From the eye of the storm cynthia crosson tower sparknotes

CSWE’s Core Competencies and Practice Behavior Examples in this Text

Professional Identity

Practice Behavior Examples…

Serve as representatives of the profession, its mission, and its core values 10,16

Know the profession’s history 1

Commit themselves to the profession’s enhancement and to their own professional conduct and growth 16

Advocate for client access to the services of social work 10

Practice personal reflection and self-correction to assure continual professional development

Attend to professional roles and boundaries 16

Demonstrate professional demeanor in behavior, appearance, and communication 16

Engage in career-long learning

Use supervision and consultation 16

Ethical Practice

Practice Behavior Examples…

Obligation to conduct themselves ethically and engage in ethical decision-making 10,12, 13

Know about the value base of the profession, its ethical standards, and relevant law 11

Recognize and manage personal values in a way that allows professional values to guide practice 10, 12. 13

Make ethical decisions by applying standards of the National Association of Social Workers Code of Ethics and, as applicable, of the International Federation of Social Workers/International Association of Schools of Social Work Ethics in Social Work, Statement of Principles

Tolerate ambiguity in resolving ethical conflicts 10, 11

Apply strategies of ethical reasoning to arrive at principled decisions 12, 13

Critical Thinking

Practice Behavior Examples…

Know about the principles of logic, scientific inquiry, and reasoned discernment

Use critical thinking augmented by creativity and curiosity 12, 13

Requires the synthesis and communication of relevant information 10, 11

Distinguish, appraise, and integrate multiple sources of knowledge, including research-based knowledge, and practice wisdom 12, 13

Analyze models of assessment, prevention, intervention, and evaluation 10, 16

Demonstrate effective oral and written communication in working with individuals, families, groups, organizations, communities, and colleagues 10, 11

Competency Chapter

Adapted with the permission of Council on Social Work Education

Diversity in Practice

Practice Behavior Examples…

Understand how diversity characterizes and shapes the human experience and is critical to the formation of identity 1, 2, 10

Understand the dimensions of diversity as the intersectionality of multiple factors including age, class, color, culture, disability, ethnicity, gender, gender identity and expression, immigration status, political ideology, race, religion, sex, and sexual orientation 2,10–13

Appreciate that, as a consequence of difference, a person’s life experiences may include oppression, poverty, marginalization, and alienation as well as privilege, power, and acclaim 2, 4,5

Recognize the extent to which a culture’s structures and values may oppress, marginalize, alienate, or create or enhance privilege and power 10,11

Gain sufficient self-awareness to eliminate the influence of personal biases and values in working with diverse groups 16

Recognize and communicate their understanding of the importance of difference in shaping life experiences

View themselves as learners and engage those with whom they work as informants 2

Human Rights & Justice

Practice Behavior Examples…

Understand that each person, regardless of position in society, has basic human rights, such as freedom, safety, privacy, an adequate standard of living, health care, and education 10,11

Recognize the global interconnections of oppression and knowledge about theories of justice and strategies to promote human and civil rights 8

Incorporates social justice practices in organizations, institutions, and society to ensure that these basic human rights are distributed equitably and without prejudice

Understand the forms and mechanisms of oppression and discrimination

Advocate for human rights and social and economic justice

Engage in practices that advance social and economic justice 16

Research-Based Practice

Practice Behavior Examples…

Use practice experience to inform research, employ evidence-based interventions, evaluate their own practice, and use research findings to improve practice, policy, and social service delivery 10, 12, 13

Comprehend quantitative and qualitative research and understand scientific and ethical approaches to building knowledge

Use practice experience to inform scientific inquiry 1

Use research evidence to inform practice 1

Competency Chapter

Competency Chapter

CSWE’s Core Competencies and Practice Behavior Examples in this Text

Human Behavior

Practice Behavior Examples…

Know about human behavior across the life course; the range of social systems in which people live; and the ways social systems promote or deter people in maintaining or achieving health and well-being 3, 2,

Apply theories and knowledge from the liberal arts to understand biological, social, cultural, psychological, and spiritual development 3–8

Utilize conceptual frameworks to guide the processes of assessment, intervention, and evaluation 3

Critique and apply knowledge to understand person and environment 3, 10–15

Policy Practice

Practice Behavior Examples…

Understand that policy affects service delivery and they actively engage in policy practice 10, 11, 14

Know the history and current structures of social policies and services; the role of policy in service delivery; and the role of practice in policy development 1,10,16

Analyze, formulate, and advocate for policies that advance social well-being 16

Collaborate with colleagues and clients for effective policy action 16

Practice Contexts

Practice Behavior Examples…

Keep informed, resourceful, and proactive in responding to evolving organizational, community, and societal contexts at all levels of practice 4–8,10,11

Recognize that the context of practice is dynamic, and use knowledge and skill to respond proactively

Continuously discover, appraise, and attend to changing locales, populations, scientific and technological developments, and emerging societal trends to provide relevant services 14

Provide leadership in promoting sustainable changes in service delivery and practice to improve the quality of social services 16

Engage, Assess Intervene, Evaluate

Practice Behavior Examples…

Identify, analyze, and implement evidence-based interventions designed to achieve client goals 12,13

Use research and technological advances

Evaluate program outcomes and practice effectiveness

Develop, analyze, advocate, and provide leadership for policies and services

Promote social and economic justice

(A) ENGAGEMENT

Substantively and effectively prepare for action with individuals, families, groups, organizations, and communities 4–8

Use empathy and other interpersonal skills 10,11,14,15

Develop a mutually agreed-on focus of work and desired outcomes

(B) ASSESSMENT

Collect, organize, and interpret client data 4–8,10

Assess client strengths and limitations 4–8,10

Develop mutually agreed-on intervention goals and objectives 10,12–14

Select appropriate intervention strategies 10,12,13

(C) INTERVENTION

Initiate actions to achieve organizational goals

Implement prevention interventions that enhance client capacities 16

Help clients resolve problems 10,12–15

Negotiate, mediate, and advocate for clients 10,12–14

Facilitate transitions and endings 12–14

(D) EVALUATION

Critically analyze, monitor, and evaluate interventions

Competency Chapter

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N i n t h E d i t i o n

Understanding Child Abuse and Neglect

Cynthia Crosson-Tower

Credits and acknowledgments borrowed from other sources and reproduced, with permission, in this textbook appear on appropriate page within text.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Crosson-Tower, Cynthia. Understanding child abuse and neglect / Cynthia Crosson-Tower. — Ninth edition. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-0-205-39969-7 (alk. paper) ISBN-10: 0-205-39969-X (alk. paper) 1. Child abuse—United States. 2. Abused children—Services for—United States. 3. Social work with children—United States. I. Title. HV6626.52.T69 2014 362.760973—dc23 2013013464

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

ISBN-10: 0-205-39969-X ISBN-13: 978-0-205-39969-7

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vii

Contents

Preface xvii

1. The Maltreatment of Children from a Historical Perspective 1 Children as Property 1

Issues of Life and Death 1 Issues of Dependence 2 Issues of Discipline 3

Child Labor 4 Sexual Values, Attitudes, and Exploitation 5

Early History 5 The Nineteenth Century 6 The Twentieth Century 7

The Incest Taboo 7 History 7 Reasons for Taboo 8 Legal and Social Prohibition 9

Recent History of Helping the Abused and Neglected Child 10 Further Efforts on Behalf of Children 12 Professional Awareness and Response to the Movement to Protect

Children and Families 14 Child Protection Today 15

Current Framework 15 The Role of Child Protective Services 16 Child Rearing, Maltreatment, and Public Opinion 19

Summary 20

2. The Family: Roles, Responsibilities, and Rights 21 The Definition and Function of the Family 21 The Family as a System 22

Subsystems and Boundaries 23 Roles 23 Communication 24

Contentsviii

Bonding and Attachment 25 Rituals 26

Minority Family Systems 26 African American Families 27 Hispanic American Families 29 Asian and Pacific Islander Families 31 Native American Families 34

The Challenges of Developing Cultural Awareness 35 Changing Families 35

Family Problems and Dysfunction 36 The Family and Child Maltreatment 37

Parents’ Rights 37 Children’s Rights 38 Impact on the Child Protection Movement 40

Summary 40

3. Maltreatment and the Developing Child 42 Developmental Stages 43

Pregnancy and Birth 43 Birth to One Year 46 One to Four Years 50 Four to Eight Years 53 Eight to Twelve Years 54 Adolescence 55

Development, Maltreatment, and Resiliency 57 Summary 58

4. The Neglect of Children 60 The Neglect of the Concept of Neglect 60 Definition and Measurement of Neglect 61 Causes of Neglect 66

Economic Causes 66 Ecological Causes 67 Personalistic Individual Causes 68

Problems in Intervention 69 Neglected Children 69

Symptoms and Effects of Neglect 70

Contents ix

Neglectful Parents 73 Efforts to Explain the Behavior of Neglectful Parents 74 Substance-Abusing Families 82 Domestic Violence and Neglect 84 Plight of the Parent and the Social Worker 85

Summary 85

5. The Physical Abuse of Children 86 Causes of Physical Abuse 87

Interactional Variables 88 Environmental/Life Stress Variables 89 Social/Cultural/Economic Variables 89

Risk Assessment and Physical Abuse 90 Child Risk and Protective Factors 90 Parental Risk and Protective Factors 91 Family System Risk and Protective Factors 92

Symptoms of Physical Abuse 92 Physical Symptoms 92 Behavioral Indicators of Abuse 95

Abusive Parents 99 Parents’ Unlearned Tasks from Childhood 100 Munchausen Syndrome by Proxy 102 Abusive Parents and Adolescents 103 The Impact of War on Family Violence 105

Domestic Violence and Other Abuse Within the Family 106 Inter-partner Domestic Violence 106 Abuse by Siblings 107 Abuse by Peers 108 Bullying and Peer Violence 109

Summary 110

6. The Sexual Abuse of Children 111 Two Groups’ Approaches to Child Sexual Abuse 111

Child Protection Movement 112 Feminist Movement 112

Definition of Child Sexual Abuse 113 Types of Sexual Abuse 114

Intrafamilial Abuse 114 Extrafamilial Abuse 114

Contentsx

Progression of Sexual Abuse 115 Engagement Phase 116 Sexual Interaction and Secrecy Phases 117 Disclosure Phase 117 Suppression Phase 117

Incidence of Sexual Abuse 118 Studies of Abuse 118 Influence of Reporting on Statistics 120 False Allegations Movement 121

Profile of the Abused Child 122 Children at Risk 123 Female Victims 124 Male Victims 125

Degree of Trauma 125 Profile of the Perpetrator 126

Multifactor Theories 127 Single-Factor Theories 132 Process Models 132

Which People Become Perpetrators? 133 Female Abusers 134 Juvenile Sexual Offenders 135

Summary 137

7. Intrafamilial Abuse 139 Intrafamilial Abuse as a Problem Today 139 Societal Contributions to Incest 140 Father–Daughter Incest 141

Family Patterns 141 Profiles of the Family 142

Father–Son Incest 150 Family Dynamics 150 Effects of Father-Son Incest 151

Mother–Daughter Incest 151 Family Dynamics 152 Effects of Mother–Daughter Incest 153

Mother–Son Incest 154 Family Dynamics 154 Effects of Mother-Son Incest 156

Contents xi

Brother–Sister Incest 156 Family Dynamics 158 Effects of Brother-Sister Incest 159

Homosexual Sibling Incest 160 Incest with Uncles, Grandfathers, and Cousins 160 Why Incest Stops 163 Summary 164

8. Extrafamilial Sexual Abuse, Misuse, and Exploitation 166 Dynamics and Characteristics of Sexual Abuse Outside the Family 166

Pedophilia 169 Pederasty 172

Sexual Abuse by Clergy 173 Motivation of Perpetrators 174 Crisis in the Catholic Church 175 Impact on Victims 177 Addressing Clerical Perpetrators 177

Sexual Abuse in Day Care Settings 179 Types of Day Care Abuse 180 Reactions and Resulting Changes 180

Sex Rings 180 Child Pornography, Sexual Deviance, and the Internet 181

Child Pornography 182 Possessors of Child Pornography 183 Children at Risk 184 Sexting 187

Child Prostitution 187 Profile of Prostitutes 189 Lifestyle 191 The Impact of the Victims of Trafficking and Violence

Protection Act 193 Missing Children 193 Summary 193

Contentsxii

9. Psychological Maltreatment of Children 196 Psychological Maltreatment Defined 196 The Roots of Psychological Maltreatment 199 Characteristics of the Psychologically Maltreated Child 200 Family Dynamics 201

Difficulty in Detecting and Treating Psychological Abuse 202 Ritualistic Abuse 203 Summary 203

10. Intervention: Reporting, Investigation, and Case Management 205 Culturally Sensitive Intervention 205 Understanding the Intervention Process 207

Reporting 207 Investigation and Assessment 211 Family Reactions 211 Home Visiting 213

Assessing Risk and Protective Factors 215 Children 220 Caregivers 220 Perpetrators 220 Incidence and Environment 220

Exploring Causes and Services 221 Handling Emergencies 222 Assessment Interviewing 222

Interviewing Adults 222 Interviewing Children 227 Custody of the Children 233

Other Professionals Involved in the Intervention Process 235 The Medical Team 235 The Legal Team 239 The Educational Team 242 The Mental Health Team 245 Clergy and Church Staff 246 The Community 246 Toward a Total Team Approach 246

Summary 246

Contents xiii

11. The Legal Response to Child Abuse and Neglect 248 The Legal Rights of Parents and Children 249 Types of Court Intervention 250

Juvenile Court 251 Criminal Court 261 The Impact of Court on Children 263

Sex Offender Registration 264 The Media and the Court 264 Summary 265

12. Treatment: Physical Abuse and Neglect 267 Preparing to Provide Treatment 267 Providing Treatment 268

Client Resistance 268 Client Response 269 Eligibility Criteria 270 Limited Community Resources 271 Treatment Methods 271 Who Provides Treatment? 271 Duration of Treatment 272

Family-Centered Services 273 Shared Family Care 274

Treatment of Physically Abusive Families 275 Treatment of the Abused Child 276 Treatment of the Parents 281 Treatment of the Siblings 285

Treatment of Neglectful Families 286 Equilibrium Maintenance 287 Disequilibrium Techniques 289

Summary 290

13. Treatment: Sexual Abuse 292 Issues Surrounding Treatment 292 Assumptions About the Treatment of the Sexually Abusive Family 293

Contentsxiv

Treatment Models 294 Child Sexual Abuse Treatment Programs 294

Treatment Methods 295 Issues Addressed in Family Treatment 295 Phases of Treatment 296

Treatment of Specific Family Members 298 The Child and Adolescent 298 The Mother or Nonabusing Parent 303 The Perpetrator 305 Treatment of Juvenile Offenders 312 Is Treatment Effective? 312 Preservation of Incestuous Families 313 Parents of Children Abused Outside the Home 313

Summary 314

14. Foster Care as a Therapeutic Tool 316 Problems with Foster Care 316 Alternatives to Foster Care 317 Therapeutic Potential in Foster Care 317 The Role and Importance of the Biological Parents 319 The Role of Foster Parents 320 Other Placement for Abused or Neglected Children 321

Residential Treatment 322 Adoptive Placement 323

Summary 323

15. Adults Abused as Children 324 Society’s Misconceptions 324

Myth #1 324 Myth #2 324 Myth #3 325

Reasons for Adults’ Disclosure 325 Relationships 326 Pressures of Adulthood 326 Loss, Depression, or Trauma 327

Residual Effects of Child Abuse and Neglect 328

Contents xv

Effects from the Neglecting Family 328 Trust 328 Anger 330 Relational Imbalances 331 Low Self-Esteem 331 Impaired Social Skills 332 Substance Abuse 332 Physical Problems 333

Effects from the Physically Abusing Family 333 Trust 333 Anger 334 Relational Imbalances 334 Low Self-Esteem 335 Coping Skills 335

Long-Term Effects of Domestic Violence 336 Effects from a Sexually Abusing Family 336

Betrayal 337 Traumatic Sexualization 337 Stigmatization and Self-Esteem 338 Powerlessness 341 Anger 342 Relational Imbalances 343 Multiple Victimization 344

Effects from Extrafamilial Abuse 345 A Word About Resiliency 347 Treatment of Adults Who Were Abused as Children 347

Repressed Memories 348 Individual Therapy 348 Group Therapy 350 Self-Help Groups 351 Writers Groups 351 Legal Actions 352

Therapists’ Responses to Working with Survivors 352 Summary 352

16. Working in Child Protection 354 A Day in the Life of Today’s Protective Worker 354 Skills and Qualifications Needed for Child Protection 357

Knowledge 357 Authority and Sanction 358

Contentsxvi

Ethics 358 Professionalism 359 Ethnic Competence 359 Personal Traits 360 Effectively Juggling Tasks and Responsibilities 360 Dealing with Frustrations and Pressures 361

Facing the Challenges of Working in Child Protection 364 An Eye Toward Prevention 365 Prevention Efforts in Schools 366

Life Skills Training 366 Preparation for Parenthood 367 Self-Protection Training 368 Educational Services for the Community 369 Schools Helping At-Risk Families 370

Prevention Efforts with Families 370 Evaluating Home Visitation Programs 371 Parent/Child Screening and Prevention 372 Culturally Sensitive Prevention 374

Effective Prevention 374 Working Toward a Better Tomorrow 376 Rethinking Child Protection 378 Creating a Unified Response 379 Looking Within, Between, and Beyond Agencies 380

Beyond Child Protection: The Need for Societal Changes 382 Reversing the Trend Toward Socially Impoverished Families 382 Supporting Parenting 383 Realigning Societal Values 384

What Does the Future Hold? 385 Research Needs 386 Summary 386

References 389 Index 433

xvii

Preface

For Chay, Andrew, Becky, and Ruby

We live in a culture that values comfort and a sense of well-being. Even in today’s difficult economy, the expectation is that, despite having to make some sacrifices, each citizen has the opportunity to achieve this sense of well-being. Yet many members of our culture—our children—are being beaten, neglected, and sexually exploited in alarming numbers. Every 10 seconds, a child is being abused or neglected.

Granted, child abuse and neglect have existed for centuries. And although some sources suggest that the incidence of child maltreatment has actually decreased slightly in the last few years, the fact remains that children are still being abused—in some cases more seriously than ever. Why has child maltreatment become such a serious issue? The answer may lie in several areas. We live in a more violent society than ever before. We are barraged with violent images, both in the news and in our entertainment. Crime statistics attest to the impact of this desensitization. The intensity and seriousness of the abuse perpetrated against children does, as well.

Does the answer also lie in the fact that the child protection system, set up to safeguard the lives of the children at risk for maltreatment, is not achieving its goal? As a former pro- tective services worker, I recognize that individual professionals within protective services are often dedicated and well meaning, but the system as a whole is still not adequately pro- tecting children, nor are these services often our fiscal priority.

What can be done to reverse the disturbing fact of child maltreatment? And how can society, and more specifically the child welfare system, better protect the children at risk?

These questions can be addressed from several vantage points. We look not only to raise societal awareness and increase research into causes of abuse and neglect, but we must also change social policy, triage the child welfare system, and provide better training for protective workers, not only in the skills important to do their job but in culturally sensitive ways to approach a variety of people from many different backgrounds.

After over 30 years of teaching courses on child abuse and neglect, many years in the child protection system, and over 40 years in the field of social services, I have written this book, now in the nineth edition, to prepare future and even current professionals to bet- ter intervene and treat the children and families at risk. This book draws on my years of practice to present an all-encompassing view of maltreatment, in its various guises, from symptoms of abuse and neglect to motivations of those who abuse and neglect children, as well as how the social services system intervenes. The questions asked of me by students,

xviii Preface

social service workers, and trainees have helped to shape the direction of the book. My experiences not only as a protective social worker but also as a therapist treating victims, families, and perpetrators and now a clergywoman have helped to provide ideas for the illustrations and examples.

New to This Edition

There are many new and updated materials throughout the text. Below are a few of the most exciting changes:

1. The text has been reorganized into 16 chapters to correspond with the typical academic semester.

2. CSWE’s Core Competencies and Practice Behavior Examples grid added to front matter

3. Chapter 8 features the new topics of sexting and sexual trafficking. 4. Chapter 10 now covers the full range of intervention from reporting through case man-

agement. 5. Chapter 16 outlines what it is like to work in the child protection system from the ev-

eryday experiences of a social worker through the need for workers to use their knowl- edge to address effective prevention as well as planning for the future.

6. Additional pedagogical materials and specially correlated multimedia available in the eText included with the purchase of MySearchLab.

• New learning objectives, self-study assessment including key topic quizzes and chapter reviews

• Multimedia including videos, readings, weblinks, and more

Plan for the Text

Chapter 1 lays a framework for the discussion of abuse and neglect by tracing the history of child maltreatment from biblical times to the present. Chapter 2 considers the respon- sibilities of families and what rights society accords families and children. Maltreatment and the developing child are the focus of Chapter 3, which examines the effects of abusive and neglectful behavior on children’s progress, or lack of progress, through developmental stages.

Chapters 4 through 9 outline the symptoms of neglect, physical abuse, sexual abuse, and emotional/psychological abuse, and they examine the needs and motivations of abusive and neglectful parents. Chapter 7 looks more closely at the incidence of incest, or sexual abuse within the family setting. Since sexual abuse can also be perpetrated by strangers, Chapter 8 considers abuse outside the family, including a discussion of child pornography, abuse on the Internet, prostitution, and sex rings. Chapter 9 considers the psychological abuse of children.

Chapters 10 and 11 focus on how to combat the problem of abuse. Chapter 10 discusses the intervention process—from the report through the investigation and case manage- ment—and highlights such important elements of protective work as home visiting, in- vestigative interviewing, case management issues, and the roles of other professionals. The court system and how it might be called on to address abuse, neglect, and sexual abuse are

xixPreface

considered in Chapter 11, distinguishing between intervention through the juvenile court process and prosecution through the criminal court system.

Chapters 12 and 13 outline the models of treatment available for abused and neglected children and their families. Therapy approaches for each type of maltreatment are consid- ered separately. Chapter 14 discusses foster care as a therapeutic tool.

Following this examination of intervention, Chapter 15 provides a view of the experi- ences of adults who, as children, never reported abuse. The treatment available for these survivors is discussed.

The experience of working in child protection is the subject of Chapter 16—from a typical day in the life of a protective social worker and the challenges the work to the part that workers must play in prevention and in planning for the future.

In this ninth edition, I have continued to search more current research. Majority of the most recent research is now coming from Britain, Australia, and Europe as these countries meet the challenges of responding to child abuse and neglect. I have used these sources when the information appeared to be applicable to the United States. I have also continued to use classic writings in the field as well as a few more recent, albeit smaller, studies.

In response to reviewer requests, this edition has been reorganized into 16 chapters to correspond with the typical academic semester. The information on intervention as well as case management is now contained in Chapter 10. A new Chapter 16 focuses on the im- portant aspects of child protection work including the need for social workers to not only pay attention to prevention but also to use their expertise to anticipate the best solutions for the future.

There continues to be the attention to military families reflected in the eighth edition. Additional topics such as sexting, and sexual trafficking have also been added.

Understanding Child Abuse and Neglect can be used as a text for undergraduate as well as graduate courses in social work, human services, psychology, and sociology or in coun- seling, family studies, and education programs.

Acknowledgments

Many people have contributed directly or indirectly to the writing of this book. My thanks go first to my family—especially to my husband, Jim; my sons, Chay and An- drew; and my daughter in-law, Becky. They continue to encourage me. In addition, my granddaughter, Ruby Louise has reminded me of the promise of childhood and how it must be protected.

I have learned a great deal from my students, both those in the behavioral sci- ences and those in theology, whose interest, enthusiasm, and inquiries have done much to stimulate this endeavor. As graduates, they have continued their support, often as close friends. My special thanks also go to Stephanie Flynn for her encouragement and willingness to chat about the frustrations of writing. I thank my able research assistant, Peggy Prasinos, who knows more about computers and how to find information than I ever hope to. Her support, as well as her computer-generated cartoons, was essential in keeping me on task. And she is always ready to tackle a new task with an enthusiasm that is contagious.

xx

I thank the following reviewers for their helpful comments: Pam Reid, University of Akron; Rachel Happel, Missouri State University; Beth Walker, Western New Mexico University; Melody Loya, West Texas A&M University; and Brian Flynn, Binghamton University.

I also thank Carly Czech, my Pearson editor, and Mary Stone and Doug Bell of PreMediaGlobal, Inc., and all the dedicated and hard-working folks who worked to make this edition possible.

Cynthia Crosson-Tower Harvest Counseling and Consultation

This text is available in a variety of formats—digital and print. To learn more about our programs, pricing options, and customization,

visit www.pearsonhighered.com.

Preface

www.pearsonhighered.com
1

The Maltreatment of Children from a Historical Perspective

Maltreatment of children is deeply entwined with historical values and per-spectives. The concept of child maltreatment has been defined and rede-fined throughout history. Society is slowly evolving from viewing children as property, subject to the whims of the family and society, to at least recognizing that children may have rights of their own. Each period in history—as well as each cul- ture—has a concept of how children should be treated.

Children as ProPerty

Early in history, children were seen as the property of their families—usually headed and ruled by fathers. Children looked to their fathers for their very existence. Fathers had the right to determine not only the manner in which their child was cared for but also if the child were to live or die.

issues of life and death

Infanticide, or the killing of infants and young children, has occurred since early times. The Bible cites Abraham’s intention to sacrifice his son, Isaac, to God. In early Rome, the father was given complete power to kill, abandon, or even sell his child. In Greek legend, Oedipus was doomed to death until he was rescued by a family retainer. In Hawaii, China, and Japan, many female and disabled children were killed to maintain a strong race without overpopulation.

Infanticide was practiced for many reasons. Like the Hawaiians, Chinese, and Japanese, some cultures saw the practice of infanticide as a means of controlling and regulating the population so that society’s resources could be expended on the stron- gest and most valued. As in the case of Abraham, babies were offered to appease gods, and infanticide was in some ways associated with religious beliefs. Attempts to limit family size or ensure financial security were also used as rationales for killing children (deMause, 1998).

In early England, as in many other cultures, infanticide was an unwed mother’s so- lution to her act of shame. A well-known ballad tells of Mary Hamilton, lady-in-waiting

C h a p t e r 1

Chapter 12

to the queen, who had the misfortune to become pregnant by the “highest Stewart of all,” ostensibly the queen’s consort. As she bemoans her disgrace, the balladeer sings:

She tyed it in her apron And she’s thrown it in the sea; Says, “Sink ye, swim ye, bonny wee babe You’ll ne’er get m’air o’ me.” (Friedman, 1956)

In Germany, newborns were sometimes plunged into frigid water to test their ability to survive. A similar ritual was practiced by some tribes of Native Americans. The child was fit to live only if he or she surfaced and cried. Records in England in the 1620s attest to the burial of infants murdered by drowning, burning, and scalding.

issues of dependence

Children were dependent on their families not only for their early existence but also for their later survival. The feudal system in Europe established a concept of ownership and articulated a hierarchy of rights and privileges. Children were at the bottom, and the chil- dren of poor families fared the worst. If parents were unable to support themselves and their children, the fate of the family was often the poorhouse. Poorhouses offered a mea- ger subsistence, which often ended in death for the weaker members of the family.

In 1601, the Elizabethan Poor Law sought to give some help to families and children by dictating that relief must be offered to the destitute. The poor were separated into three categories:

1. The able-bodied poor—those who were considered capable and were, therefore, forced to work

2. The impotent poor—those who were old, disabled, or mothers, who were ex- cused from work and for whom aid was provided by the state

3. Dependent children—those who were orphaned or abandoned and for whom aid was provided

The fate of children still depended largely on their family constellation. Able-bodied people were sent to work. In some cases, mothers and their children were provided for at home by contributions of food and clothing but never money. Education was not viewed as a right or privilege of such families (Popple and Leighninger, 2010).

For those who were not poor, children fared as their families saw fit. Still seen as property, some children were slaves to their guardians, performing whatever tasks were expected of them. Certainly, the family life of a farming culture required that each mem- ber take part. For most children, this arrangement was satisfactory, but some children were assigned jobs far beyond their abilities or were beaten or neglected.

The early United States saw the arrival of immigrants other than Europeans. African slaves contributed greatly to the economic development of the new country, not only in the South but also in New England. The children of southern plantation slaves owed their allegiance to their parents as well as the masters who owned them. They were thought of as property and had little control over whether they worked, were sold (often without parents or siblings), or were used sexually by those more powerful. In the North, black children were not exempt from almshouses until 1822, when the Quakers in Philadelphia

The Maltreatment of Children from a Historical Perspective 3

established the first orphanage for such children (Ambrosino et al., 2011; Popple and Leighninger, 2010; ten Bensel, Rheinberg, and Radbill, 1997).

Asian and Pacific Island immigrants came to the United States with their own values about dependent children. One significant value was that the family was involved with the care of the individual from the time of birth until death (Mass and Yap, 2000), which meant that dependent children were often absorbed into the ethnic community. Native American children were also generally regarded as the responsibility of the community. In addition, Hispanic children relied on extended family members or friends to supplement or substitute for parental nurturance.

issues of discipline

The subject of discipline has always been controversial. Many methods used in early Western culture would certainly be open to censure today. The philosophies of our fore- bears, however, differ from those of most modern-day societies. Not only in the home but in the classroom, corporal punishment was a means to mold children into moral, God-fearing, respectful human beings. Parents were expected to raise religious, dedicated, morally sound, and industrious contributors to the community. Obedience was the primary virtue to develop in children. Disobedience often carried significant fines; even older children were subject to such rules. An 1854 Massachusetts law stated,