Great man theory of leadership pdf

THE MOST IMPORTANT LEADESHIP THEORIES

Raul MALO Ş1 ABSTRACT This paper tries to highlight the most important leadership theories over the times and how different king of theories can influence the organization performance. Over the time there are several theories regarding leadership, and in this paper, after a elaborate study of the specialty literature, I tried to point out the most important leadership theories that I found very actual, and I believe that knowing them could influence in a positive way the organization future. I have been examined lots of theories from lots of authors and I extracted eight of them, namely: great man theories, trait theories, contingency theories, situational theories, behavioral theories, participative theories, management theories and relationship theories. KEY WORDS: theories, great man, trait, contingency, situational, behavioural, participative, management, relationship. JEL : M20 1. INRODUCTION Interest in leadership increased during the early part of the twentieth century. Early leadership theories focused on what qualities distinguished between leaders and followers, while subsequent theories looked at other variables such as situational factors and skill levels. There is a ever growing variety of theories to explain the concept and practice of leadership. I will focus of a overview of the more dominant or better known theories. Most theories view leadership as grounded in one or more of the following three perspectives: leadership as a process or relationship, leadership as a combination of traits or personality characteristics, or leadership as certain behaviors or, as they are more commonly referred to, leadership skills. In virtually all of the more dominant theories there exist the notions that, at least to some degree, leadership is a process that involves influence with a group of people toward the realization of goals. In my opinion, leadership is a dynamic and complex process, and that much of what is written these days tends to over-simplify this process. The paper goal here is to provide an overview that keeps things simple, without crossing into over-simplification, and for the most part refraining from any critiquing of the various theories. 2. THE EIGHT LEADERSHIP THEORIES It’s well known that we can find lots of leadership theories, the most important being eight of them, namely: great man theories, trait theories, contingency theories, situational theories, behavioral theories, participative theories, management theories and relationship theories. 1. "Great Man" Theories:

1 Lecturer PhD., Faculty of Economics, Eftimie Murgu University of Reşiţa, România, r.malos@uem.ro

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Great man theories assume that the capacity for leadership is inherent – that great leaders are born, not made. These theories often portray great leaders as heroic, mythic and destined to rise to leadership when needed. The term "Great Man" was used because, at the time, leadership was thought of primarily as a male quality, especially in terms of military leadership. We all heard the phrase, "Great leaders are born, not made"? This quote sums up the basic tenant of the great man theory of leadership, which suggests that the capacity for leadership is inborn. According to this theory, you're either a natural born leader or you're not. The term "Great Man" was used because, at the time, leadership was thought of primarily as a male quality, especially in terms of military leadership. The great man theory of leadership became popular during the 19th-century. The mythology behind some of the world's most famous leaders such as Abraham Lincoln, Julius Caesar, Mahatma Gandhi, and Alexander the Great helped contribute to the notion that great leaders are born and not made. In many examples, it seems as if the right man for the job seems to emerge almost magically to take control of a situation and lead a group of people into safety or success. Historian Thomas Carlyle also had a major influence on this theory of leadership, at one point stating that, "The history of the world is but the biography of great men." According to Carlyle, effective leaders are those gifted with divine inspiration and the right characteristics (Carlyle T. (1888)). Some of the earliest research on leadership looked at people who were already successful leaders. These individuals often included aristocratic rulers who achieved their position through birthright. Because people of a lesser social status had fewer opportunities to practice and achieve leadership roles, it contributed to the idea that leadership is an inherent ability (Hirsch E.D. (2002)). Even today, people often describe prominent leaders as having the right qualities or personality for the position, implying that inherent characteristics are what make these people effective leaders. Sociologist Herbert Spencer suggested that the leaders were products of the society in which they lived (Spencer H. (1986)). In The Study of Sociology, Spencer wrote, "you must admit that the genesis of a great man depends on the long series of complex influences which has produced the race in which he appears, and the social state into which that race has slowly grown. Before he can remake his society, his society must make him." 2. Trait Theories: Similar in some ways to "Great Man" theories, trait theories assume that people inherit certain qualities and traits that make them better suited to leadership. Trait theories often identify particular personality or behavioral characteristics shared by leaders. If particular traits are key features of leadership, then how do we explain people who possess those qualities but are not leaders? This question is one of the difficulties in using trait theories to explain leadership. The trait approach to personality is one of the major theoretical areas in the study of personality. The trait theory suggests that individual personalities are composed broad dispositions. Consider how you would describe the personality of a close friend. Chances are that you would list a number of traits, such as outgoing, kind and even-

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tempered. A trait can be thought of as a relatively stable characteristic that causes individuals to behave in certain ways. Unlike many other theories of personality, such as psychoanalytic or humanistic theories, the trait approach to personality is focused on differences between individuals. The combination and interaction of various traits forms a personality that is unique to each individual. Trait theory is focused on identifying and measuring these individual personality characteristics. In 1936, psychologist Gordon Allport found that one English-language dictionary alone contained more than 4,000 words describing different personality traits. He categorized these traits into three levels (Allport G.W. el all (1936)):

• Cardinal Traits: Traits that dominate an individual’s whole life, often to the point that the person becomes known specifically for these traits. People with such personalities often become so known for these traits that their names are often synonymous with these qualities. Consider the origin and meaning of the following descriptive terms: Freudian, Machiavellian, narcissism, Don Juan, Christ-like, etc. Allport suggested that cardinal traits are rare and tend to develop later in life.

• Central Traits: These are the general characteristics that form the basic foundations of personality. These central traits, while not as dominating as cardinal traits, are the major characteristics you might use to describe another person. Terms such as intelligent, honest, shy and anxious are considered central traits.

• Secondary Traits: These are the traits that are sometimes related to attitudes or preferences and often appear only in certain situations or under specific circumstances. Some examples would be getting anxious when speaking to a group or impatient while waiting in line.

Trait theorist Raymond Cattell reduced the number of main personality traits from Allport’s initial list of over 4,000 down to 171, mostly by eliminating uncommon traits and combining common characteristics. Next, Cattell rated a large sample of individuals for these 171 different traits. Then, using a statistical technique known as factor analysis, he identified closely related terms and eventually reduced his list to just 16 key personality traits. According to Cattell, these 16 traits are the source of all human personality. He also developed one of the most widely used personality assessments known as the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (Catell R.B. (1965)). British psychologist Hans Eysenck developed a model of personality based upon just three universal trails:

• Introversion/Extraversion: Introversion involves directing attention on inner experiences, while extraversion relates to focusing attention outward on other people and the environment. So, a person high in introversion might be quiet and reserved, while an individual high in extraversion might be sociable and outgoing.

• Neuroticism/Emotional: This dimension of Eysenck’s trait theory is related to moodiness versus even- temperedness. Neuroticism refers to an individual’s tendency to become upset or emotional, while stability refers to the tendency to remain emotionally constant.

• Psychoticism: Later, after studying individuals suffering from mental illness, Eysenck added a personality dimension he called psychoticism to his trait theory. Individuals who

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are high on this trait tend to have difficulty dealing with reality and may be antisocial, hostile, non-empathetic and manipulative (Eyesenck H.J. (1992)).

3. Contingency Theories: Contingency theories of leadership focus on particular variables related to the environment that might determine which particular style of leadership is best suited for the situation. According to this theory, no leadership style is best in all situations. Success depends upon a number of variables, including the leadership style, qualities of the followers and aspects of the situation. 4. Situational Theories: Situational theories propose that leaders choose the best course of action based upon situational variables. Different styles of leadership may be more appropriate for certain types of decision-making. For example, in a situation where the leader is the most knowledgeable and experienced member of a group, an authoritarian style might be most appropriate. In other instances where group members are skilled experts, a democratic style would be more effective. Autocratic leadership, also known as authoritarian leadership, is a leadership style characterized by individual control over all decisions and little input from group members. Autocratic leaders typically make choices based on their own ideas and judgments and rarely accept advice from followers. Autocratic leadership involves absolute, authoritarian control over a group. Characteristics of Autocratic Leadership Some of the primary characteristics of autocratic leadership include:

• Little or no input from group members • Leaders make the decisions • Group leaders dictate all the work methods and processes • Group members are rarely trusted with decisions or important tasks

Benefits of Autocratic Leadership Autocratic leadership can be beneficial in some instances, such as when decisions need to be made quickly without consulting with a large group of people. Some projects require strong leadership in order to get things accomplished quickly and efficiently. Have you ever worked with a group of students or co-workers on a project that got derailed by poor organization, a lack of leadership, and an inability to set deadlines? If so, chances are that your grade or job performance suffered as a result. In such situations, a strong leader who utilizes an autocratic style can take charge of the group, assign tasks to different members, and establish solid deadlines for projects to be finished. In situations that are particularly stressful, such as during military conflicts, group members may actually prefer an autocratic style. It allows members of the group to focus on performing specific tasks without worrying about making complex decisions. This also allows group members to become highly skilled at performing certain duties, which can be beneficial to the group. Downsides of Autocratic Leadership Autocratic leadership can be beneficial at times, there are also many instances where this leadership style can be problematic. People who abuse an autocratic leadership style are often viewed as bossy, controlling, and dictatorial, which can lead to resentment among group members.

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Because autocratic leaders make decisions without consulting the group, people in the group may dislike that they are unable to contribute ideas. Researchers have also found that autocratic leadership often results in a lack of creative solutions to problems, which can ultimately hurt the performance of the group. While autocratic leadership does have some potential pitfalls, leaders can learn to use elements of this style wisely. For example, an autocratic style can be used effectively in situations where the leader is the most knowledgeable member of the group or has access to information that other members of the group do not. Democratic leadership, also known as participative leadership, is a type of leadership style in which members of the group take a more participative role in the decision- making process. Researchers have found that this learning style is usually one of the most effective and lead to higher productivity, better contributions from group members, and increased group morale. Characteristics of Democratic Leadership Some of the primary characteristics of democratic leadership include:

• Group members are encouraged to share ideas and opinions, even though the leader retains the final say over decisions.

• Members of the group feel more engaged in the process. • Creativity is encouraged and rewarded.

Benefits of Democratic Leadership Because group members are encouraged to share their thoughts, democratic leadership can leader to better ideas and more creative solutions to problems. Group members also feel more involved and committed to projects, making them more likely to care about the end results. Research on leadership styles has also shown that democratic leadership leads to higher productivity among group members. Downsides of Democratic Leadership While democratic leadership has been described as the most effective leadership style, it does have some potential downsides. In situations where roles are unclear or time is of the essence, democratic leadership can lead to communication failures and uncompleted projects. In some cases, group members may not have the necessary knowledge or expertise to make quality contributions to the decision-making process. Democratic leadership works best in situations where group members are skilled and eager to share their knowledge. It is also important to have plenty of time to allow people to contribute, develop a plan and then vote on the best course of action. 5. Behavioral Theories: Behavioral theories of leadership are based upon the belief that great leaders are made, not born. Rooted in behaviorism, this leadership theory focuses on the actions of leaders not on mental qualities or internal states. According to this theory, people can learn to become leaders through teaching and observation. 6. Participative Theories: Participative leadership theories suggest that the ideal leadership style is one that takes the input of others into account. These leaders encourage participation and contributions from group members and help group members feel more relevant and committed to the decision-making process. In participative theories, however, the leader retains the right to allow the input of others.

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7. Management Theories: Management theories, also known as transactional theories, focus on the role of supervision, organization and group performance. These theories base leadership on a system of rewards and punishments. Managerial theories are often used in business; when employees are successful, they are rewarded; when they fail, they are reprimanded or punished. Learn more about theories of transactional leadership. Transactional leadership, also known as managerial leadership, focuses on the role of supervision, organization and group performance. This theory of leadership was first described in by sociologist Max Weber, and further explored by Bernard M. Bass in the early 1980s (Bass M., (1985)). Basic Assumptions of Transactional Leadership

• People perform their best when the chain of command is definite and clear. • Workers are motivated by rewards and punishments. • Obeying the instructions and commands of the leader is the primary goal of the

followers. • Subordinates need to be carefully monitored to ensure that expectations are met. This theory bases leadership on a system of rewards and punishments. Transactional leadership is often used in business; when employees are successful, they are rewarded; when they fail, they are reprimanded or punished. In transactional leadership, rewards and punishments are contingent upon the performance of the followers. The leader views the relationship between managers and subordinates as an exchange - you give me something for something in return. When subordinates perform well, they receive some type of reward. When they perform poorly, they will be punished in some way (Burns J.M., (1978)). Rules, procedures and standards are essential in transactional leadership. Followers are not encouraged to be creative or to find new solutions to problems. Research has found that transactional leadership tends to be most effective in situations where problems are simple and clearly-defined. While transactional leadership can be effective in some situations, it is generally considered an insufficient and may prevent both leaders and followers from achieving their full potential. 8. Relationship Theories: Relationship theories, also known as transformational theories, focus upon the connections formed between leaders and followers. Transformational leaders motivate and inspire people by helping group members see the importance and higher good of the task. These leaders are focused on the performance of group members, but also want each person to fulfill his or her potential. Leaders with this style often have high ethical and moral standards. The concept of transformational leadership was initially introduced by leadership expert and presidential biographer James MacGregor Burns. According to Burns, transformational leadership can be seen when "leaders and followers make each other to advance to a higher level of moral and motivation." Through the strength of their vision and personality, transformational leaders are able to inspire followers to change expectations, perceptions and motivations to work towards common goals (Burns, J.M. (1978)). Later, researcher Bernard M. Bass expanded upon Burns original ideas to develop what is today referred to as Bass’ Transformational Leadership Theory. According to Bass,

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transformational leadership can be defined based on the impact that it has on followers. Transformational leaders, Bass suggested, garner trust, respect and admiration from their followers (Bass B.M. (1985)). Bass also suggested that there were four different components of transformational leadership.

• Intellectual Stimulation – Transformational leaders not only challenge the status quo; they also encourage creativity among followers. The leader encourages followers to explore new ways of doing things and new opportunities to learn.

• Individualized Consideration – Transformational leadership also involves offering support and encouragement to individual followers. In order to foster supportive relationships, transformational leaders keep lines of communication open so that followers feel free to share ideas and so that leaders can offer direct recognition of each follower unique contributions.

• Inspirational Motivation – Transformational leaders have a clear vision that they are able to articulate to followers. These leaders are also able to help followers experience the same passion and motivation to fulfill these goals.

• Idealized Influence – The transformational leader serves as a role model for followers. Because followers trust and respect the leader, they emulate this individual and internalize his or her ideals.

3. CONCLUSIONS In order to practice a efficient leadership is very important to know the theories that that is based on. How much the leaders know those theories can affect their capacity of leading the others into a performance of less performance activity. That fact of course affects the achieving of organizational goals. Somehow all this theories are connected and one period of time theory leads to another period of time theory. Therefore starting with the great man theories where it seems as if the right man for the job seems to emerge almost magically to take control of a situation and lead a group of people into safety or success, has developed the trait theories that often identify particular personality or behavioral characteristics shared by leaders. Contingency theories focus on particular variables related to the environment that might determine which particular style of leadership is best suited for the situation. Situational theories propose that leaders choose the best course of action based upon situational variables. This theory provides the main characteristics of autocratic and democratic leadership and lead to participative theories in witch leaders encourage participation and contributions from group members. In behavioral theory we find out that people can learn to become leaders through teaching and observation. Regarding management theories, here we have transactional leadership also known as managerial leadership focused on the role of supervision, organization and group performance. Finally the relationship theories, also known as transformational theories, focus upon the connections formed between leaders and followers. REFERENCES Allport, G.W. & Odbert, H.S. (1936). Trait-names: A psycho-lexical study. Psychological

Monographs, 47(211).

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Bass,B. M,(1985). Leadership and Performance. N. Y,: Free Press. Boeree, C.G. (2006). Gordon Allport. Personality Theories. Found online at

http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/allport.html Burns, J.M. (1978). Leadership. N.Y: Harper and Raw. Carlyle, T. (1888). On Heroes, Hero-Worship and the Heroic in History, Fredrick A. Stokes &

Brother, New York. Cattell, R.B. (1965). The scientific analysis of personality. Baltimore: Penguin Books. Eysenck, H.J. (1992). Four ways five factors are not basic. Personality and Individual

Differences, 13, 667-673. Hirsch, E.D. (2002). The New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy (Third Edition). Houghton

Mifflin Company, Boston. Riggio, R.E. (2009, March 24). Are you a transformational leader. Psychology Today. Found

online at http://blogs.psychologytoday.com/blog/cutting-edge-leadership/200903/are-you- transformational-leader

Spencer, H. (1896). The Study of Sociology, Appleton, New York. Straker, D. Great man theory. Changing Minds. Found online at

http://changingminds.org/disciplines/leadership/theories/great_man_theory.htm http://psychology.about.com/od/leadership/p/leadtheories.htm

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