Holistic learning theory laird 1985

Learning Theories An Educational Perspective

Sixth Edition

Dale H. Schunk The University of North Carolina at Greensboro

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Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data

Schunk, Dale H. Learning theories : an educational perspective / Dale H. Schunk.—6th ed.

p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-0-13-707195-1 ISBN-10: 0-13-707195-7 1. Learning. 2. Cognition. 3. Learning, Psychology of. I. Title. LB1060.S37 2012 370.15'23—dc22

2010048468

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

ISBN-10: 0-13-707195-7

ISBN-13: 978-0-13-707195-1

Dedication

To Barry Zimmerman, mentor, colleague, and friend

Brief Contents

1 Introduction to the Study of Learning 1

2 Neuroscience of Learning 29

3 Behaviorism 71

4 Social Cognitive Theory 117

5 Information Processing Theory 163

6 Constructivism 228

7 Cognitive Learning Processes 278

8 Motivation 345

9 Self-Regulation 399

10 Development 444

Glossary 489

References 501

Author Index 539

Subject Index 550

iv

Contents

v

1 Introduction to the Study of Learning 1

Learning Defined 3

Precursors of Modern Learning Theories 4

Learning Theory and Philosophy 5 Beginnings of the Psychological Study of

Learning 7 Structuralism and Functionalism 8

Learning Theory and Research 10

Functions of Theory 10 Conducting Research 11

Assessment of Learning 14 Direct Observations 14 Written Responses 15 Oral Responses 16 Ratings by Others 16 Self-reports 18

Relation of Learning and Instruction 18

Historical Perspective 18 Instructional Commonalities 19 Integration of Theory and Practice 20

Critical Issues for Learning Theories 21

How Does Learning Occur? 22 What is the Role of Memory? 23 What is the Role of Motivation? 23 How Does Transfer Occur? 24 Which Processes are Involved in

Self-regulation? 24 What are the Implications for

Instruction? 25

Three Learning Scenarios 25 Kathy Stone’s Third-grade Class 25 Jim Marshall’s U.S. History Class 26 Gina Brown’s Educational Psychology

Class 26

Summary 27

Further Reading 28

2 Neuroscience of Learning 29

Organization and Structures 31 Neural Organization 32 Brain Structures 33 Localization and Interconnections 37 Brain Research Methods 39

Neurophysiology of Learning 43 Information Processing System 43 Memory Networks 46 Language Learning 49

Brain Development 50 Influential Factors 50 Phases of Development 51 Critical Periods 52 Language Development 55

Motivation and Emotions 58 Motivation 58 Emotions 60

Instructional Applications 62 Relevance of Brain Research 62 Educational Issues 63 Brain-based Educational Practices 64

Summary 67

Further Reading 70

3 Behaviorism 71 Connectionism 73

Trial-and-error Learning 73 Laws of Exercise and Effect 74 Other Principles 75 Revisions to Thorndike’s Theory 75 Thorndike and Education 76

Classical Conditioning 78 Basic Processes 79 Informational Variables 81 Biological Influences 81 Conditioned Emotional Reactions 82

Contiguous Conditioning 84 Acts and Movements 84 Associative Strength 84 Rewards and Punishments 85 Habit Formation and Change 85

Operant Conditioning 88 Conceptual Framework 89 Basic Processes 89 Behavioral Change 98 Behavior Modification 100 Self-regulation 102

Instructional Applications 102 Behavioral Objectives 103 Learning Time 105 Mastery Learning 107 Programmed Instruction 109 Contingency Contracts 112

Summary 114

Further Reading 116

4 Social Cognitive Theory 117 Conceptual Framework for Learning 119

Reciprocal Interactions 119 Enactive and Vicarious Learning 119 Learning and Performance 122 Self-regulation 122

Modeling Processes 123 Theories of Imitation 123 Functions of Modeling 125 Cognitive Skill Learning 129 Motor Skill Learning 131

Influences on Learning and Performance 133

Developmental Status of Learners 133 Model Prestige and Competence 134 Vicarious Consequences to

Models 135

Motivational Processes 138 Goals 138 Outcome Expectations 143 Values 145

Self-Efficacy 146 Conceptual Overview 146 Self-efficacy in Achievement

Situations 147 Models and Self-efficacy 149 Motor Skills 152 Instructional Self-efficacy 153 Health and Therapeutic Activities 154

Instructional Applications 156 Models 157 Self-efficacy 157 Worked Examples 158 Tutoring and Mentoring 158

Summary 159

Further Reading 162

5 Information Processing Theory 163

Information Processing System 165 Assumptions 165 Two-store (dual) Memory Model 165 Alternatives to the Two-store Model 168

Attention 171 Theories of Attention 171 Attention and Learning 172 Attention and Reading 174

vi Contents

Perception 175 Gestalt Theory 175 Sensory Registers 178 LTM Comparisons 179

Two-Store Memory Model 180 Verbal Learning 181 Short-term (working) Memory 183 Long-term Memory 184 Influences on Encoding 187

Long-Term Memory: Storage 191 Propositions 191 Storage of Knowledge 191 Production Systems and Connectionist

Models 196

Long-Term Memory: Retrieval and Forgetting 200

Retrieval 200 Language Comprehension 204 Forgetting 209

Mental Imagery 213 Representation of Spatial Information 213 Imagery in LTM 216 Individual Differences 217

Instructional Applications 217 Advance Organizers 218 Conditions of Learning 219 Cognitive Load 223

Summary 224

Further Reading 227

6 Constructivism 228 Constructivism: Assumptions and Perspectives 230

Overview 230 Perspectives 232 Situated Cognition 233 Contributions and Applications 234

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development 236

Developmental Processes 236 Implications for Instruction 239

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory 240 Background 241 Basic Principles 242 Zone of Proximal Development 243 Applications 245 Critique 247

Private Speech and Socially Mediated Learning 248

Private Speech 248 Verbalization and Achievement 249 Socially Mediated Learning 251 Self-regulation 252

Motivation 254 Contextual Factors 254 Implicit Theories 256 Teachers’ Expectations 258

Constructivist Learning Environments 261

Key Features 261 APA Learner-Centered Principles 263

Instructional Applications 265 Discovery Learning 266 Inquiry Teaching 268 Peer-assisted Learning 269 Discussions and Debates 271 Reflective Teaching 271

Summary 274

Further Reading 276

7 Cognitive Learning Processes 278

Skill Acquisition 280 General and Specific Skills 280 Novice-to-expert Research

Methodology 281 Expert-novice Differences in

Science 283

Conditional Knowledge and Metacognition 284

Conditional Knowledge 285 Metacognition and Learning 286

Contents vii

viii Contents

Variables Influencing Metacognition 288

Metacognition and Behavior 289 Metacognition and Reading 290

Concept Learning 292 The Nature of Concepts 292 Concept Attainment 294 Teaching of Concepts 295 Motivational Processes 298

Problem Solving 299 Historical Influences 299 Heuristics 302 Problem-Solving Strategies 304 Problem Solving and Learning 309 Experts and Novices 310 Reasoning 311 Implications for Instruction 315

Transfer 317 Historical Views 317 Activation of Knowledge in

Memory 318 Types of Transfer 319 Strategy Transfer 321 Teaching for Transfer 322

Technology and Instruction 324 Computer-based Learning

Environments 325 Distance Learning 328 Future Directions 330

Instructional Applications 332 Worked Examples 332 Writing 334 Mathematics 337

Summary 342

Further Reading 344

8 Motivation 345 Historical Perspectives 347

Drive Theory 347 Conditioning Theory 348

Cognitive Consistency Theory 349 Humanistic Theory 351

Model of Motivated Learning 356 Pretask 357 During Task 357 Posttask 358

Achievement Motivation 358 Expectancy-value Theory 359 Familial Influences 361 Contemporary Model of Achievement

Motivation 362 Self-worth Theory 364 Task and Ego Involvement 366

Attribution Theory 366 Locus of Control 367 Naïve Analysis of Action 367 Attribution Theory of

Achievement 368

Social Cognitive Theory 371 Goals and Expectations 372 Social Comparison 372

Goal Theory 374 Goal Orientations 376 Conceptions of Ability 379

Perceived Control 380 Control Beliefs 380 Learned Helplessness 381 Students with Learning Problems 382

Self-Concept 383 Dimensions and Development 383 Self-concept and Learning 385

Intrinsic motivation 386 Theoretical Perspectives 386 Overjustification and Reward 389

Instructional Applications 392 Achievement Motivation Training 392 Attribution Change Programs 393 Goal Orientations 395

Summary 397

Further Reading 398

9 Self-Regulation 399 Behavioral Theory 401

Self-monitoring 401 Self-instruction 404 Self-reinforcement 405

Social Cognitive Theory 405 Conceptual Framework 405 Social Cognitive Processes 407 Cyclical Nature of Self-regulation 411 Social and Self Influences 414

Information Processing Theory 415 Model of Self-regulation 415 Learning Strategies 417

Constructivist Theory 427 Sociocultural Influences 428 Implicit Theories 430

Motivation and Self-Regulation 431 Volition 432 Values 434 Self-schemas 434 Help Seeking 435

Instructional Applications 436 Academic Studying 436 Writing 436 Mathematics 439

Summary 441

Further Reading 443

10 Development 444 Beginnings of the Scientific Study of Development 446

Historical Foundations 446 Philosophical Foundations 446 The Child Study Movement 447

Perspectives on Development 449 Issues Relevant to Learning 450 Types of Developmental Theories 452 Structural Theories 455

Bruner’s Theory of Cognitive Growth 457

Knowledge Representation 457 Spiral Curriculum 458

Contemporary Developmental Themes 460

Developmental Changes 460 Developmentally Appropriate

Instruction 461 Transitions in Schooling 463

Family Influences 465 Socioeconomic Status 465 Home Environment 468 Parental Involvement 469 Electronic Media 472

Motivation and Development 474 Developmental Changes 475 Implications 476

Instructional Applications 477 Learning Styles 478 Case’s Instructional Model 482 Teacher-student Interactions 483

Summary 486

Further Reading 487

Glossary 489

References 501

Author Index 539

Subject Index 550

Contents ix

Preface The study of human learning continues to develop and expand. As researchers from var- ious theoretical traditions test their ideas and hypotheses in basic and applied settings, their research findings give rise to improvements in teaching and learning by students of all ages. Especially noteworthy is how topics once seen as not intimately connected with learning—such as motivation, technology, and self-regulation—are increasingly being addressed by researchers and practitioners.

Although the field of learning is ever changing, the primary objectives of this sixth edition remain the same as those of the previous editions: (a) to inform students of learn- ing theoretical principles, concepts, and research findings, especially as they relate to education and (b) to provide applications of principles and concepts in settings where teaching and learning occur. The text continues to focus on cognition, although behav- iorism also is discussed. This cognitive focus is consistent with the contemporary con- structivist emphasis on active learners who seek, form, and modify their knowledge, skills, strategies, and beliefs.

STRUCTURE OF THIS TEXT The text’s 10 chapters are organized as follows. The introductory chapter discusses learn- ing theory, research, and issues, as well as historical foundations of the study of learning and the relation of learning to instruction. At the end of this chapter are three scenarios involving elementary, secondary, and university settings. Throughout the text, these three settings are used to demonstrate applications of principles of learning, motivation, and self-regulation. Chapter 2 discusses the neuroscience of learning. Presenting this material early in the text is beneficial so that readers better understand subsequent links made be- tween brain functions and cognitive and constructivist learning principles. Behaviorism, which dominated the field of learning for many years, is addressed in Chapter 3. Current cognitive and constructivist views of learning are covered in the next four chapters: social cognitive theory; information processing theory; constructivism; and cognitive learning processes. The final three chapters cover topics relevant to and closely integrated with learning theories: motivation; self-regulation; and development.

NEW TO THIS EDITION Readers familiar with prior editions will notice many content and organizational changes in this edition, which reflect evolving theoretical and research emphases. Self-regulation, which in recent editions was covered in other chapters, now is a chapter on its own. This chapter highlights the importance of self-regulation in learning and reflects the increasing

x

emphasis on self-regulation by researchers and practitioners. Given the prevalence of tech- nology in schools and homes, the text includes new sections on learning from electronic media and in computer-based learning environments. In prior editions, content-area learn- ing and instructional models were covered in separate chapters. In this sixth edition, this material is integrated into other chapters at appropriate places, which provides better co- herence and connection between learning and content instruction. Some chapters have been reordered in the text, and some topics have been shifted within chapters to provide a better flow. The continued growth of research relevant to academic learning led to new terms incorporated into the glossary and to more than 140 new references.

This edition continues to provide many examples of learning concepts and principles applied to settings where learning occurs. Each chapter after the introductory chapter contains a new section on instructional applications. Chapters open with vignettes that il- lustrate some of the principles discussed in the chapters and also contain many informal examples and detailed applications. Many of the latter are set in the scenarios described in Chapter 1. Most of the applications in the chapters pertain to K-12 learners, but appli- cations also address younger and older students and learning in out-of-school settings.

The text is intended for use by graduate students in education or related disciplines, as well as by upper-level undergraduates interested in education. It is assumed that most students have taken a prior course in education or psychology and currently work in an educational capacity or anticipate pursuing an educational career. In addition to courses on learning, the text is appropriate for any course that covers learning in some depth, such as courses on motivation, educational psychology, human development, and in- structional design.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I gratefully acknowledge several individuals for their assistance with this project. Throughout my career, many colleagues have enriched my thinking about learning processes and applications, including Albert Bandura, Curt Bonk, James Chapman, Herb Clark, Lyn Corno, Peg Ertmer, Doreen Ferko, the late Nate Gage, Marilyn Haring, Carolyn Jagacinski, Mark Lepper, Dave Lohman, Judith Meece, Sam Miller, Carol Mullen, the late John Nicholls, the late Frank Pajares, the late Paul Pintrich, Don Rice, Ellen Usher, Claire Ellen Weinstein, Allan Wigfield, Phil Winne, and Barry Zimmerman. I continue to benefit from activities with members of professional organizations, especially the Motivation in Education Special Interest Group of the American Educational Research Association, and Division 15 (Educational Psychology) of the American Psychological Association. My learning has been broadened by many outstanding students, teachers, counselors, ad- ministrators, and superintendents with whom I have worked. Sincere thanks go to gradu- ate and undergraduate student collaborators for their assistance on research projects.

For many years, my editor at Pearson Education was Kevin Davis. I am so thankful for all the guidance and support provided by Kevin, which has served to strengthen and improve this text. With this edition, Paul Smith assumed the editorial responsibilities, and he has done a fantastic job. It has been a pleasure working with Paul. Special thanks also are due to Matt Buchholz and Cynthia Parsons at Pearson for their editorial assistance. I

Preface xi

wish to thank the following reviewers of the fifth edition: Ronald A. Beghetto, University of Oregon; Denise Ward Hood, Northern Arizona University; and Sherri Horner, Bowling Green State University. At the University of North Carolina at Greensboro, I appreciate the assistance with administrative tasks provided by Tomi Register, Liz Meeks, and Melissa Edmonds-Kruep.

I am ever grateful for the love and encouragement from my parents, the late Mil and Al Schunk, and for the ways that friends Bill Gattis, Rob Eyman, Doug Curyea, and the late Jim Tozer have helped me keep life’s priorities straight. I express deep gratitude to Caryl and Laura Schunk for their understanding, support, encouragement, and love since the first edition of this text appeared in 1991. Caryl assisted with many of the examples and applications based on her experiences in K-12 education. Laura, who was a baby when the first edition was published and today is poised to graduate from college, is an intelligent, motivated, and sociable young woman. The impact of learning in her life con- tinually brings this text close to home.

xii Preface

1 Introduction to the Study of Learning

Russ Nyland teaches an education course for graduate students on cognitive instruction and learning. It is toward the end of the semester, and, as class finishes one day, three students approach him: Jeri Kendall, Matt Bowers, and Trisha Pascella.

Russ: What’s up? Wasn’t I clear today?

Jeri: Dr. Nyland, can we talk with you? We’ve been talking, and it’s late in the course and we’re still confused.

Russ: About what?

Jeri: Well, we’ve been studying all these theorists. It seems like they’re saying different things, but maybe not. Bandura, Bruner, Anderson, Vygotsky, and the others. They make different points, but then some of what they say seems to overlap what others say.

Matt: Yeah, I’m so confused. I read these theorists and think like, yeah, I agree with that. But then it seems like I agree with everything. I thought you were supposed to have one theory, to believe one way and not others. But it seems like there’s a lot of overlap between theories.

Russ: You’re right Matt, there is. Most of what we’ve studied in this course are cognitive theories, and they are alike because they say that learning involves changes in cognitions—knowledge, skills, beliefs. Most theorists also say that learners construct their knowledge and beliefs; they don’t automatically adopt what somebody tells them. So yes, there is much overlap.

Trisha: So then what are we to do? Am I supposed to be something like an information processing theorist, a social cognitive theorist, a constructivist? That’s what I’m confused about.

Russ: No, you don’t have to be one or the other. There may be one theory that you like better than the others, but maybe that theory doesn’t address everything you want it to. So then you can borrow from other theories. For example, when I was in grad school I worked with a professor whose specialty was cognitive learning. There was another professor who did

Chapter

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2 Chapter 1

developmental research. I really liked her research, probably because I had been a teacher and was interested in development, especially the changes in kids from elementary to middle school. So I was a learning theorist who borrowed from the developmental literature and still do. It’s ok to do that!

Jeri: Well that makes me feel better. But it’s late in the course, and I guess I want to know what I should be doing next.

Russ: Tell you what—next class I’ll spend some time on this. A good place to start is not to decide which type of theorist you are, but rather determine what you believe about learning and what types of learning you’re interested in. Then you can see which theory matches up well to your beliefs and assumptions and maybe do as I did—borrow from others.

Matt: Isn’t that what you call being eclectic?

Russ: Perhaps, but you may still have one preferred theory that you then adapt as needed. That’s okay to do. In fact, that’s how theories are improved—by incorporating ideas that weren’t in them originally.

Trisha: Thanks Dr. Nyland. This is really helpful.

Learning involves acquiring and modifying knowledge, skills, strategies, beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors. People learn cognitive, linguis- tic, motor, and social skills, and these can take many forms. At a simple level, children learn to solve 2 � 2 � ?, to recognize y in the word daddy, to tie their shoes, and to play with other children. At a more complex level, stu- dents learn to solve long-division problems, write term papers, ride a bicycle, and work co- operatively on a group project.

This book is about how human learning occurs, which factors influence it, and how learning principles apply in various educational contexts. Animal learning is de-emphasized, which is not intended to downgrade its impor- tance because we have gained much knowl- edge about learning from animal research. But human learning is fundamentally different from animal learning because human learning is more complex, elaborate, rapid, and typically involves language.

This chapter provides an overview of the study of learning. Initially, learning is defined and examined in settings where it occurs. An

overview is given of some important philo- sophical and psychological precursors of con- temporary theories that helped to establish the groundwork for the application of learn- ing theories to education. The roles of learn- ing theory and research are discussed, and methods commonly used to assess learning are described. The links between learning theories and instruction are explained, after which critical issues in the study of learning are presented.

At the end of this chapter are three scenar- ios that involve learning with elementary, sec- ondary, and college students. Background in- formation is given about the learners, teachers, instruction, content, setting, and other features. In subsequent chapters, these scenarios will be used to exemplify the operation of learning principles. Readers will benefit from seeing how different learning principles are applied in an integrated fashion in the same settings.

The opening scenario describes a situation that happens to many students when they take a course in learning, instruction, or motivation and are exposed to different theories. Students

Introduction to the Study of Learning 3

often think that they are supposed to believe in one theory and adopt the views of those theorists. They often are confused by the per- ceived overlap between theories.

As Russ says, that is normal. Although the- ories differ in many ways, including their gen- eral assumptions and guiding principles, many rest on a common foundation. This text focuses on cognitive views of learning, which contend that learning involves changes in learners’ cognitions—their thoughts, beliefs, skills, and the like. These theories differ in how they predict that learning occurs—in the processes of learning—and in what aspects of learning they stress. Thus, some theories are oriented more toward basic learning and others toward applied learning (and, within that, in different content areas); some stress the role of development, others are strongly linked with instruction; and some emphasize motivation.

Russ advises his students to examine their beliefs and assumptions about learning rather than decide which type of theorist they are. This is good advice. Once it is clear in our minds where we stand on learning in general, then the theoretical perspective or perspectives that are most relevant will emerge. As you study this text, it will help if you reflect on your beliefs and assumptions about learning and decide how these align with the theories.

This chapter should help to prepare you for an in-depth study of learning by providing a framework for understanding learning and some background material against which to view contemporary theories. When you finish studying this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

■ Define learning and identify instances of learned and unlearned phenomena.

■ Distinguish between rationalism and em- piricism and explain the major tenets of each.

■ Discuss how the work of Wundt, Ebbinghaus, the Structuralists, and the Functionalists helped to establish psychol- ogy as a science.

■ Describe the major features of different research paradigms.

■ Discuss the central features of different methods of assessing learning.

■ State some instructional principles com- mon to many learning theories.

■ Explicate the ways that learning theory and educational practice complement and refine one another.

■ Explain differences between behavioral and cognitive theories with respect to var- ious issues in the study of learning.

LEARNING DEFINED People agree that learning is important, but they hold different views on the causes, processes, and consequences of learning. There is no one definition of learning that is universally accepted by theorists, researchers, and practitioners (Shuell, 1986). Although people disagree about the precise nature of learning, the following is a general definition of learning that is consistent with this book’s cognitive focus and that captures the crite- ria most educational professionals consider central to learning.

Learning is an enduring change in behavior, or in the capacity to behave in a given fashion, which results from practice or other forms of experience.

4 Chapter 1

Let us examine this definition in depth to identify three criteria for learning (Table 1.1). One criterion is that learning involves change—in behavior or in the capacity for be-

havior. People learn when they become capable of doing something differently. At the same time, we must remember that learning is inferential. We do not observe learning di- rectly but rather its products or outcomes. Learning is assessed based on what people say, write, and do. But we also add that learning involves a changed capacity to behave in a given fashion because it is not uncommon for people to learn skills, knowledge, beliefs, or behaviors without demonstrating them at the time learning occurs (Chapter 4).

A second criterion is that learning endures over time. This excludes temporary behav- ioral changes (e.g., slurred speech) brought about by such factors as drugs, alcohol, and fatigue. Such changes are temporary because when the cause is removed, the behavior re- turns to its original state. But learning may not last forever because forgetting occurs. It is debatable how long changes must last to be classified as learned, but most people agree that changes of brief duration (e.g., a few seconds) do not qualify as learning.

A third criterion is that learning occurs through experience (e.g., practice, observation of others). This criterion excludes behavioral changes that are primarily determined by heredity, such as maturational changes in children (e.g., crawling, standing). Nonetheless, the distinction between maturation and learning often is not clear-cut. People may be ge- netically predisposed to act in given ways, but the actual development of the particular behaviors depends on the environment. Language offers a good example. As the human vocal apparatus matures, it becomes able to produce language; but the actual words pro- duced are learned from interactions with others. Although genetics are critical for chil- dren’s language acquisition, teaching and social interactions with parents, teachers, and peers exert a strong influence on children’s language achievements (Mashburn, Justice, Downer, & Pianta, 2009). In similar fashion, with normal development children crawl and stand, but the environment must be responsive and allow these behaviors to occur. Children whose movements are forcibly restrained do not develop normally.

PRECURSORS OF MODERN LEARNING THEORIES The roots of contemporary theories of learning extend far into the past. Many of the is- sues addressed and questions asked by modern researchers are not new but rather reflect a desire for people to understand themselves, others, and the world about them.

This section traces the origins of contemporary learning theories, beginning with a discussion of philosophical positions on the origin of knowledge and its relation to the environment and concluding with some early psychological views on learning. This re- view is selective and includes historical material relevant to learning in educational set- tings. Readers interested in a comprehensive discussion should consult other sources (Bower & Hilgard, 1981; Heidbreder, 1933; Hunt, 1993).

Table 1.1 Criteria of learning. ■ Learning involves change

■ Learning endures over time

■ Learning occurs through experience

Introduction to the Study of Learning 5

Learning Theory and Philosophy From a philosophical perspective, learning can be discussed under the heading of epistemology, which refers to the study of the origin, nature, limits, and methods of knowl- edge. How can we know? How can we learn something new? What is the source of knowledge? The complexity of how humans learn is illustrated in this excerpt from Plato’s Meno (427?–347? B.C.):

I know, Meno, what you mean . . . You argue that a man cannot enquire (sic) either about that which he knows, or about that which he does not know; for if he knows, he has no need to enquire (sic); and if not, he cannot; for he does not know the very subject about which he is to enquire (sic). (1965, p. 16)

Two positions on the origin of knowledge and its relationship to the environment are rationalism and empiricism. These positions are recognizable in current learning theories.

Rationalism. Rationalism refers to the idea that knowledge derives from reason without recourse to the senses. The distinction between mind and matter, which figures promi- nently in rationalist views of human knowledge, can be traced to Plato, who distinguished knowledge acquired via the senses from that gained by reason. Plato believed that things (e.g., houses, trees) are revealed to people via the senses, whereas individuals acquire ideas by reasoning or thinking about what they know. People have ideas about the world, and they learn (discover) these ideas by reflecting upon them. Reason is the highest men- tal faculty because through reason people learn abstract ideas. The true nature of houses and trees can be known only by reflecting upon the ideas of houses and trees.

Plato escaped the dilemma in Meno by assuming that true knowledge, or the knowl- edge of ideas, is innate and is brought into awareness through reflection. Learning is re- calling what exists in the mind. Information acquired with the senses by observing, lis- tening, tasting, smelling, or touching constitutes raw materials rather than ideas. The mind is innately structured to reason and provide meaning to incoming sensory information.

The rationalist doctrine also is evident in the writings of René Descartes (1596–1650), a French philosopher and mathematician. Descartes employed doubt as a method of in- quiry. By doubting, he arrived at conclusions that were absolute truths and not subject to doubt. The fact that he could doubt led him to believe that the mind (thought) exists, as reflected in his dictum, “I think, therefore I am.” Through deductive reasoning from gen- eral premises to specific instances, he proved that God exists and concluded that ideas ar- rived at through reason must be true.

Like Plato, Descartes established a mind–matter dualism; however, for Descartes the ex- ternal world was mechanical, as were the actions of animals. People are distinguished by their ability to reason. The human soul, or the capacity for thought, influences the body’s mechanical actions, but the body acts on the mind by bringing in sensory experiences. Although Descartes postulated dualism, he also hypothesized mind–matter interaction.

The rationalist perspective was extended by the German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724–1804). In his Critique of Pure Reason (1781), Kant addressed mind–matter dualism and noted that the external world is disordered but is perceived as orderly because order is imposed by the mind. The mind takes in the external world through the senses and al- ters it according to subjective, innate laws. The world never can be known as it exists but

6 Chapter 1

only as it is perceived. People’s perceptions give the world its order. Kant reaffirmed the role of reason as a source of knowledge, but contended that reason operates within the realm of experience. Absolute knowledge untouched by the external world does not exist. Rather, knowledge is empirical in the sense that information is taken in from the world and interpreted by the mind.

In summary, rationalism is the doctrine that knowledge arises through the mind. Although there is an external world from which people acquire sensory information, ideas originate from the workings of the mind. Descartes and Kant believed that reason acts upon information acquired from the world; Plato thought that knowledge can be ab- solute and acquired by pure reason.

Empiricism. In contrast to rationalism, empiricism refers to the idea that experience is the only source of knowledge. This position derives from Aristotle (384–322 B.C.), who was Plato’s student and successor. Aristotle drew no sharp distinction between mind and mat- ter. The external world is the basis for human sense impressions, which, in turn, are in- terpreted as lawful (consistent, unchanging) by the mind. The laws of nature cannot be discovered through sensory impressions, but rather through reason as the mind takes in data from the environment. Unlike Plato, Aristotle believed that ideas do not exist inde- pendently of the external world. The latter is the source of all knowledge.

Aristotle contributed to psychology with his principles of association as applied to mem- ory. The recall of an object or idea triggers recall of other objects or ideas similar to, differ- ent from, or experienced close, in time or space, to the original object or idea. The more that two objects or ideas are associated, the more likely that recall of one will trigger recall of the other. The notion of associative learning is prominent in many learning theories.

Another influential figure was British philosopher John Locke (1632–1704), who de- veloped a school of thought that was empirical but that stopped short of being truly ex- perimental (Heidbreder, 1933). In his Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690), Locke noted that there are no innate ideas; all knowledge derives from two types of ex- perience: sensory impressions of the external world and personal awareness. At birth the mind is a tabula rasa (blank tablet). Ideas are acquired from sensory impressions and personal reflections on these impressions. Nothing can be in the mind that does not originate in the senses. The mind is composed of ideas that have been combined in different ways. The mind can be understood only by breaking down ideas into simple units. This atomistic notion of thought is associationist; complex ideas are collections of simple ones.

The issues Locke raised were debated by such profound thinkers as George Berkeley (1685–1753), David Hume (1711–1776), and John Stuart Mill (1806–1873). Berkeley believed that mind is the only reality. He was an empiricist because he be- lieved that ideas derive from experiences. Hume agreed that people never can be certain about external reality, but he also believed that people cannot be certain about their own ideas. Individuals experience external reality through their ideas, which constitute the only reality. At the same time, Hume accepted the empiricist doctrine that ideas de- rive from experience and become associated with one another. Mill was an empiricist and associationist, but he rejected the idea that simple ideas combine in orderly ways to form complex ones. Mill argued that simple ideas generate complex ideas, but that the

Introduction to the Study of Learning 7

latter need not be composed of the former. Simple ideas can produce a complex thought that might bear little obvious relation to the ideas of which it is composed. Mill’s beliefs reflect the notion that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts, which is an integral assumption of Gestalt psychology (Chapter 5).

In summary, empiricism holds that experience is the only form of knowledge. Beginning with Aristotle, empiricists have contended that the external world serves as the basis for people’s impressions. Most accept the notion that objects or ideas associate to form complex stimuli or mental patterns. Locke, Berkeley, Hume, and Mill are among the better-known philosophers who espoused empiricist views.

Although philosophical positions and learning theories do not neatly map onto one another, conditioning theories (Chapter 3) typically are empiricist whereas cognitive the- ories (Chapters 4–6) are more rationalistic. Overlap often is evident; for example, most theories agree that much learning occurs through association. Cognitive theories stress as- sociation between cognitions and beliefs; conditioning theories emphasize the association of stimuli with responses and consequences.

Beginnings of the Psychological Study of Learning The formal beginning of psychology as a science is difficult to pinpoint (Mueller, 1979), although systematic psychological research began to appear in the latter part of the nine- teenth century. Two persons who had a significant impact on learning theory are Wundt and Ebbinghaus.

Wundt’s Psychological Laboratory. The first psychological laboratory was opened by Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) in Leipzig, Germany, in 1879, although William James had started a teaching laboratory at Harvard University four years earlier (Dewsbury, 2000). Wundt wanted to establish psychology as a new science. His laboratory acquired an inter- national reputation with an impressive group of visitors, and he founded a journal to re- port psychological research. The first research laboratory in the United States was opened in 1883 by G. Stanley Hall (Dewsbury, 2000; see Chapter 10).

Establishing a psychological laboratory was particularly significant because it marked the transition from formal philosophical theorizing to an emphasis on experimentation and instrumentation (Evans, 2000). The laboratory was a collection of scholars who con- ducted research aimed at scientifically explaining phenomena (Benjamin, 2000). In his book Principles of Physiological Psychology (1873), Wundt contended that psychology is the study of the mind. The psychological method should be patterned after the physio- logical method; that is, the process being studied should be experimentally investigated in terms of controlled stimuli and measured responses.

Wundt’s laboratory attracted a cadre of researchers to investigate such phenomena as sensation, perception, reaction times, verbal associations, attention, feelings, and emo- tions. Wundt also was a mentor for many psychologists who subsequently opened labo- ratories in the United States (Benjamin, Durkin, Link, Vestal, & Acord, 1992). Although Wundt’s laboratory produced no great psychological discoveries or critical experiments, it established psychology as a discipline and experimentation as the method of acquiring and refining knowledge.

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Ebbinghaus’s Verbal Learning. Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850–1909) was a German psy- chologist who was not connected with Wundt’s laboratory but who also helped to val- idate the experimental method and establish psychology as a science. Ebbinghaus in- vestigated higher mental processes by conducting research on memory. He accepted the principles of association and believed that learning and the recall of learned infor- mation depend on the frequency of exposure to the material. Properly testing this hy- pothesis required using material with which participants were unfamiliar. Ebbinghaus invented nonsense syllables, which are three-letter consonant-vowel-consonant combi- nations (e.g., cew, tij).

Ebbinghaus was an avid researcher who often used himself as the subject of study. In a typical experiment, he would devise a list of nonsense syllables, look at each syllable briefly, pause, and then look at the next syllable. He determined how many times through the list (trials) it took to him learn the entire list. He made fewer errors with re- peated study of the list, needed more trials to learn more syllables, forgot rapidly at first but then more gradually, and required fewer trials to relearn syllables than to learn them the first time. He also studied a list of syllables some time after original learning and cal- culated a savings score, defined as the time or trials necessary for relearning as a percent- age of the time or trials required for original learning. He memorized some meaningful passages and found that meaningfulness made learning easier. Ebbinghaus compiled the results of his research in the book Memory (1885/1964).

Although important historically, there are concerns about this research. Ebbinghaus typically employed only one participant (himself), and it is unlikely he was unbiased or a typical learner. We also might question how well results for learning nonsense syllables generalize to meaningful learning (e.g., text passages). Nonetheless, he was a careful re- searcher, and many of his findings later were validated experimentally. He was a pioneer in bringing higher mental processes into the experimental laboratory.

Structuralism and Functionalism The work by Wundt and Ebbinghaus was systematic but confined to particular locations and of limited influence on psychological theory. The turn of the century marked the be- ginning of more widespread schools of psychological thought. Two perspectives that emerged were structuralism and functionalism. Although neither exists as a unified doc- trine today, their early proponents were influential in the history of psychology as it re- lates to learning.

Structuralism. Edward B. Titchener (1867–1927) was Wundt’s student in Leipzig. In 1892 he became the director of the psychology laboratory at Cornell University. He imported Wundt’s experimental methods into U.S. psychology.

Titchener’s psychology, which eventually became known as structuralism, repre- sented a combination of associationism with the experimental method. Structuralists be- lieved that human consciousness is a legitimate area of scientific investigation, and they studied the structure or makeup of mental processes. They postulated that the mind is composed of associations of ideas and that to study the complexities of the mind, one must break down these associations into single ideas (Titchener, 1909).

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The experimental method used often by Wundt, Titchener, and other structuralists was introspection, which is a type of self-analysis. Titchener noted that scientists rely on observation of phenomena and that introspection is a form of observation. Participants in introspection studies verbally reported their immediate experiences fol- lowing exposure to objects or events. For example, if shown a table they might report their perceptions of shape, size, color, and texture. They were told not to label or re- port their knowledge about the object or the meanings of their perceptions. Thus, if they verbalized “table” while viewing a table, they were attending to the stimulus rather than to their conscious processes.

Introspection was a uniquely psychological process and helped to demarcate psy- chology from the other sciences. It was a professional method that required training in its use so that an introspectionist could determine when individuals were examining their own conscious processes rather than their interpretations of phenomena.

Unfortunately, introspection often was problematic and unreliable. It is difficult and unrealistic to expect people to ignore meanings and labels. When shown a table, it is nat- ural that people say “table,” think of uses, and draw on related knowledge. The mind is not structured to compartmentalize information so neatly, so by ignoring meanings intro- spectionists disregarded a central aspect of the mind. Watson (Chapter 3) decried the use of introspection, and its problems helped to rally support for an objective psychology that studied only observable behavior (Heidbreder, 1933). Edward L. Thorndike, a prominent psychologist (Chapter 3), contended that education should be based on scientific facts, not opinions (Popkewitz, 1998). The ensuing emphasis on behavioral psychology domi- nated U.S. psychology for the first half of the twentieth century.

Another problem was that structuralists studied associations of ideas, but they had little to say about how these associations are acquired. Further, it was not clear that intro- spection was the appropriate method to study such higher mental processes as reasoning and problem solving, which are removed from immediate sensation and perception.

Functionalism. While Titchener was at Cornell, developments in other locales challenged the validity of structuralism. Among these was work by the functionalists. Functionalism is the view that mental processes and behaviors of living organisms help them adapt to their environments (Heidbreder, 1933). This school of thought flourished at the University of Chicago with John Dewey (1867–1949) and James Angell (1869–1949). An especially prominent functionalist was William James (1842–1910). Functionalism was the dominant American psychological perspective from the 1890s until World War I (Green, 2009).