How did the egyptian "instruction of amenemopet" influence the israelite book of proverbs?

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13 A Legacy of Israel Wisdom Literature and Psalms

Timeline 950 B.C.E. Approximate date of the building of Solomon’s Temple

586 B.C.E. Destruction of Solomon’s Temple

515 B.C.E. Completion of the Second Temple

332 B.C.E. Alexander conquers Palestine and Greek influence floods the region

200 B.C.E. Wisdom books and the book of Psalms approach their final form

Chapter Outline I. The Wisdom Literature

II. Psalms: Israel Sings Its Faith

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The Old Testament Story, Ninth Edition, by John Tullock and Mark McEntire. Published by Pearson Learning Solutions. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

The books known as Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Job, and the Song of Songs do not fit easily into the Old Testament story. These poetic books offer another way to look at and proclaim faith, which is significantly different from the chronological storytelling that characterizes much of the Old Testament. The wisdom tradition often addresses issues of daily living, with little or no refer- ence to the record of Israel’s covenant with God in the past. The individual poems in the book of Psalms likely reflect a major component of Israel’s worship tradition, but we find them now in a literary collection with little evidence of when, where, and how they were used in ancient times. Some of these books have enjoyed enormous popularity throughout Christian tradition, perhaps because of their apparently timeless quality.

THE WISDOM LITERATURE

Israel contributed many things to the world, and its modern descendants (the Jews) are still mak- ing invaluable contributions to human society. Of all of its literature, the most admired must be the words of its wise teachings and the songs of its singers. Its proverbs and metaphors spice the speech of many lands. Its greatest literary masterpiece, the book of Job, ponders some of life’s deepest mysteries. Its psalms reflect the full range of human emotion, from abject misery to ec- static praise. Its love songs, the explicitness of which challenges both Jewish and Christian inter- preters alike, sing of the “way of a man with a maiden” (Prov. 30:19). Because all these literary types use poetry as the medium of expression, they will be studied together.

Wise Ones and Their Work1

Wisdom was a product of the people, rooted in the experiences of life and representing the distil- lation of those experiences. Two of its most important characteristics were that (1) it originated in and was nurtured by the family or tribe and (2) its earliest forms were oral. Its origins are lost in the mists of time, but logic would dictate that it began when leaders began to use their experi- ences in life to teach the young.

WISDOM IN THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST. Long before the inhabitants of Israel appeared in his- tory as a separate people, there was a wisdom tradition among the people of the Fertile Crescent. Among the Sumerians, scribes used proverbs, in Sumerian and Akkadian, both as a teaching de- vice and as a means of learning a second language. The theme of the righteous sufferer was known in the area long before the book of Job was written. A Babylonian work, The Dialogue about Human Misery (1000 B.C.E.), had echoes of ideas found in both Job and Ecclesiastes.

In Egypt, wisdom literature was commonly used to train young people in morals and to en- sure competent work in the court of the king. Especially important is “The Instruction of Amen- em-opet,” which many scholars believe influenced Proverbs 22:17–24:22. That Solomon had an Egyptian princess as his chief wife had led to the suggestion that Egyptian wisdom influence en- tered Israel through Solomon’s court.

WISDOM IN ISRAEL. Israelite wisdom undoubtedly had its oral stage. Later, however, it seems to have taken on a more formal structure. References to the wisdom of Solomon (1 Kings 4:29–34) probably were reinforced by the fact that (1) following the tradition of the Egyptians, he established schools of wisdom and (2) because the Israelites viewed prosperity as evidence of God’s blessing and with it, the evidence of wisdom, they equated great wealth with great wisdom.

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As Solomon’s prosperity was unquestioned, it would have enhanced any reputation he gained as a wise man. Further evidence of wisdom schools connected to the royal court might be deduced from the reference to the “men of Hezekiah” (Prov. 25:1), who were said to have collected “proverbs of Solomon.” Generally, it is agreed that the earliest reference to the “wise” as officials of the religious establishment is found in Jeremiah 18:18. Two books whose English names are often confused, Ecclesiastes in the Hebrew Bible and Ecclesiasticus from the Alexandrian Canon, seem to have been schoolbooks. Both are classified as wisdom books.

But wisdom knows no political or national boundaries. This was true especially when those boundaries did not act as barriers to travel, as they do today. Israel’s wisdom was part of the larger pool of wisdom of the Near East. The book of Proverbs is a good illustration of this fact. In addi- tion to collections of Israelite wisdom, it contains other materials that had been brought to Israel from other countries. For example, Proverbs 22:17–24:22 has thirty sections similar to “The Instruction of Amen-em-opet.” There are numerous parallels between the two texts, suggesting that the Hebrew writer knew the Egyptian text. This would not be unlikely, as Solomon had close relations with Egypt. His scholars, who were concerned with collecting and developing Israelite literature, were undoubtedly influenced by others.2

Other examples can be found in Proverbs 30–31. The former is said to have been “the words of Agur son of Jakeh of Massa” (30:1), while the chapter is attributed to “Lemuel, king of Massa” (31:1). Massa was not in Israelite territory but was located in northwestern Arabia (Gen. 25:14).

Wisdom teachings were of two types. Practical wisdom was concerned with the problems of everyday living. The form of this wisdom was such that much of it was easily taught. Easily re- membered literary forms—such as proverbs, fables, and short poetic discourses on some human problem—could be committed to memory. The proverb was a short, easily remembered saying that contained one main point. It could take the form of a comparison or a contrast. The fable (such as Jotham’s fable in Judg. 9:7–15) was a story that had a moral, usually giving human charac- teristics to plants or animals. The short poetic discourses actually were just longer proverbs, still designed to make one main point. This kind of wisdom took a simple and orthodox view of life.

In the post-Exilic period, the wise men became the schoolmen in Israel. Perhaps the most famous was Ben Sirach, whose teachings were collected in the apocryphal book of Ecclesiasticus or the Wisdom of Ben Sirach. Practical wisdom was the chief concern of the schoolmen.3

Wisdom of a different kind was found in Ecclesiastes (not to be confused with the Wisdom of Ben Sirach) and the book of Job. These books belong to the realm of philosophical, or specu- lative, wisdom. They were extended discussions involving many of the deepest questions that confront human beings as they try to live in the world. They challenged many of the most widely held ideas of the time. They questioned things that most people would never dare to question. For them, life was far from simple. Indeed, they posed many unanswerable questions and chal- lenged many traditional values.

Proverbs

Proverbs contains a diverse collection of orthodox wisdom. Life was viewed in a very simple manner—the man who followed wisdom would prosper, while the man who ignored wisdom would fail. The first was wise; the second was the fool—there was no middle ground.4

THE PURPOSE OF WISDOM (PROV. 1:1–7). Solomon’s place in the wisdom movement is indi- cated in Proverbs 1:1, in which the whole book was credited to him, even though later parts of the book clearly indicate that he was not the author of all the proverbs. Because Solomon was the most famous of all of Israel’s wise men, he was looked upon as the father of Israelite wisdom.

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The purpose of the book of Proverbs is stated in 1:2–6. Three groups of people are mentioned—those who needed “wisdom and instruction,” those who needed “words of insight,” and those who received “instruction in wise dealing, righteousness, justice, and equity” (1:2–3). The simple needed shrewdness, and youths needed “knowledge and prudence” (1:4). The wise person needed to “gain in learning” and to acquire skill to understand proverbs, figures of speech, and the words and riddles of the wise (1:5–6). The section ends with the following theme:

The fear of the LORD is the beginning of knowledge; fools despise wisdom and instruction. (1:7)

1. Child, listen to your elders (Prov. 1:8–19). A father pleaded with his son to turn a deaf ear to bad companions. He warned him to avoid their ways. Because violence breeds violence, if he followed the way of robbery, violence, and bloodshed, he would be setting a trap for himself.

2. Wisdom’s sermon to the simple (Prov. 1:20–33). Wisdom, pictured as a female, went into the busy places of the city in the role of a prophetess. Her sermon was addressed to the simple— those lacking wisdom. If the simple did not accept her leadership, when calamity came she would mock them. When judgment fell, she would ignore their pleas for help.

3. Child, listen to wisdom (Prov. 2:1–22). The father called on his son to actively seek wisdom, because it came from the LORD. Because the LORD was the source, wisdom had great benefits for those who lived by it. To follow the path of integrity and justice was to be led by the LORD. Increased understanding of righteousness and justice would result. The ability to make right decisions would help the wise son to avoid evil men and evil ways. Most of all, he would avoid immoral women who would lead him to the grave.

4. Child, let the LORD lead you (Prov. 3:1–35). Loyalty and faithfulness characterized the good life. Loyalty to the LORD was supreme. To trust and follow the LORD was the simplest and best way of life. The wise understood that the LORD’s correction was motivated by love. This, in turn, made life pleasant and meaningful. Because the LORD’s people were safe, regardless of the disaster, fear was removed from life.

One should live in peace with one’s neighbors, doing whatever was promised promptly. One should not be contentious, nor should one be jealous of evil people. They would come to a bad end.

5. Child, get wisdom and insight (Prov. 4:1–27). The father’s father had handed down to him the principle that the supreme aim of life was to develop wisdom. With it, one could have protection and great honor. Because with wisdom one learned to avoid the pitfalls of life, the wise person lived a long life. To follow the wicked was to be led astray. Thus, they should be avoided because doing wickedness was their passion.

The road the righteous traveled got lighter, but the road of the wicked led into darkness. The life lived with care and planning, and characterized by truth and honesty, could be lived without shame.

6. Child, beware of that wild woman (Prov. 5:1–23). One of the most vivid passages in Proverbs contains the warning against consorting with an adulteress. Her smooth and seductive speech sounded sweet, but it led to death. The best thing to do was to keep as far away as possible, as she could only bring ruin.

Instead, a man should “drink water” from his own well and love the wife of his youth. The LORD’s eyes were on men, so the wicked man could not escape the consequences of his sin.

7. Child, remember four important things (Prov. 6:1–19). (1) A man should be careful about giving security for another person’s debt (6:1–5). (2) The diligence of the ant in its work should be an example to the lazy man (6:6–11). (3) A man should beware of a wicked man’s

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The Literary Structure of Proverbs

The book of Proverbs has a somewhat unfortunate name, because this title describes only a portion of its contents. The first nine chapters of this book are not composed of proverbial sayings, but are a series of extended poems (for a summary of the contents of these poems, see the following pages). The poems are addressed to “my son,” which is indicative of the patriarchal nature of ancient Israelite culture. Some recent translations have used the gender-neutral term my child in an attempt to make the book of Proverbs more relevant to a modern culture that values the education of all chil- dren, male and female. The purpose of these poems is to portray two ways of life, wisdom and folly. Eventually, these two ways coalesce into two personified female figures, Lady Wisdom and Lady Folly. Each of these women calls out to young men to follow her and to enter her house (Proverbs 9). Wisdom is portrayed as the foundational principle of creation in Proverbs 8 and as a noble teacher of humanity in Proverbs 9. Folly is portrayed as an immoral woman who entices young men with wicked temptations in Proverbs 9. This series of poems establishes the setting for the main body of the book.

Those who choose correctly and enter wisdom’s house are prepared to hear the wise sayings that make up most of the remainder of the book in Proverbs 10–29. These proverbial sayings are pre- sented in collections introduced by superscriptions in 10:1, 22:17, and 25:1. This literary design has encouraged some to suppose that the book of Proverbs might have formed a kind of curriculum for an ancient Israelite school system and that Lady Wisdom’s house is the school itself.5 There is not ample evidence to prove such a position, but this idea is consistent with the structure and character of the book of Proverbs.

The last two chapters of Proverbs are somewhat more difficult to characterize. They are com- posed of a mixture of poems and proverbial sayings taken from foreign sources. It is difficult to say much more than that they form an appendix to the collection and indicate that the Israelite wisdom tra- dition was in conversation with the wisdom traditions of other cultures. The poem to a “worthy woman” or “capable wife” in Proverbs 31:10–31 may be perceived as a fitting end to the book. The young man addressed as “my son” in Proverbs 1–9, who has learned the wisdom contained in Proverbs 10–29, is now prepared to move into responsible adult life, and finding a suitable mate is a vital next step. As a parent, this person would then return to the beginning of the book to address his own son.

The book of Proverbs is a good place to introduce the ancient Jewish practice called gematria. Because Hebrew does not have separate symbols for numerals, the letters of the alphabet are used as numeric symbols. The first letter stands for 1, the second for 2, and so on. Because combinations of letters can be used, the eleventh letter is the symbol for 20, the twelfth for 30, the nineteenth for 100, the twentieth for 200, and so on. When the values of the letters within any word are added, a numeric value for the word is attained. The names in the superscriptions of Proverbs may be playing with this system of numbers. The names Solomon, David, and Israel in 1:1 have a combined gematria value of 930. This appears to be the number of lines of poetry in the entire book. Likewise, the sec- tion of proverbial sayings in 10:1–22:16, which has only the name “Solomon” in the heading, seems to contain 375 lines of poetry, which is the gematria value for Solomon.6 This sort of numerical pat- tern shows up in at least two other places in Proverbs, which makes the pattern look more than co- incidental. A word of caution is in order here. This idea has nothing to do with the fraudulent “Bible Codes” phenomenon that became popular in the 1990s. Nor are these patterns any kind of mysteri- ous proof of the Bible’s divine origins. If these patterns exist, they would not have been difficult for the human compilers of the book to construct. What these patterns do demonstrate is a quantitative approach to constructing the book of Proverbs that matches its view of life as a fairly straightforward equation in which wisdom leads to blessing and success while foolishness leads to failure.

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words and ways that are the recipe for disaster. (4) The final warning was a numbers proverb using seven examples of disgusting things that the LORD hated:

haughty eyes, a lying tongue and hands that shed innocent blood,

a heart that devises wicked plans, feet that hurry to run to evil,

a lying witness who testifies falsely, and one who sows discord in a family. (6:17–19)

8. Child, wisdom will keep you safe from wicked women (Prov. 6:20–35). A man who lis- tened to the wisdom of his parents would be able to avoid loose women. The adulteress was even more dangerous than a harlot, because a harlot would only take a man’s money, while an adulter- ess could cause him to lose his life. A jealous husband would not take payment to soothe his anger. Instead, in his rage, he would take a man’s life.

9. Child, let’s talk some more about wicked women (Prov. 7:1–27). Wisdom could keep a man from trouble involving the wife of another. The father told of a personal observation. He saw a naive young man passing the house of an adulterous woman. She came up to him, kissed him boldly, and told him that she had plenty of delicious food, a waiting bed, and an absent husband:

With much seductive speech she persuades him; with her smooth talk she compels him.

Right away he follows her, and goes like an ox to the slaughter, or bounds like a stag toward the trap until an arrow pierces its entrails.

He is like a bird rushing into the snare, not knowing it will cost him his life. (7:21–23)

10. Wisdom’s sermon to humanity (8:1–36). Wisdom stood at the city gates addressing the passersby. She spoke of her value to humankind (8:1–11); the high position she held in the affairs of life (8:12–16); the rewards that came to those who sought her (8:17–21); and her role in Creation as the first created thing and the companion to God in Creation (8:22–31). The prudent person would eagerly seek wisdom (8:32–36).

11. The two ways: The wise and the foolish (Prov. 9:1–18). To the ancients, prosperity was a sign of the LORD’s blessing. Wisdom thus was pictured as having a beautiful house, vast flocks from which to choose animals for sacrifice, and an overflowing table to which she could invite those who lacked her blessings (9:1–6). There follows verses that compare the most foolish of the foolish with the wise person. The prize for the most foolish of all went to the scoffer who thought he knew something but actually knew nothing. Rebuking a scoffer only made the situation worse, but rebuking a wise person only made him wiser. The wise knew that fear of the LORD was the real beginning of wisdom (9:7–12). Listening to the foolish woman led to death (9:13–18).

The “Proverbs of Solomon” (Prov. 10:1–22:16). This section entitled “Proverbs of Solomon” (10:1) is made up exclusively of what modern comedians call one-liners: not in the sense that they are jokes, but in the sense that their message is contained in one line of Hebrew (two lines in the English translation). These short, pointed sayings each contain a simple truth designed to tell any person who hears them some lesson about how to live in relation to others. They are strung together like beads, each one different; yet, each one is concerned with how to live a good life in human society.

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That these are called the “Proverbs of Solomon” did not necessarily mean that Solomon spoke all of them. They probably were from many lands and many sources. The belief that Solomon collected proverbs and was noted for his wisdom made it natural that his name would be attached to such collections.

Because it would have been difficult to do so, no attempt was made to put these proverbs in any logical order. Although antithetical parallelism is the dominant form, other forms were also used. Of those that are antithetical, some examples of the contrasts made are as follows:

THE WISE AND THE FOOLISH:

A wise child makes a glad father, but a foolish child is a mother’s grief. (10:1)

Lady Wisdom

In the poems that begin the book of Proverbs, a parent is speaking to a child, often describing wisdom as something to be sought and prized. In Proverbs 8 and 9 a character named Wisdom suddenly ap- pears and begins to speak in a feminine voice. After she describes herself in a way very much like what is found in the first seven chap- ters, in Proverbs 8:22, Wisdom claims to have been with God in the beginning, assisting God in the creation of the world. She is the first thing created by God and she places herself in the creative process, right down to the creation of human beings in 8:31. Beginning with 8:32, Wisdom speaks to human beings in a parental voice, urging them to listen and follow her instructions.

The poems in Proverbs 9 move in a somewhat different direc- tion. The poem in 9:1–5 describes Wisdom as a woman who has built a house and invites young people to come in and dine with her and gain insight. This Lady Wisdom character stands in contrast to another woman who is portrayed in 9:13–18. Sometimes referred to as Lady Folly, this woman also invites young people into her house, but she is described in a way that likens her to a prostitute who entices those passing by her house to their destruction.

Theologians have debated how to understand this Lady Wisdom. Is she merely a metaphorical figure, a literary device used by the writers of these poems to portray wisdom as a virtue? Could she be a reflection of an Israelite goddess, who may have been un- derstood as a consort of YHWH at one time? As Israelite religion moved toward a more strict monotheism, the appearance of such a goddess in the biblical text would have been suppressed so that only vestiges like Proverbs 8 and 9 might have remained.

The possibility of such a figure suggests an interesting way to look at other biblical passages, such as the first-person-plural speech of God in Genesis 1:26 and the presentation of “the Word” or Logos that was with God in the beginning, according to John 1 in the New Testament. Too little evidence remains to answer such questions with any certainty. Lady Wisdom will probably always remain an enigma within the Old Testament.

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THE PROUD AND THE HUMBLE:

It is better to be of a lowly spirit among the poor than to divide the spoil among the proud. (16:19)

THE RIGHTEOUS AND THE WICKED:

The righteous have enough to satisfy the appetite, but the belly of the wicked is empty. (13:25)

GOOD WIVES AND BAD WIVES:

A good wife is the crown of her husband, but she who brings shame is like rottenness in his bones. (12:4)

TRUTH AND FALSEHOOD:

A truthful witness saves lives, but one who utters lies is a betrayer. (14:25)

Other proverbs are of a synonymous nature or used formal parallelism:

Honest balances and scales are the LORD’s: all the weights in the bag are his work (16:11).

In the light of the king’s face there is life, and his favor is like the clouds that bring the spring rain. (16:15)

The Book of Thirty Sayings (Prov. 22:17–24:22).7 This probably was a teacher’s book of in- structions to a pupil about some of life’s important relationships. By reading it, the pupil could learn what was “right and true.” Then he could give a “true answer” to whomever questioned him (22:17–21). Although some of its admonitions follow the one-line pattern of the previous sec- tion, for the most part they cover several lines. For instance, there were instructions on eating with a ruler (23:1–3); how to discipline children (23:13–14); the inevitable warning about wicked women (23:26–28); a rather long warning about excessive wine drinking (23:29–35); and a warn- ing to “fear the LORD and the king” (24:21–22). One piece of advice was repeated twice, the sec- ond time being somewhat longer than the first (22:28):

Do not remove the ancient landmark or encroach on the fields of orphans,

for their redeemer is strong; he will plead their cause against you. (23:10–11)

The sayings of the wise ended with an appendix that contained condemnation for showing favoritism in judgment (24:23–25); a word on getting ready for work (24:27); a warning against bearing false witness and acting with spite (24:28–29); and a description of the lazy man (24:30–34).

More “Proverbs of Solomon” (25:1–29:27). This section, like 10:1–22:16, was composed mostly of individual one-line (Hebrew) sayings. The title suggests that King Hezekiah’s time was a time

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when the interest in wisdom was blossoming, because these were said to be Solomonic proverbs col- lected by “the men of Hezekiah” (25:1). After two longer sections on the power of the king (25:2–7) and one on conduct in court (25:8–10), there follows a mixture of proverbs using comparison:

Like clouds and wind without rain is one who boasts of a gift never given. (25:14)

and contrasts:

Better to be poor and walk with integrity than to be crooked in one’s ways even though rich. (28:6)

as well as other poetic forms:

If the king judges the poor with equity, his throne will be established forever. (29:14)

The Words of Agur (Prov. 30:1–33). This chapter is made up of two types of material. Verses 1–9 were presented as a conversation. “The man” (30:1), who may have been Agur, told two men named Ithiel and Ucal that he had seen no evidence of God (30:2–4). He, in turn, was told that God’s every word was true and that God protects those “who take refuge in him” (30:5). In 30:6–9, a speaker considers life’s highest gifts as being food and truth.

The second part of the chapter opens with a series of statements beginning “There are those who.” These include those who cursed their fathers (30:11), who were “pure in their own eyes” (30:12), who were proud (30:13), and who were greedy (30:14).

There followed a series of “numbers proverbs” that sound like the formula in the oracles of the prophet Amos: “for three transgressions and for four” (Amos 1:3ff.). Most of them use the three–four formula, although one (30:15–16) uses two, three, and four, while another lists only four things that “are small but they are exceedingly wise” (30:24). Three shorter proverbs are mixed in with the numbers proverbs.

The Words of Lemuel (Prov. 31:1–31). This chapter contains a mother’s advice to her son (31:1–9) and the Old Testament’s highest tribute to a woman—the description of the good wife (31:10–31). The first part is about a queen’s advice to her son on how to rule wisely. The tribute to the ideal wife pictured her as being of good reputation, diligent in her work, prudent in her decisions, concerned for her family, compassionate toward the needy, wise in speech, and honored by her family.

The book of Proverbs would be followed in later Judaism by other books that imitated it somewhat. The most famous of these were the Wisdom of Solomon and The Wisdom of Ben Sirach, or Ecclesiasticus. Proverbs was orthodox in theology and practical in its view of life.

Job: When Orthodoxy Fails

Job represents the struggle of a person who had accepted orthodox answers to all of life’s questions but found them useless when the bottom fell out of his world. To compound his problem, his friends still gave him the same old answers, never hearing the entirely new set of questions Job was raising. Discussions of the theological problems raised by human suffering are sometimes called theodicy.

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Who Wrote Job, and When Was It Written? The traditional interpreters of Job have viewed the book as the work of a single author, but in recent years the emphasis has been on the book as a composite work. The story of the suffering righteous man is found in other literatures, and, in- deed, the story of Job may well have originated outside of Israel, possibly in Edom. That the story is an old one is shown by Ezekiel 14:14, 20, where he speaks of “Noah, Daniel, and Job” as great, righteous men of the past.

Those who see the book as a composite take one of three positions: (1) The author of the poetic section wrote the prose section also, using older traditions that were common in the Near East; (2) the poetic discourse is the older part, the narrative being added later; or (3) the older prose story of Job was used by the author to introduce his own struggles about one of life’s most

The Literary Structure of Job

The book of Job and its structure are discussed at length in the main body of this chapter, so only a summary is necessary here. The first two chapters of the book of Job and the final eleven verses of the last chapter form a fairly simple narrative framework around a long, complex epic poem. Regardless of the possibility that these two elements might have had independent histories of development, they form a unified work in the canonical book of Job.8

The first two chapters of Job transport the reader to the scene of the heavenly council. The reader’s observation of the two conversations between God and the Accuser provide knowledge that the participants in the story—Job, his wife, and his friends—do not have. The reader is aware of the heavenly wager that lurks in the background of this story and should inform every line of the poetic dialogue, but the characters see only Job’s misery and their own assumptions about it.

There is a growing understanding within biblical scholarship that the form of a literary work and its content reflect each other. Job 3–27 is a series of poetic speech cycles that is almost painfully precise and methodical. Job and his three friends speak in turn: Job-Eliphaz-Job- Bildad-Job-Zophar- Job-Eliphaz-Job-Bildad-Job-Zophar-Job-Eliphaz-Job-Bildad-Job. The pattern breaks only with the missing third speech of Zophar. The worldview known as Retribution Theology, which Job’s friends present in response to his complaint, is also painfully precise and methodical. This view perceives all human events as God’s reward or punishment for human obedience or disobedience. This position is as impressively logical and coherent as the speeches of Job’s friends. At the same time, it is as heavy and oppressive to a suffering human being as their endless speeches are to Job. But Job perseveres, and the book of Job breaks form just as Job breaks through the barrier of Retribution Theology to confront God in 29–31. The speech of the fourth friend, Elihu, in 32–37 may be understood in a cou- ple of different ways. Is it the last gasp of Retribution Theology or a reverential way of introducing the direct speech of God? It may also be possible to accept that it is both of these.

The book of Job reaches its climax and then its resolution in the Divine speeches of 38–42. The carefully constructed piety of the friends is demolished. Job is both praised by God and put in his place. Finally, Job decides to leave behind his posture of mourning and continue his life in faithful- ness. The report of the restoration of his family and possessions at the end of the book reflects the enumeration of these aspects of his life at the beginning. What seems to be at stake in the book of Job is the freedom of God. A God who rewards human obedience and punishes disobedience is merely a mechanistic responder to human behavior. God breaks free of this constraint in Job, but we are left with questions about whether such a free God is reliable or capricious.

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perplexing problems, namely, the suffering of the righteous. This seems to be the most logical of the three positions outlined here.

What we seem to have is an ancient folk tale about a good and patient man named Job. Although it possibly originated in Edom at an early time, it became a part of Israelite tradition. Just before or during the Babylonian Exile, an Israelite wisdom writer used the old story to intro- duce a poetic masterpiece in which he examines the problem of a righteous man’s relationship to God in the context of great physical and emotional suffering. Either the author of the poetic dis- course or someone who wished to make the book seem more orthodox added the ending from the old folktale.

Chapter 28, a discourse on wisdom, and the Elihu speeches (Chapters 32–37) add little to the overall arguments of the book and thus seem not to have been part of the original work. The Elihu speeches could have been added later by the original author after further reflection on the problem.

Some Things One Needs to Know for Help in Understanding Job. Some basic ideas common in early Israel form the background of Job. Certain basic assumptions had been made in theolo- gy: (1) God was just and gave justice to humankind. (2) This life was all there was. When people died, they went to Sheol, the abode of the dead. There was no life after death with rewards and punishments. (3) If justice was to be done, it had to be done in this life.

These assumptions led to certain conclusions: (1) The good person prospered, while the wicked person failed. (2) Sickness was a sign that a person had sinned. It was a part of God’s judgment on sinners. These views of orthodox religion formed the basis of the arguments in the book of Job.

THE BOOK 1. Job, the righteous man: The prose story (Job 1:1–2:13). According to the old tradition,

Job was an extremely wealthy man from the land of Uz. No one really knows where Uz was, although it could have been in Edom. He had seven sons, three daughters, and vast herds of live- stock. He was a faithful worshiper of God (Elohim) (1:1–5).

But such bliss was not to continue. Satan (as in Zech. 3:2, he is the satan, literally “the Adversary”) challenged the LORD (YHWH) about Job, accusing him of giving Job special protec- tion. The LORD agreed to let Satan do what he wanted to Job, but he was not to touch Job’s body (1:6–12). Disaster after disaster struck Job, causing him to lose all his children, as well as his live- stock. But through it all, Job did not criticize God in the least (1:13–22).

Satan appeared before the LORD again. The LORD proudly reminded him that Job was still faithful. Satan replied that every man had his limits, including Job. Satan argued that when the LORD permitted Job to be afflicted personally, Job would break under the pressure and would curse the LORD. The LORD took up the challenge. Satan was permitted to do anything to Job except kill him (2:1–6).

Job’s troubles intensified. He was covered with painful sores from head to foot. He sat on an ash heap and used a piece of pottery to scrape the tops off his sores. His wife urged him to curse God and die in order to end his misery, but Job refused. Then, three friends came to see him. When they saw him, they began to wail and to mourn over his condition. Then they sat and looked at him for seven days without uttering a single word (2:7–13).

This prose version of the story of Job pictured Satan as having easy access to the heavenly realms. He came when the “sons of God came to present themselves before the LORD” (1:6). In later theology, Satan was in violent opposition to the LORD, not someone who could come to visit whenever he decided to do so.

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Job’s wife’s advice to curse God and die revealed that there was no developed doctrine of life after death at that time. The dead all went to Sheol (the grave), so this life was the only life there was. There was a kind of existence after death, but the only thing that could disturb it was when (1) a body was not properly buried or (2) a person had been murdered and his death was unavenged.9

2. Job, the frustrated sufferer: The poetic discourse (Job 3:1–42:6). This section of Job was cast in the form of a dialogue between Job and his three friends Eliphaz, Bildad, and Zophar. There are three cycles or sets of speeches, except that the third cycle was incomplete.

a. Job’s complaint (3:1–26). In contrast to Job’s refusal to complain in the prose story, the poetic version began with Job cursing the day he was born. In an extended example of synonymous parallelism, Job piles up phrase after phrase to say what was said in 3:2:

Let the day perish in which I was born and the night that said, “A man-child is conceived.”

Had he died at birth, he would have gone to the grave, where he would “be lying down and quiet” (3:13). Sheol was where “the wicked cease from troubling” (3:17), for “the small and the great are there, and the slaves are free from their masters” (3:19). But God had hedged Job in so that he had trouble, not peace and quiet (3:26).

b. The debate: Round one (Job 4:1–14:22) 1. Eliphaz: The man who has visions (4:1–5:27). The core of the argument of Job’s

friends was found in the first Eliphaz speech:

Think now, who that was innocent ever perished? Or where were the upright cut off?

As I have seen, those who plow iniquity and sow trouble reap the same.

By the breath of God they perish, and by the blast of his anger they are consumed. (4:7–9)

For his friends, Job’s sickness was clear evidence of his sinfulness. Why else should he be suffering if he had not sinned? Eliphaz’s authority for his opinion was that he had a vision in the night that told him that God did not even trust his angels, much less mortal man, who was “born to trouble as the sparks fly upward” (4:1–5:7).

What Job needed was to seek God and to commit himself to Him. Although God had afflicted Job, with the proper attitude Job could be healed. Then he would have the tradi- tional blessings of peace, prosperity, a large family, and a long life (5:8–27).

Perhaps the most distinctive mark of the argument of Eliphaz was his view of God. God did not trust anyone, even the most devout worshipers. God was just waiting for one of his creatures to do wrong so that He could destroy the wrongdoer.

2. Job to Eliphaz: Round one (6:1–7:21). Ignoring Eliphaz’s charges, Job com- plained that God had become his enemy, filling him with arrows and lining up all sorts of terrors against him. All Job wanted was for God to crush him so that he would be out of his misery (6:1–13).

As for his friends, they were like wet-weather springs that had promised cool water all yearlong but had dried up when the hot days of summer came. He had not asked any of them for money. If they could teach him anything, he was willing to listen. Instead of being honest, they were talking nonsense. They did not know the difference between right and wrong (6:14–30).

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Because life for him was so trying and tedious, he decided that there was no need to be reluctant to say how he felt:

Therefore I will not restrain my mouth; I will speak in the anguish of my spirit; I will complain in the bitterness of my soul. (7:11)

When he sought comfort, he got terror. He had terrifying dreams. He was tired of living under such circumstances. But his God would not even leave him alone to swallow his spittle. God was using him for “target practice” (7:20, TEV). Soon he would die, and then God would not be able to find him because he would be in the grave (7:1–21).

3. Bildad, the traditionalist (8:1–22). Bildad vigorously defended the justice of God. He suggested that Job’s suffering was caused by the sins of Job’s children. All that Job had to do, if he were “pure and upright” (8:6), was to seek God and every- thing would be fine (8:1–7). Anyone who knew the teachings of the fathers (as Job surely did) would realize the truth of what Bildad was saying. The law of God was that the bad men were destroyed and the good men prospered. If Job followed that philosophy, happiness would be his (8:8–22).

4. Job to Bildad: Round one (9:10–10:22). Job would not argue about God’s power and ability to do what He chose. No man could stand up against God and hope to win. Even if a man were innocent, God could take that man’s words and condemn him. Job questioned a basic tenet of orthodox religion, because he had begun to doubt that God really was just:

It is all one; therefore I say, he destroys both the blameless and the wicked. . . .

The earth is given into the hand of the wicked; he covers the eyes of its judges—

if it is not he, who then is it? (9:22, 24)

Job’s days were passing swiftly. With them, his hope of receiving justice was also passing. He and God were in separate realms, and there was no mediator who could bridge the gap between them (9:1–35).

He was tired of living. Ignoring Bildad, he spoke to God. God had made him. Now was God going to destroy him? He was sure that God had a purpose in making him, but now life was so confusing. He could not win for losing. Because he had to live, he just wanted to be left alone so that he could possibly have a little comfort before he died (10:1–22).

5. Zophar, God’s right-hand man (11:1–20). Zophar was tired of Job’s nonsense. If Job would just listen, Zophar would give him God’s point of view about his prob- lems. God knew all things, but Job knew very little. Job just needed to get rid of his sin, and everything would be all right.

6. Job to Zophar: Round one (12:1–14:22). Job was tired of the advice of his friends:

No doubt you are the people, and wisdom will die with you.

But I have understanding as well as you; I am not inferior to you. Who does not know such things as these? (12:2–3)

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Anyone could see that his condition had been brought on by the LORD. Anyone knew that when God decided to do something, there was no way to stop Him (12:1–25). Their defense of God was self-serving. They lied for God, hoping that their sins would be overlooked. But that would not work. They could not deceive God by their actions (13:1–12).

Job therefore would speak his mind even if it cost him his life. He fully expected God to kill him for being so bold, but that would not stop him. He had prepared his case. He only wanted two concessions from God: (1) that God would hear him and (2) that God would not terrify him while he was speaking (13:13–22).

Job then presented his case to God. He wanted to know why God had ignored him and attacked him as though he were an enemy. As one’s time on earth was brief, why was he not allowed to enjoy it? If a tree was cut down, it could sprout again. Not so with man. If man had a hope of life after death, it would make life’s misery bearable. This yearning for life after death represented a reaching out for what later became accepted teaching in Judaism and Christianity. When life was seen to be unjust, the doctrine of the justice of God demanded a future life in which God’s justice could be carried out fully. The only other choice was to declare God unjust, an idea both Judaism and Christianity rejected.

But even as Job reached out for the hope of a future life, he turned back in despair. The situation was hopeless. This life was all there was (13:23–14:22).

c. The debate: Round two (Job 15:1–21:34) 1. Eliphaz speaks again (15:1–35). Job’s failure to agree with his friends led to in-

creasingly sharp words being flung at him. Eliphaz charged him with undermining religion by assuming that he knew more than his friends, the elders, and even God (15:1–14). Eliphaz returned to his theme of a God who did not trust anybody:

God puts no trust even in his holy ones, and the heavens are not clean in his sight;

how much less one who is abominable and corrupt, one who drinks iniquity like water! (15:15–16)

He then proceeded to tell Job what his fate as a wicked man would be. Because such a person had defied God Himself, he would suffer great pain and terror. His wealth would melt away, and destruction would come to him (15:17–35).

2. Job lambasts his friends and questions God (16:1–17:16). Job’s patience with the carping of his friends wore out. They were “miserable comforters” who would sing a different tune if they were in Job’s place. Everybody was against him, especially God. God had worn him out, dried him up, and “gnashed His teeth” at him. He was at ease before, yet God had attacked him, even though he had done violence to no one and had been innocent (16:1–17).

Job 16:18–17:2 represents one of the low places in the book of Job. The afflicted man cried out for the earth not to cover his blood when he died.10 His unburied blood, which carried his life, would cry out to be avenged. This was a plea for justice to be done. God knew that Job deserved justice even though his friends scorned him. But death was closing in on him, and justice had not been done. His friends, so sure of their own wis- dom, really did not have a wise man among them (17:3–14). Added to their insults was his lack of hope of recovery:

Where then is my hope? Who will see my hope?

Will I go down to the bars of Sheol? Shall we descend together into the dust? (17:15–16)

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3. Bildad plays the same record again (18:1–21). Bildad added little to what had been said.

4. Job reaches the bottom (19:1–29). Continuing his rebuke of his friends, Job pointed out that even if he had sinned, it had been a personal fault, not a public one. God had put him “in the wrong” (19:6), stripped him of everything, and loosed the Divine troops against Job. As if that were not enough, even his closest friends and relatives now shunned him, including his wife. He pleaded with his friends:

Have pity on me, have pity on me, O you my friends, for the hand of God has touched me!

Why do you, like God, pursue me, never satisfied with my flesh? (19:21–22)

Job wanted his words to be written in a permanent record. He was confident that one would come who would prove him right. The “redeemer” of whom he spoke (19:25) would be the one who cleared his name. To biblical people, one’s honor and reputation was of supreme importance. Job desired that his name be cleared above all, and somehow he believed God would see that justice was done. At the lowest point, there came a glimmer of hope, another instance of reaching out to the later doctrine of life after death.

5. Zophar knows the answer (20:1–29). Zophar was insulted by what Job had said. He knew how to reply, however, because he was one of those persons who always had an answer even if he did not know the question. He proceeded to lecture Job on the fate of the wicked according to traditional wisdom. No matter how he pros- pered, it would only be temporary. God would wash him away in the flood of Divine wrath.

6. Job replies to Zophar (21:1–34). Job replied that his quarrel was not with them. After all, look what had happened to him. Some of the evil men he knew were pros- pering, while he, a righteous man, was suffering. With this argument, Job went completely counter to traditional teaching. Just as his friends had overstated their case to prove him wrong, Job now overstated the case the other way. His so-called friends were just liars.

d. The debate: Round three (Job 22:1–27:23). The third cycle of speeches is incomplete. Perhaps the text was scrambled over the years. In part of one speech assigned to Job, he sounds like Zophar.

1. Eliphaz gets nasty (22:1–30). Eliphaz began to level wild charges against Job. According to him, there was no end to Job’s sins. He had oppressed his brothers, starved the hungry, and oppressed widows and orphans. His only hope lay in turn- ing to God before it was too late. He could only be delivered if his hands were clean.

2. Job searches for God (23:1–24:25). Ignoring Eliphaz’s charges, Job complained of his inability to find God. He believed God would give him a fair hearing if he could only get a chance to lay his case before God. But no matter how much Job sought Him, God could not be found. The terrifying thing, however, was that God knew where Job was. He could do to Job whatever He chose, and no one could stop Him (23:1–17).

Job 24:18–25 sounds more like the arguments of Zophar than of Job, because it argued that the wicked were punished, in contrast to the arguments just stated, that sinners escaped their just punishment.

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3. Bildad contrasts God and humanity (25:1–6). In a short speech, Bildad spoke of God’s rule over “a mortal, who is a maggot, and a human being, who is a worm!” (25:6).

4. Job replies to Bildad (26:1–4). In an abbreviated reply, Job lambasted Bildad for his arrogant attitude toward him.

5. The continuation of Bildad’s speech on God and humanity (26:5–14). This sec- tion was part of Bildad’s third speech, as it continued to speak of God’s rule over the universe. Its theme was God’s mastery of the created order of things.

6. Job ends his part of the debate (27:1–12). To the end, Job defended his point of view, yielding nothing to his friends. He wished that those who opposed him would get the punishment they deserved.

7. Zophar again? (27:13–23). In another speech that sounded like Zophar’s bom- bastic style, the debate was ended. He spoke as God’s supposed authority on the fate of the wicked, which he described in loving detail.

e. The wisdom poem (Job 28:1–18). This poem, which separates the speech cycles from Job’s final statement of his innocence, would fit well into the book of Proverbs. Its theme is the value of wisdom. Men dug deep into the earth for minerals and precious metals (28:1–11). Wisdom, however, could not be found in the depths of the earth, nor could it be bought with humankind’s most precious material possessions. Nothing could com- pare with it in value. Only God knew where wisdom could be found. It was present in Creation; its worth had been tested and proven. God declared:

Truly the fear of the LORD, that is wisdom and to depart from evil is understanding. (28:28)

f. Job presents his case (Job 29:1–31:40). Job’s final argument fell into three divisions: (1) his past prosperity, (2) his present problems, and (3) his code of conduct.

Looking back over his life, Job yearned for the good days he had enjoyed. His family had surrounded him, his flocks had prospered, and he had had an honored place in the community (29:1–10). He had been known in the community for his kindness and generosity toward the poor and oppressed. He had been praised by those around him. They had come to him for advice because he was a leader among those who knew him (29:11–25).

But things had changed. He was ridiculed by the people who formed the very lowest levels of society, people whom once he would not have trusted to care for his flocks. Now they spat on him, made him the butt of their ridicule, and harassed him at every turn. He was in pain—both in body and in spirit—for God had cast him down into the dirt (30:1–19).

Turning to God, Job charged God with treating him cruelly and refusing to listen to Job’s pleas. Job’s skin had turned black and fallen away. He mourned his fate (30:20–31).

As a climax to his speeches, Job set forth his code of conduct. It has been described as “the code of an Old Testament gentleman.”11 Except for the first, each common breach of conduct in society was introduced by the formula “If I have . . .” followed by a sort of self-curse: “Let {me} . . .” with the appropriate punishment. (1) He had not looked on a virgin with lust in his heart (31:1–4). (2) He had not lied, nor had he cov- eted the possessions of others (31:5–8). (3) He had not committed adultery (31:9–12). (4) He had been sensitive to the needs and rights of his servants (31:13–15). (5) He had seen to the needs of the less fortunate (31:16–23). (6) He had not put his trust in wealth, nor had he worshiped the sun or the moon (31:24–28). (7) He had not gloated over

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another man’s ruin, failed to be kind to strangers, or sinned any secret sins (31:29–34). If an indictment against him were written down, he would carry it to God as a prince wore a crown (31:35–37). Finally, he had taken care of his land (31:38–40).

g. The Elihu speeches (32:1–37:24). A new character appears, Elihu by name, who makes four speeches. They reveal a brash young man who possesses more wind than wisdom. The speeches are ignored, both by the previous characters in the drama and by the LORD, who addresses Job following the Elihu speeches. This has led to suggestions that (1) these speeches are not a part of the original arguments and (2) Elihu is not a real person, but a disguise “adopted by Satan to press his case for the last time.”12 In any case, he plows ahead with such an outpouring of verbiage that Job and his friends could not an- swer even if they had wished to do so. Perhaps the passage that captures the flavor of Elihu’s speech better than any other is 36:1–4, in which he concluded: