, avoiding racial and ethnic groups through the Internet, the African American middle class, the state of education among Hispanics, and contemporary feminism.

We continue and update the new feature added in the twelfth edition called A Global View, consisting of boxes that profile racial and ethnic issues in other nations. This edition features an entirely new one on "France Noire: Black France." These discussions are intended to create a dialogue between the student reader and the material in this book concerning the similarities in racial and ethnic issues globally.

Chapter-by-Chapter Changes As with all previous editions, every line, every source, and every number has been rechecked for its currency. We pride ourselves on providing the most current informa- tion possible to document the patterns in intergroup relations both in the United States and abroad. In addition to all these revisions and new material, we now detail the major changes chapter by chapter:

Chapter 1

• New opening examples

• New Jeff Parker cartoon on changing racial and ethnic landscape

• Latest American Community Survey 2010 data update all statistics

• New census data now allows listing of Arab Americans among major racial groups.

• Table of metropolitan segregation data for African Americans, Hispanics, and Asian Americans

• 2012 map of minority population by counties

• Proposed census changes for racial/ ethnic categories for 2020

• Racial and ethnic population projections for 2060 including data for Arab and Biracial Americans

Chapter 2

• New opening example on impact of racial names on allocating public assistance

• Research Focus: Virtual Prejudice and Anti-Prejudice

• Speaking Out: Gangsters, Gooks, Geishas, and Geeks, by Helen Zia

• 2012 data on police profiling in New York City

• New section on avoidance of racial and ethnic groups via the Internet

• New cartoon on workplace diversity

• 2012 data on foreign-born workers

Chapter 3

• Actions in Czech republic taken on Roma schooling

• Section: What Are Hate Crimes?

• Section: Why Do Hate Crimes Carry Harsher Penalties?

• Figure on hate crimes (updated to 2012 release)

• Map of voter identification laws illustrates institutional discrimination

• 2013 HUD study of housing discrimination

• Tables and figure on income by race and sex, holding education constant, updated through 2013 Census reports

• Wealth inequity data updated through the recent economic slowdown

• Research Focus: The Unequal Wealth Distribution

• Implications of Fisher v. University of Texas 2013 decision outlined

• Speaking Out: The Conversation We're Not Having When We Talk About Affirmative Action, by Gail Christopher

• Recent changes in Craigslist policy on discriminatory advertisements

Chapter 4

• Opener on the success of Dr. Alfredo Quinones-Hinojosa

• Two figures and map on immigration updated through 2012

• Speaking Out: Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, by Judy Chu

• Table on immigrant adaptation to the USA

• Research Focus : The Hispanic Dairyland

• Updated figure on languages most frequently spoken at home from 2013 census report

• Cartoons on bilingual language and "border-line schizophrenia"

• Table on refugees updated to 2012

• Key terms of occupational segregation and environmental refugees

Chapter 5

• Opening on Little Italy and Chinese Americans in Manhattan's Little Italy

• Head "Studying Whiteness" rephrased

• More states enact "moment of silence" as a stand-in for prayer in schools

• Romanian language newspaper persists

• New key term ofreligion and key term of White privilege re-introduced

Chapter 6

• Opener on tribal language use

• Table of major tribal languages

• National map on population of American Indians by county

• Cartoon on destruction of indigenous people of North America

• Table on largest American Indian groupings

Preface xxi

xxii Preface

• Snapshot table of major social indicators comparison with total population

• Background on policies on Alaskan Natives

• Table of poverty rates of American Indians in cities with largest populations

• Speaking Out: Holocaust Museum of the Indigenous People Should Be Built at Wounded Knee, by Tim Giago

• End of growth in tribal casinos

• Research Focus: Sovereignty of the Shinnecock Nation

• Another look at the Washington NFL team's nickname

Chapter 7

• Obama's family connection to slavery

• Locating of Gee's Bend on Civil Rights Movement map

• Global View: France Noire: Black France

• Speaking Out: The New Jim Crow, by Michelle Alexander

Chapter 8

• Speaking Out: On the 50th Anniversary of the March on Washington, by Charles Rangel

• Reintroducing key term color-blind racism to describe Acting White theory

• Section on "The Middle Class" within Economic Picture

• Research Focus: Moving on Up, or Not

• Reformulation of table on Black presence in selected occupations

• Key term of medical apartheid

• Figure of Black-White voter turnout comparison over time

• Challenge in fundraising faced by Black politicians

• Map on changes in Black population by county 2000-2010

Chapter 9

• Opener on growth of Latinos in rural America

• Figure comparing Hispanic versus White non-Hispanic worker wages

• Section on Education

• Figure comparing Hispanic versus White non-Hispanic going to college

• Comparison of Irish and Cuban immigration

• Speaking Out: Leaving Cuba, by J. Alfredo Jimenez • Map on Latin American countries

• Survey data on how Salvadorans feel about the USA

Chapter 10

• The Borderlands moved to this chapter from Chapter 9

• Map of the Borderlands

Chapter 11

• Introduction by Marvel Comics of a Muslim American superhero character

• The impact oflslamophobia on the 9/ 11 generation

• 2012 Arab and Muslim political party preferences

• Figure on Arab American household income data

Chapter 12

• Chapter opener on the diversity of Asian American life

• Key term chain immigration reintroduced

• Table comparing six Asian American groups with USA population on four social indicators

• Discussion of bhanga dancing among Indian Americans

• New cartoon of Japanese American artist Tak Toyoshima

• New heading under Hawai'i: Sovereignty Movement

• Key term of kanaka maoli

• Speaking Out: Recognizing Native Hawaiians, by Daniel Akaka

• Updated map and pie graph of major Asian and Pacific Islander American groups based on 2010 population reports

Chapter 13

• Emergence of Chinese outside of old Chinatowns

• Research Focus: Tiger Mothers

• Key term tiger mother

• Key term of familism reintroduced within context of tiger mother

• Closer look at the "No, No" internees

• Key term xenophobia reintroduced

• Four factors explaining persistence of anti-Asian American prejudice

• Speaking Out: Anti-Bullying, by Mike Honda

Chapter 14

• Blatant anti-Semitism in an upstate New York school

• National and world maps of Jewish population updated to 2012

• Figure on anti-Semitic incidents updated to 2012 report

• Results of 2012 multi-nation anti-Semitism survey

• Results of a 2013 European survey on anti-Semitism

• Results of a 2013 USA survey comparing Jewish denominations

• Efforts of some Jewish faiths to reach out

Chapter 15

• Twitter, and other IT corporations, lack of female board director members

• Research Focus: Give Me a Male Boss

• Section on Feminism with key term added

• Updated figure on women's labor force participation in selected countries

• Updated figure on ratio of women's to men's earnings in selected occupations

• Updated figure on income by sex, holding education constant

• Figure on Labor Department data on allocation of housework between men and women

• Women entrepreneurs in Japan

Preface xxiii

xxiv Preface

Chapter 16

• Updated table comparing four nations

• Recent Canada discrimination study

• Critical look at Two-state solutions for Israel and Palestine

Chapter 17

• Research Focus: The Three Maxes

• Figure: Actual and Projected Growth of the Elderly Population of the United States, 1960-2060

• Figure: Changes in Minority Population under Age 18, 2000-2010 • Key term "matrix of domination" reintroduced

• USA map on same-sex households

• Updated look at gays in television

• Results of 2013 national survey on gays and lesbians

• Latest on gay marriage policy

• Speaking Out: My Journey Into the Deaf World, by Erik Olin Wright

Complete Coverage in Four Parts Any constructive discussion of racial and ethnic minorities must do more than merely describe events. Part I, "Perspectives on Racial and Ethnic Groups," includes the rel- evant theories and operational definitions that ground the study of race and ethnic relations in the social sciences. We specifically present the functionalist, conflict, and labeling theories of sociology in relation to the study of race and ethnicity. We show the relationship between subordinate groups and the study of stratification. We also introduce the dual labor market theory and the irregular economy theory from economics and the reference group theory from psychology. The extensive treatment of prejudice and discrimination covers anti-White prejudice as well as the more famil- iar topic of bigotry aimed at subordinate groups. Discrimination is analyzed from an economic perspective, including the latest efforts to document discrimination in envi- ronmental issues such as location of toxic waste facilities and the move to dismantle affirmative action.

In Part II, "Ethnic and Religious Sources of Conflict," we examine some often- ignored sources of intergroup conflict in the United States: White ethnic groups and religious minorities. Diversity in the United States is readily apparent when we look at the ethnic and religious groups that have resulted from waves of immigration. Refugees, now primarily from Haiti and Central America, also continue to raise major issues.

Any student needs to be familiar with the past to understand present forms of dis- crimination and subordination. Part III, "Major Racial and Ethnic Minority Groups in the United States," brings into sharper focus the history and contemporary status of Native Americans, African Americans, Latinos, Arab and Muslim Americans, Asian Americans, and Jews in the United Stales. Social institutions such as education, economy, family, housing, the criminal justice system, healthcare, and politics receive special attention for the subordinate groups. The author contends that institutional discrimination, rather than individual action, is the source of conflict between the subordinate and dominant elements in the United States.

Part IV, "Other Patterns of Dominance," includes topics related to American racial and ethnic relations. The author recognizes, as have Gunnar Myrdal and Helen Mayer Hacker before, that relations between women and men resemble those between Blacks

and Whites. Therefore, in this book, we consider the position of women as a subordinate group. Since the first edition of Racial and Ethnic Groups, published more than 25 years ago, debates over equal rights and abortion have shown no sign of resolution. For women of color, we document the matrix of domination suffered because of their subordinate status of race and gender.

Perhaps we can best comprehend intergroup conflict in the United States by compar- ing it with the ethnic hostilities in other nations. The similarities and differences between the United States and other societies treated in this book are striking. We examine the tensions in Mexico, Brazil, Israel, Palestine, and South Africa to document further the diversity of intergroup conflict.

The final chapter highlights other groups that have been the subject of exclusion: the aged, people with disabilities, and gay men and lesbians. This chapter also includes a concluding section that ties together thematically the forces of dominance and subordi- nation and the persistence of inequality that have been the subject of this book.

Features to Aid Students Several features are included in the text to facilitate student learning. A short introduc- tory section alerts students to important issues and topics to be addressed. To help stu- dents review, each chapter ends with a Conclusion and the new feature of a numbered Summary list. The Key Terms are highlighted in bold when they are first introduced in the text and are listed with page numbers at the end of each chapter. Periodically throughout the book, the Spectrum of Intergroup Relations first presented in Chapter 1 is repeated to reinforce major concepts while addressing the unique social circumstances of individual racial and ethnic groups.

In addition, there is an end-of-book Glossary with full definitions referenced to page numbers. This edition includes both Review Questions and Critical Thinking Questions. The Review Questions are intended to remind the reader of major points, whereas the Critical Thinking Questions encourage students to think more deeply about some of the major issues raised in the chapter. An extensive illustration program, which includes maps and political cartoons, expands the text discussion and provokes thought.

Ancillary Materials This book is accompanied by an extensive learning package to enhance the experience of both instructors and students.

Supplementary Material for Instructors

Instructor's Manual and Test Bank Each chapter in the Instructor's Manual offers a variety of the following types of resources: Chapter Summary, Chapter Outline, Learning Objectives, Critical Thinking Questions, Activities for Classroom Participation, Key Terms, Suggested Readings, and Suggested Films. Designed to make your lectures more effective and to save preparation time, this extensive resource gathers useful activities and strategies for teaching your course.

Also included in this manual is a test bank offering multiple-choice, true/false, fill-in-the-blank, and/ or essay questions for each chapter. The Instructor's Manual and Test Bank is available to adopters at www.pearsonhighered.com/irc.

MyTest This computerized software allows instructors to create their own per- sonalized exams, to edit any or all of the existing test questions, and to add new questions. Other special features of this program include random generation of

Preface xxv

xxvi Preface

test questions, creation of alternate versions of the same test, scrambling question sequence, and test preview before printing. For easy access, this software is available within the instructor section of the MySocLab for Racial and Ethnic Groups or at www. pearsonhighered. com/ ire.

PowerPoint Presentation The PowerPoint presentations are informed by instruc- tional and design theory. You have the option in every chapter of choosing from Lecture and Illustration (figures, maps, and images) PowerPoints. The Lecture PowerPoint slides follow the chapter outline and feature images from the textbook integrated with the text. They are available to adopters via the MySocLab website for the text or www. pearsonhigh- ered.com.

Supplementary Material for Students

MySoclab TM MySocLab is a state-of-the-art interactive and instructive solution, designed to be used as a supplement to a traditional lecture course, or to completely administer an online course. MySocLab provides access to a wealth ofresources all geared to meet the individual teaching and learning needs of every instructor and every student. Highlights of MySocLab include:

• MySocLab for Racial and Ethnic Groups provides all the tools you need to engage every student before, during, and after class. An assignment calendar and gradebook allow you to assign specific activities with due dates and to measure your students' progress throughout the semester.

• The Pearson eText lets students access their textbook anytime, anywhere, and anyway they want, including listening online. The eText for Racial and Ethnic Groups features integrated videos, Social Explorer activities, additional readings and interac- tive self-quizzes.

• A Personalized Study Plan for each student, based on Bloom's Taxonomy, arranges activities from those that require less complex thinking-like remembering and understanding-to more complex critical thinking-like applying and analyzing. This layered approach promotes better critical thinking skills, helping students suc- ceed in the course and beyond.

New Features of MySoclab Two exciting new features of MySocLab are Social Explorer and MySocLibrary.

• Social Explorer activities connect with topics from the text, engaging students with data visualizations, comparisons of change over time, and data localized to their own communities.

• MySocLibrary available in the Pearson eText are 200 classic and contemporary articles that enable students to explore the discipline more deeply. Multiple choice questions for each reading help students review what they've learned-and allow instructors to monitor their performance.

Acknowledgments The fourteenth edition was improved by the suggestions of:

Tanetta Andersson, Central Connecticut State University

Michelle Bentz, Central Community College-Columbus Campus

Mary Donaghy, Arkansas State University

Elena Ermolaeva, Marshall University

Mominka Filey, Davenport University

Dr. Lloyd Ganey, College of Southern Nevada

Malcolm Gold, Malone University

Lisa Munoz, Hawkeye Community College

Jose Soto, Southeast Community College

Gerald Titchener, Des Moines Area Community College

I would also like to thank my publisher at Pearson, Charlyce Jones-Owen, for developing this fourteenth edition. Her long experience, love of history, and appreciation of books combine to enrich this and every academic book with which she is associated. My appre- ciation also extends to Editor in Chief Dickson Musslewhite for his encouragement and support for my textbooks on race and ethnicity.

The truly exciting challenge of writing and researching has always been for me an enriching experience, mostly because of the supportive home I share with my wife, Sandy. She knows so well my appreciation and gratitude, now as in the past and in the future.

Richard T. Schaefer schaeferrt@aol.com

www.schaefersociology.net

Preface xxvii

xxviii

About the Author

Richard T. Schaefer grew up in Chicago at a time when neighborhoods were going through transitions in ethnic and racial composition. He found himself increasingly intrigued by what was happening, how people were reacting, and how these changes were affecting neighborhoods and people's jobs. In high school, he took a course in sociology. His interest in social issues caused him to gravitate to more sociology courses at Northwestern University, where he eventually received a B.A. in sociology.

"Originally as an undergraduate I thought I would go on to law school and become a lawyer. But after taking a few sociology courses, I found myself wanting to learn more about what sociologists studied and was fascinated by the kinds of questions they raised," Dr. Schaefer says. "Perhaps most fascinating and, to me, relevant to the 1960s was the intersection of race, gender, and social class." This interest led him to obtain his M.A. and Ph.D. in sociology from the University of Chicago. Dr. Schaefer's continuing interest in race relations led him to write his master's thesis on the membership of the Ku Klux Klan and his doctoral thesis on racial prejudice and race relations in Great Britain.

Dr. Schaefer went on to become a professor of sociology. He has taught sociology and courses on multiculturalism for 30 years. He has been invited to give special presenta- tions to students and faculty on racial and ethnic diversity in Illinois, Indiana, Missouri, North Carolina, Ohio, and Texas.

Dr. Schaefer is the author of Racial and Ethnic Diversity in the USA (Pearson 2014) and Race Matters, seventh edition (Pearson, 2012). Dr. Schaefer is the general editor of the three -volume Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity, and Society (2008). He is also the author of the thirteenth edition of Sociology (2012), the eleventh edition of Sociology: A Brief Introduction (2015), third edition Sociology: A Modular Approach (2015), and the sixth edition of Sociology Matters (2013). Schaefer coauthored with William Zellner the ninth edition of Extraordinary Groups (2011), which, in 2014, was translated into Japanese. His articles and book reviews have appeared in many journals, including American journal of Sociology, Phylon: A Review of Race and Culture, Contemporary Sociology, Sociology and Social Research, Sociologi,cal Quarterly, and Teaching Sociology. He served as president of the Midwest Sociological Society from 1994 to 1995. In recognition of his achievements in under- graduate teaching, he was named Vincent de Paul Professor of Sociology in 2004.

Racial and Ethnic Groups

Fourteenth Edition

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Exploring Race and Ethnicity

1-1 Explain how groups are ranked. 1-2 Describe the different types of groups. 1-3 Explain what is meant by race being socially

constructed.

1-4 Define biracial and multiracial identity. 1-5 Describe how sociology helps us

understand race and ethnicity.

1-6 Restate the creation of subordinate groups. 1-7 Use the Spectrum of Intergroup Relations. 1-8 Restate the consequences of subordinate

groups.

1-9 Articulate how change occurs in racial and ethnic relations.

1

2 Chapter 1 Exploring Race and Ethnicity

Lewiston, Maine, was dying. Now Lewiston is thriving, even in the midst of a national recession. This city changed its future. In 2000, the community of about 36,000, of which 96 percent were White, mostly of French and Irish descent, was going nowhere. The textile mills were shuttered and massive social welfare programs were created locally to meet the needs of the people. It was little wonder that nearby resident Stephen King often chose its abandoned mills and other buildings as inspiration for his suspense novels.

In February 2001, Black Africans, originally from Somalia and of the Muslim faith, began to settle in Lewiston from other areas throughout the United States. With few job opportunities and well-known long, cold winters, it seemed an unlikely destination for people whose homeland was hot and mostly arid. Better schools, little crime, cheap hous- ing, and good social welfare programs attracted the initial arrivals. Once a small group was established, more and more Somalis arrived as the first group shared their positive experiences with friends and relatives. Not everyone stayed because of the winters or unrelated explanations, yet they continued to come.

The numbers of arrivals ebbed and flowed-the increased immigration regulations after 9/11 made entry difficult for Arab Muslims such as the Somali immigrants. One mayor in 2002 issued a public letter encouraging Somalis not to come; his actions were widely denounced. Another man threw a pig's head into a local mosque during evening prayers. Muslims by tradition cannot touch, much less eat, pork. Politicians continue to make unwelcoming comments, but they are quickly drowned out by those who are sup- portive of the 6,000-plus Somali community. For their part, the Somalis have settled in and are raising their children, but they are concerned that their sons and daughters iden- tify more with being American than with being Somali. Despite their limited resources, as a community they send about $300,000 a month to friends and relatives in Somalia who continue to face incredible hardship.

For over ten years, they have come to Lewiston-IO to 30 every week. Lewiston is thriv- ing in a state that continues to face many challenges. A decade is not a long time to reach conclusions about race, religion, and immigration. Somalis, who now account for about 15 percent of the population, have graduated from the local community college, run for office, and opened up dozens of previously shuttered businesses. Others commute the 20 miles to L.L.Bean warehouses to work (Canfield 2012; Cullen 2011; Hammond 2010; Huisman et al. 2011; Tice 2007).

The struggles of racial, ethnic, language, and religious minorities have often required their organized efforts to overcome inequities. Significant White support but also organized resistance typically mark these struggles. The various groups that make the United States diverse do not speak with one voice. For example, the Somalis of Maine

are made up of different ethnic or tribal groups. Most are Bantu, who were targeted during the 1991 civil war, fled to refugee camps in Kenya, came to the United States, and resettled in Maine. They still see themselves as different from other ethnic groups from Somalia.

One aspect of the struggle to overcome inequality is the continuing effort to identify strategies and ser- vices to assist minorities in their struggle to overcome prejudice and discrimination. Among the beneficia- ries of programs aimed at racial and ethnic minorities are White Americans, who, far from all being afllu- ent themselves, have also experienced challenges in their lives.

Lewiston, Maine, a town undergoing difficult economic times over the last 20 years, received a boost from the arrival of Somalis from Africa who have

The election and reelection of the nation's first African American president (who incidentally carried three states of the former Confederacy) presents the temptation to declare that issues of racial inequality are past or racism is limited to a few troublemakers. Progress has been made and expressions of explicit now established a viable community.

TABLE 1.1 Racial and Ethnic Groups in the United States

Classification

RACIAL GROUPS

Whites (non-Hispanic) Blacks/African Americans Native Americans, Alaskan Natives Asian Americans

Chinese Asian Indians Filipinos Vietnamese Koreans Japanese Pacific Islanders, Native Hawaiians Other Asian Americans

Arab Americans Two or more races

ETHNIC GROUPS

White ancestry

Germans Irish English Italians Poles French Scottish and Scots-Irish Jews

Hispanics (or Latinos) Mexican Americans Puerto Ricans Cubans Salvadorans Dominicans Guatemalans Other Hispanics

TOTAL (ALL GROUPS)

Number in Thousands

195,371 37,686 2,247

15,553 3,347 2,843 2,556 1,548 1,424

763 1,847 1,225 1,517 9,009

49,341 35,664 26,873 17,486 9,757 9,159 9,122 5,425

50,478 31,798 4,624 1,785 1,648 1,415 1,044 8,164

308,746

Chapter 1 Exploring Race and Ethnicity 3

Percentage of Total Population

60.3 12.2 0.7 5.0 1.1 0.9 0.8 0.5 0.5 0.2 0.6 0.5 0.5 2.9

16.0 11.6 8.7 5.7 3.2 3.0 3.0 1.8

16.4 10.3 1.5 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.3 2.7

Note: Arab American populaton excluded from WMe total. All data are for 2010. Percentages do not total 100 percent, and when subcategories are added, they do not match totals in major categories because of overlap between groups (e.g., Polish American Jews or people of mixed ancestry such as Irish and Italian).

Source: American Community Survey 2011 b: Table C04006; Asi and Beaulieu 2013; DellaPergola 2012; Ennis, Rose-Vargas and Albert 2011; Hixson, Hepler, and Kim 2012; Hoeffel, Rastogi, Kim, and Shahid 2012; Humes, Jones, and Ramirez 2011; Norris, Vines, and Hoeffel 2012.

racism are rarely tolerated, yet challenges remain for immigrants of any color and racial, ethnic, and religious minorities (Massey 2011).

The United States is a diverse nation and is becoming even more so, as shown in Table I.I. In 2010, approximately 40 percent of the population were members of racial minorities or were Hispanic. This represents one out of three people in the United States, without counting White ethnic groups or foreign-born Whites.

As shown in Figure 1.1, between 2010 and 2060, the Black, Hispanic, Asian, Arab, and Native American population along with those identifying as biracial or multiracial in the United States is expected to increase to about 63 percent. Although the composition of the population is changing, problems of prejudice, discrimination, and mistrust remain.

4 Chapter 1 Exploring Race and Ethnicity

(Ill Explain how groups are ranked.

2010

FIGURE 1.1

Two or more Races

Arab

0.7%

2060 (projected)

White non-Hispanic

37%

Indian Arab 1.5% Americans

1.8%

Hispanic 30.6%

Asian and Pacific Islanders

8.5%

Population of the United States by Race and Ethnicity, 2010 and 2060 (Projected)

According to projections by the Census Bureau, the proportion of residents of the United States who are White and non-Hispanic will decrease significantly by the year 2060. By contrast, the proportion of both Hispanic Americans and Asian Americans will rise significantly.

Source: Bureau of the Census 2013b: Table 4, sources listed in Table 1 .1, and author est imates.

This trend toward "majority-minority" got underway noticeably in 2011 when Latino and non-White babies outnumbered White newborns for the first time in the United States (Bureau of the Census 2012d).

Ranking Groups In every society, not all groups are treated or viewed equally. Identifying a subordinate group or a minority in a society seems to be a simple task. In the United States, the groups readily identified as minorities-Blacks and Native Americans, for example-are outnumbered by non-Blacks and non-Native Americans. However, having minority status is not necessarily a result of being outnumbered. A social minority need not be a math- ematical one . A minority group is a subordinate group whose members have significantly less control or power over their own lives than do the members of a dominant or majority group. In sociology, minority means the same as subordinate, and dominant is used inter- changeably with majority.

Confronted with evidence that a particular minority in the United States is subordi- nate to the majority, some people respond, "Why not? After all, this is a democracy, so the majority rules." However, the subordination of a minority involves more than its inability to rule over society. A member of a subordinate or minority group experiences a narrow- ing oflife's opportunities-for success, education, wealth, the pursuit of happiness-that goes beyond any personal shortcoming he or she may have. A minority group does not share in proportion to its numbers what a given society, such as the United States, defines as valuable.

Being superior in numbers does not guarantee a group has control over its destiny or ensure majority status. In 1920, the majority of people in Mississippi and South Carolina were African Americans. Yet African Americans did not have as much control over their lives as did Whites, let alone control of the states in which they lived. Throughout the United States today are counties or neighborhoods in which the majority of people are African American, Native American, or Hispanic, but White Americans are the domi- nant force. Nationally, 50. 7 percent of the population is female, but males still dominate positions of authority and wealth well beyond their numbers.

Chapter 1 Exploring Race and Ethnicity 5

A minority or subordinate group has five characteristics: unequal treatment, distin- guishing physical or cultural traits, involuntary membership, awareness of subordination, and in-group marriage (Wagley and Harris 1958):

1. Members of a minority experience unequal treatment and have less power over their lives than members of a dominant group have over theirs. Prejudice, dis- crimination, segregation, and even extermination create this social inequality.

2. Members of a minority group share physical or cultural characteristics such as skin color or language that distinguish them from the dominant group. Each society has its own arbitrary standard for determining which characteristics are most important in defining dominant and minority groups.

3. Membership in a dominant or minority group is not voluntary: People are born into the group. A person does not choose to be African American or White.

4. Minority-group members have a strong sense of group solidarity. William Graham Sumner, writing in 1906, noted that people make distinctions between members of their own group (the in-group) and everyone else (the out-group). When a group is the object of long-term prejudice and discrimination, the feeling of "us versus them" often becomes intense.

5. Members of a minority generally marry others from the same group. A member of a dominant group often is unwilling to join a supposedly inferior minority by marrying one of its members. In addition, the minority group's sense of solidar- ity encourages marriage within the group and discourages marriage to outsiders.

Although "minority" status is not about numbers, there is no denying that the White American majority is diminishing in size relative to the growing diversity of racial and ethnic groups, as illustrated in Figure 1.2.

Using available population projects, which are heavily influenced by estimating future immigration patterns, the White population will be outnumbered by other racial groups and Hispanics somewhere between 2040 and 2045 or before the time people born now turn 30 years of age. The move to a more diverse nation-one in which no

.. a ··~ -~ .....

FIGURE 1.2 Minority Population by County

Percent minority

- 50.0 or more

- 25.0 to 49.9

- 10.0 to 24.9

- 5.0to9.9 Less than 5.0

In four states (California, Hawaii, New Mexico, and Texas) and the District of Columbia, as well as in about one out of every nine of counties, minorities constitute the numerical majority.

Source: Jones -Puthoff 2013: slide 5.

6 Chapter 1 Exploring Race and Ethnicity

mJ Describe the different types of groups.

group is the numerical minority-will have social impact in everything from marriage patterns, housing, political party politics, health care delivery, and education (Bureau of the Census 2013b).

Types of Groups There are four types of minority or subordinate groups. All four, except where noted, have the five properties previously outlined. The four criteria for classifying minority groups are race, ethnicity, religion, and gender.

Racial Groups

The term racial group is reserved for minorities and the corresponding majorities that are socially set apart because of obvious physical differences. Notice the two crucial words in the definition: obvious and physical. What is obvious? Hair color? Shape of an earlobe? Presence of body hair? To whom are these differences obvious, and why? Each society defines what it finds obvious.

In the United States, skin color is one obvious difference. People in the United States have learned informally that skin color is important. In the United States, people have traditionally classified themselves as either Black or White. There is no in-between state except for people readily identified as Native Americans or Asian Americans. Later in this chapter, we explore this issue more deeply and see how such assumptions about race have complex implications.

Other societies use skin color as a standard but may have a more elaborate system of classification. In Brazil, where hostility between races is less prevalent than in the United States, numerous categories identify people on the basis of skin color or tone. In the United States, a person is Black or White. In Brazil, a variety of terms such as cafuso, mazombo, preto, and escuro are used to describe various combinations of skin color, facial features, and hair texture.

The designation of a racial group emphasizes physical differences as opposed to cul- tural distinctions. In the United States, minority races include Blacks, Native Americans (or American Indians), Japanese Americans, Chinese Americans, Arab Americans, Filipinos, Hawaiians, and other Asian peoples. The issue of race and racial differences has been an important one, not only in the United States but also throughout the entire sphere of European influence. Later in this chapter, we examine race and its significance more closely. We should not forget that Whites are a race, too. As we consider in Chapter 4, who is White has been subject to change over history when certain European groups were considered not worthy of being considered White. Partly to compete against a growing Black population, the "Whiting" of some European Americans has occurred. In Chapter 5, we will consider how Italians and Irish for all intents and purposes were once considered not to be White by others.

Some racial groups also may have unique cultural traditions, as we can readily see in the many Chinatowns throughout the United States. For racial groups, however, the physical distinctiveness and not the cultural differences generally prove to be the bar- rier to acceptance by the host society. For example, Chinese Americans who are faithful Protestants and know the names of all the members of the Baseball Hall of Fame may be bearers of American culture. Yet these Chinese Americans are still part of a minority because they are seen as physically different.

Ethnic Groups

Ethnic minority groups are differentiated from the dominant group on the basis of cul- tural differences such as language, attitudes toward marriage and parenting, and food habits. Ethnic groups are groups set apart from others because of their national origin or distinctive cultural patterns.

Chapter 1 Exploring Race and Ethnicity 7

Ethnic groups in the United States include a grouping that we call Hispanics or Latinos, which, in turn, include Mexican Americans, Puerto Ricans, Cubans, and other Latin American residents of the United States. Hispanics can be either Black or White, as in the case of a dark-skinned Puerto Rican who may be taken as Black in central Texas but may be viewed as Puerto Rican in New York City. The ethnic group category also includes White ethnics such as Irish Americans, Polish Americans, and Norwegian Americans.

The cultural traits that make groups distinctive usually originate from their home- lands or, for Jews, from a long history of being segregated and prohibited from becom- ing a part of a host society. Once living in the United States, an immigrant group may maintain distinctive cultural practices through associations, clubs, and worship. Ethnic enclaves such as a Little Haiti or a Greektown in urban areas also perpetuate cultural distinctiveness.

Ethnicity and race has been long recognized as an important source of differentia- tion. More than a century ago, African American sociologist W. E. B. Du Bois, addressing an audience at a world antislavery convention in London in 1900, called attention to the overwhelming importance of the color line throughout the world. In "Listen to Our Voices, " we read the remarks of Du Bois, the first Black person to receive a doctorate from Harvard, who later helped to organize the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). Du Bois's observations give us a historic perspective on the struggle for equality. We can look ahead, knowing how far we have come and speculating on how much farther we have to go.

( tfU Speaking Out Problem of the Color Line

In the metropolis of the modern world , in this the closing year of the nineteenth cen - tury , there has been asse mbled a congress of men and women of African blood , to deliber- ate solemnly upon the present situation and outlook of the darker races of mankind. The problem of the twentieth century is the prob- lem of the color line , the question as to how far differences of race -whi ch show them- selves chiefly in the color of the skin and the texture of the hair-will hereafter be made the basis of denying to over half the world w E. B. Du Bois the right of sharing to their utmost ability the opportunities and privileges of modern civilization ....

To be sure, the dar ker races are today the least advanced in culture according to European standards. This has not , however , always been the case in the past , and certainly the world 's history , both ancient and modern , has given many instances of no despic able ability and capacity among the blackest races of men .

In any case, the modern world must remember th a t in this age when the ends of the world are being brought so near together , the millions of black men in Africa , America , and Islands of the Sea , not to speak of the brown and yellow myriads elsewhere, are bound to have a great influence upon the world in the future , by rea- son of sheer numbers and physical contact. If now the

world of culture bends itself towards giving Negroes and other dark men the largest and broadest opportunity for education and self -development, then this contact and influence is bound to have a beneficial effect upon the world and hasten human progress. But if , by reason of carelessness, prejudice , greed, and injustice , the black world is to be exploited and ravished and degraded , the results must be deplor able , if not fatal -n ot simp ly to them , but to the high ideals of justice , freedom and culture which a thousand years of Christian civiliza -

tion have held before Europe .... Let the world take no backward step in that slow but sure

progress which has successively refused to let tl1e spirit of class, of caste, of privilege , or of birth , debar from life , liberty , and the pursuit of happiness a striving human soul.

Let not color or race be a feature of distinction between White and Black men , regardless of worth or ability ....

Thus we appeal with boldness and confidence to the Gre at Powers of the civilized world , trusting in the wide spirit of humanity , and the deep sense of justice of our age, for a generous recognition of the righteousness of our cause.

Source: From W. E. B. Du Bois 1900 [1969a]. An ABC of Color, pp. 20-2 1, 23. Copyright 1969 by International Publishers.

8 Chapter 1 Exploring Race and Ethnicity

IIJ Explain what is meant by race being socially constructed .

We also should appreciate the context of Du Bois's insight. He spoke of his "color- line" prediction in light of then-contemporary U.S . occupation of the Philippines and the relationship of "darker to lighter races" worldwide. So today, he would see race matters not only in the sporadic hate crimes we hear about but also in global conflicts (Roediger 2009).

Religious Groups

Association with a religion other than the dominant faith is the third basis for minor- ity-group status. In the United States, Protestants, as a group, outnumber members of all other religions. Roman Catholics form the largest minority religion. For people who are not a part of the Christian tradition, such as followers of Islam, allegiance to their faith often is misunderstood and stigmatizes people. This stigmatization became espe- cially widespread and legitimated by government action in the aftermath of the attacks of September 11, 2001.

Religious minorities include groups such as the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (the Mormons),Jehovah's Witnesses, Amish, Muslims, and Buddhists. Cults or sects associated with practices such as animal sacrifice, doomsday prophecy, demon worship, or the use of snakes in a ritualistic fashion also constitute religious minori- ties. Jews are excluded from this category and placed among ethnic groups. Culture is a more important defining trait for Jewish people worldwide than is religious doc- trine. Jewish Americans share a cultural tradition that goes beyond theology. In this sense, it is appropriate to view them as an ethnic group rather than as members of a religious faith.

Gender Groups

Gender is another attribute that creates dominant and subordinate groups. Males are the social majority; females, although numerous, are relegated to the position of the social minority. Women are considered a minority even though they do not exhibit all the characteristics outlined earlier (e.g., there is little in-group marriage). Women encounter prejudice and discrimination and are physically distinguishable. Group membership is involuntary, and many women have developed a sense of sisterhood.

Women who are members of racial and ethnic minorities face special challenges to achieving equality. They suffer from greater inequality because they belong to two sepa- rate minority groups: a racial or ethnic group plus a subordinate gender group.

I WISH YOU PEOPLE

WOULD SPEAK A LANGUAGE

I COULD UNDEli'STAND.

Other Subordinate Groups

This book focuses on groups that meet a set of criteria for subordinate status. People encounter prejudice or are excluded from full participation in society for many reasons. Racial, ethnic, religious, and gender barriers are the main ones, but there are others. Age, disability status, physical appearance, and sexual orientation are among the factors that are used to subordinate groups of people.

Does Race Matter?

The changing landscape of the United States is hard to miss, but not all people equally embrace it.

We see people around us-some of whom may look quite different from us. Do these differences matter? The simple answer is no, but because so many people have for so long acted as if differences in physical character- istics as well as geographic origin and shared culture do

Chapter 1 Exploring Race and Ethnicity 9

matter, distinct groups have been created in people's minds. Race has many meanings for many people. Often these meanings are inaccurate and based on theories scien- tists discarded generations ago. As we will see, race is a socially constructed concept (Young 2003).

Biological Meaning

The way the term race has been used by some people to apply to human beings lacks any scientific basis. Distinctive physical characteristics for groups of human beings cannot be identified the same way that scientists distinguish one animal species from another. The idea of biological race is based on the mistaken notion of a genetically isolated human group.

Absence of Pure Races Even past proponents of the belief that sharp, scientific divi- sions exist among humans had endless debates over what the races of the world were. Given people's frequent migration, exploration, and invasions, pure genetic types have not existed for some time, if they ever did. There are no mutually exclusive races. Skin tone among African Americans varies tremendously, as it does among White Americans. There is even an overlapping of dark-skinned Whites and light-skinned African Americans. If we grouped people by genetic resistance to malaria and by fingerprint pat- terns, then Norwegians and many African groups would be the same race. Ifwe grouped people by lactose intolerance some Africans, Asians, and southern Europeans would be of one group and West Africans and northern Europeans of another (Leehotz 1995; Shanklin 1994) .

Biologically, no pure, distinct races exist. Research as a part of the Human Genome Project mapping human deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) has served to confirm genetic diversity only, with differences within traditionally regarded racial groups (e.g., Black Africans) much greater than that between groups (e.g., between Black Africans and Europeans). Contemporary studies of DNA on a global basis have determined that about 90 percent of human genetic variation is within "local populations," such as within the French or within the Afghan people. The remaining 10 percent of total human variation is what we think of today as constituting races and accounts for skin tone, hair texture, nose shape, and so forth (Feldman 2010).

Research has also been conducted to determine whether personality characteris- tics such as temperament and nervous habits are inherited among minority groups. It is no surprise that the question of whether races have different innate levels of intelligence has led to the most explosive controversies (Bamshad and Olson 2003; El-Haj 2007).

Intelligence Tests Typically, intelligence is measured as an intelligence quotient (IQ), which is the ratio of a person's mental age to his or her chronological age, multiplied by 100, with 100 representing average intel- ligence and higher scores representing greater intelli- gence. It should be noted that there is little consensus over just what intelligence is, other than as defined by such IQ tests. Intelligence tests are adjusted for a per- son's age so that IO-year-olds take a different test from someone 20 years old. Although research shows that certain learning strategies can improve a person's IQ, generally IQ remains stable as one ages.

A great deal of debate continues over the accu- racy of IQ tests. Are they biased toward people who come to the tests with knowledge similar to that of the test writers? Skeptics argue that questions in IQ tests do not truly measure intellectual potential. The

10 Chapter 1 Exploring Race and Ethnicity

question of cultural bias in tests remains a concern. The most recent research shows that differences in intelligence scores between Blacks and Whites are almost eliminated when adjustments are made for social and economic characteristics (Brooks-Gunn, Klebanov, and Duncan 1996; Kagan 1971; Young 2003).

In 1994, an 845-page book unleashed another national debate on the issue of IQ. The research efforts of psychologist Richard J. Herrnstein and social scientist Charles Murray, published in The Bell Curve ( 1994), concluded that 60 percent ofIQ is inherit- able and that racial groups offer a convenient means to generalize about any differ- ences in intelligence. Unlike most other proponents of the race-IQ link, the authors offered policy suggestions that included ending welfare to discourage births among low-IQ poor women and changing immigration laws so that the IQ pool in the United States is not diminished. Herrnstein and Murray even made generalizations about IQ levels among Asians and Hispanics in the United States, groups subject to even more intermarriage. In spite of The Bell Curve "research," it is not possible to generalize about absolute differences between groups, such as Latinos versus Whites, when almost half of Latinos in the United States marry non-Hispanics.

More than a decade later, the mere mention of the "bell curve" still signals to many people a belief in a racial hierarchy, with Whites toward the top and Blacks near the bottom. The research present then and repeated today points to the difficulty in defini- tions: What is intelligence, and what constitutes a racial group, given generations (if not centuries) of intermarriage? How can we speak of definitive inherited racial differences if there has been intermarriage between people of every color? Furthermore, as people on both sides of the debate have noted, regardless of the findings, we would still want to strive to maximize the talents of each individual. All research shows that the differences within a group are much greater than any alleged differences between group averages.

Why does such IQ research reemerge if the data are subject to different interpre- tations? The argument that "we" are superior to "them" is appealing to the dominant group. It justifies receiving opportunities that are denied to others. We can anticipate that the debate over IQ and the allegations of significant group differences will continue. Policymakers need to acknowledge the difficulty in treating race as a biologically signifi- cant characteristic.

Social Construction of Race

If race does not distinguish humans from one another biologically, then why does it seem to be so important? It is important because of the social meaning people have attached to it. The 1950 (UNESCO) Statement on Race maintains that the scientific use of race is not a biological phenomenon (Montagu 1972: 118).

Race is a social construction, and this process benefits the oppressor, who defines which groups of people are privileged and which groups are not. The acceptance of race in a society as a legitimate category allows racial hierarchies to emerge to the benefit of the dominant "races." For example, inner-city drive-by shootings are now seen as a race- specific problem worthy oflocal officials cleaning up troubled neighborhoods. Yet school shootings are viewed as a societal concern and placed on the national agenda.

People could speculate that if human groups have obvious physical differences, then they could have corresponding mental or personality differences. No one disagrees that people differ in temperament, potential to learn, and sense of humor, among other char- acteristics. In its social sense, race implies that groups that differ physically also bear distinctive emotional and mental abilities or disabilities. These beliefs are based on the notion that humankind can be divided into distinct groups. We have already seen the difficulties associated with pigeonholing people into racial categories. Despite these dif- ficulties, belief in the inheritance of behavior patterns and in an association between physical and cultural traits is widespread. It is called racism when this belief is coupled with the feeling that certain groups or races are inherently superior to others. Racism is a doctrine of racial supremacy that states one race is superior to another (Bash 2001; Bonilla-Silva 1996).