In 1966, lillian gilbreth received the ________ from the american society of civil engineers.

WORK IN THE 21ST CENTURY

FRANK J. LANDY Late Professor Emeritus, Penn State University

JEFFREY M. CONTE San Diego State University

AN INTRODUCTION TO INDUSTRIAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGYAA

FOURTH EDITION

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A Sampling of Websites Related to I-O Psychology and the Workplace

Society for induStrial and organizational PSychology (SioP): Website for SIOP, Division 14 of the American Psychological Association.

http://www.siop.org/

Society for human reSource management (Shrm): SHRM is the world’s largest association devoted to human resource management.

http://www.shrm.org

o*net: occuPational information network: The O*NET database includes information on knowledge, skills, abilities, work activities, and interests associated with many different occupations.

http://online.onetcenter.org/

emPloyment StatiSticS homePage: Website that provides material on performance appraisal and 360 feedback.

http://www.hr-software.net/EmploymentStatistics

human-reSourceS guide: Website that provides a great deal of information on selection, interviewing, and other staffing techniques.

http://www.hr-guide.com/

equal emPloyment oPPortunity commiSSion: Website that provides information on federal laws prohibiting employment discrimination and updates on recent employment discrimination cases.

http://www.eeoc.gov

american Society for training and develoPment (aStd): Society focused on the latest developments in training and development.

http://www.astd.org

national inStitute for occuPational Safety and health (nioSh): NIOSH is the Federal agency responsible for conducting research and making recommendations for the prevention of work-related disease and injury.

http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/homepage.html

american management aSSociation (ama): AMA is the world’s leading membership-based management development and training organization.

http://www.amanet.org/index.htm

the dilbert zone: Provides a less serious view on work.

http://www.unitedmedia.com/comics/dilbert/

Social Media Websites Related to I-O Psychology

SioP twitter account:

http://twitter.com/sioptweets

SioP facebook Page:

http://www.facebook.com/siop.org

SioP exchange/blog & google newS feed:

http://siopexchange.typepad.com

workPlace PSychology blog by Steve nguyen:

http://workplacepsychology.net/

blog on technology, education, & training by dr. richard landerS:

http://neoacademic.com/

i-o at work: webSite/blog on Science behind hr:

http://www.ioatwork.com/

Work in the 21st Century

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Dedicated to the memory of Frank J. Landy and his many contributions to the science, practice, and teaching of industrial and organizational psychology

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WORK IN THE 21ST CENTURY

FRANK J. LANDY Late Professor Emeritus, Penn State University

JEFFREY M. CONTE San Diego State University

AN INTRODUCTION TO INDUSTRIAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGYAA

FOURTH EDITION

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Frank J. Landy (1942–2010) was Professor Emeritus of Industrial Psychology at Penn State University, where he taught for 26 years. In addition to serving at Penn State, he was a visiting lecturer or researcher at Stanford University, the University of California at Berkeley, Stockholm University, Gothenburg University, Cluj-Napoca University (Romania), Griffeths University (Australia), and Ljubljana University (Slovenia). He received his PhD in Industrial and Organizational Psychology from Bowling Green State University. Throughout the course of his academic career, Frank published over 70 jour- nal articles, more than 20 book chapters, and 15 books. He served as president of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology and was involved in the development of the Civil Rights Act of 1991, the Age Discrimination in Employment Act, and the Americans with Disabilities Act. In addition to his academic work, Frank had a successful consulting career, working with organizations in the United States and abroad. He testified as an expert witness in numerous state and federal employment discrimination cases that had signifi- cant implications for the organizations involved. In his private life, Frank was a true 21st- century Renaissance man. He traveled widely and lived abroad when possible. He spoke foreign languages and was highly interested in global events. Frank was an avid runner, completing over 60 marathons. He loved to fly fish and ski. Frank played and collected guitars and was a great lover of music. And when the mood struck him, he acted in com- munity theater. Of all of his pursuits, writing brought him the most enjoyment.

Jeffrey M. Conte is an Associate Professor in the Department of Psychology at San Diego State University. He received his BA in Psychology and Biology from the University of Virginia and his PhD in Industrial and Organizational Psychology from Penn State University. He teaches approximately 800 students each year in I-O psychology and per- sonality psychology courses. He has conducted research on a variety of topics, including personnel selection, personality predictors of job performance, time management, poly- chronicity and multitasking, the measurement of emotional intelligence, and the factors associated with health and stress in the workplace. Jeff also has interests in cross-cultural research and has conducted research in organizations across the United States as well as in Canada and France. Jeff’s research has been funded by the National Institute of Mental Health and the U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences. His research has been published in a variety of I-O psychology and management journals, includ- ing the Journal of Applied Psychology, Academy of Management Review, Journal of Organizational Behavior, Human Performance, Journal of Business and Psychology, Personality and Individual Differences, Journal of Managerial Psychology, and Journal of Applied Social Psychology. Jeff has worked with a variety of organizations, dealing with such issues as human resource selection, test construction/validation, work attitudes, performance appraisal, job-related stress, compensation systems, downsizing, and organizational fac- tors related to safety. He has also performed job analyses, conducted statistical analyses, and contributed to written briefs and reports in a variety of employment discrimination court cases. His research and practice have included a wide variety of occupations, includ- ing lawyers, engineers, managers, firefighters, police officers, and public transportation drivers. In his spare time, Jeff enjoys running, soccer, tennis, and other outdoor sports. Jeff lives in San Diego with his wife, Michelle, and daughters, Caroline and Colleen.

About the Authors

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Contents vi

Brief Contents

Preface xx

PART 1 FUNDAMENTALS

1 What Is Industrial and Organizational Psychology? 3 2 Methods and Statistics in I-O Psychology 49

PART 2 INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY

3 Individual Differences and Assessment 87 4 Job Analysis and Performance 155 5 Performance Measurement 197 6 Staffing Decisions 241 7 Training and Development 275

PART 3 ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

8 The Motivation to Work 317 9 Attitudes, Emotions, and Work 355

10 Stress and Worker Well-Being 395 11 Fairness and Diversity in the Workplace 441 12 Leadership 473 13 Teams in Organizations 517 14 The Organization of Work Behavior 547

Glossary G-1 References R-1 Name Index I-1 Subject Index I-16

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Preface xx

PART 1 FUNDAMENTALS

1 What Is Industrial and Organizational Psychology? 3

Module 1.1 The Importance of I-O Psychology 4 The Importance of Work in People’s Lives 4

The Concept of “Good Work” 5 Authenticity: A Trend of Interest to I-O Psychologists 7

How Does I-O Psychology Contribute to Society? 7 What Is I-O Psychology? 7 Evidence-Based I-O Psychology 11 SIOP as a Resource 12

How This Course Can Help You 12 The Importance of Understanding the Younger Worker 14

Module 1.2 The Past, Present, and Future of I-O Psychology 17 The Past: A Brief History of I-O Psychology 17

1876–1930 18 1930–1964 20

The Present: The Demographics of I-O Psychologists 23 Pathways to a Career in I-O Psychology: A Curious Mixture 24 What We Call Ourselves 25

The Future: The Challenges to I-O Psychology in the 21st Century 25 A Personal View of the Future: Preparing for a Career in

I-O Psychology 26 Education and Training 26 Getting into a Graduate Program 27

Module 1.3 Multicultural and Cross-Cultural Issues in I-O Psychology 29 The Multicultural Nature of Life in the 21st Century 29

Cross-National Issues in the Workplace 31 Why Should Multiculturalism Be Important to You? 33 Why Is Multiculturalism Important for I-O Psychology? 33

Some Theories of Cultural Influence 35 Hofstede’s Theory 35 Some Thoughts on Theories of Cultural Influence 39

Module 1.4 The Organization of This Book 41 Themes 41 Parts 42

vii

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Resources 42 Case Study 1.1 45

2 Methods and Statistics in I-O Psychology 49

Module 2.1 Science 50 What Is Science? 50 The Role of Science in Society 51 Why Do I-O Psychologists Engage in Research? 52

Module 2.2 Research 54 Research Design 54 Methods of Data Collection 56

Qualitative and Quantitative Research 56 The Importance of Context in Interpreting Research 57

Generalizability and Control in Research 58 Generalizability 58

Case Study 2.1 59 Control 60

Ethical Behavior in I-O Psychology 60

Module 2.3 Data Analysis 63 Descriptive and Inferential Statistics 63

Descriptive Statistics 63 Inferential Statistics 65 Statistical Significance 65 The Concept of Statistical Power 66

Correlation and Regression 66 The Concept of Correlation 67 The Correlation Coefficient 67 Multiple Correlation 69

Correlation and Causation 69 Meta-Analysis 71 Micro-, Macro-, and Meso-Research 72

Module 2.4 Interpretation 74 Reliability 74

Test–Retest Reliability 75 Equivalent Forms Reliability 75 Internal Consistency 76 Inter-Rater Reliability 76

Validity 77 Criterion-Related Validity 78 Content-Related Validity 80 Construct-Related Validity 81

Validity and the Law: A Mixed Blessing 83

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Contents ix

PART 2 INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY

3 Individual Differences and Assessment 87

Module 3.1 An Introduction to Individual Differences 88 Some Background 88 Differential Psychology, Psychometrics, and I-O Psychology 89 Identifying Individual Differences 90 Varieties of Individual Differences 91

Module 3.2 Human Attributes 93 ABILITIES 93 Cognitive Abilities 93

Intelligence as “g” 93 Is “g” Important at Work? 94 Is “g” as Important in Other Countries as It Is in the United States? 95 Can Your Level of “g” Change? 95 Specific Cognitive Abilities beyond “g” 96

Physical, Sensory, and Psychomotor Abilities 98 Physical Abilities 98 Sensory Abilities 99 Psychomotor Abilities 100

Personality and Work Behavior 101 The Big Five and Other Models of Personality 101

Case Study 3.1 102 Implications of Broad Personality Models 104

ADDITIONAL ATTRIBUTES 106 Skills 106 Knowledge 106 Competencies 108 Emotional Intelligence 108

Module 3.3 Foundations of Assessment 111 The Past and the Present of Testing 111 What Is a Test? 113

What Is the Meaning of a Test Score? 113 What Is a Test Battery? 114 Where to Find Tests 115

Administrative Test Categories 115 Speed versus Power Tests 115 Group versus Individual Tests 116 Paper-and-Pencil versus Performance Tests 116

Testing and Culture 117 International Assessment Practices 118

Module 3.4 Assessment Procedures 120 Assessment Content versus Process 120 Assessment Procedures: Content 120

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Cognitive Ability Tests 120 Knowledge Tests 123

Tests of Physical Abilities 123 Psychomotor Abilities 124

Personality 125 Practical Issues Associated with Personality Measures 125 Integrity Testing 129 Emotional Intelligence 130

Individual Assessment 131 Interviews 132

Interview Content 132 Interview Process 134

Assessment Centers 135 Work Samples and Situational Tests 138

Work Sample Tests 138 Situational Judgment Tests 139

Module 3.5 Special Topics in Assessment 143 Incremental Validity 143 Biographical Data 144 Grades and Letters of Recommendation 146

Minimum Qualifications 146 Controversial Assessment Practices: Graphology and

the Polygraph 147 Drug and Alcohol Testing 148 Computer-Based and Internet Assessment 149

Unproctored Internet Testing 151 Who Is a Candidate? 151 Computer Adaptive Testing 152

4 Job Analysis and Performance 155

Module 4.1 A Basic Model of Performance 156 Campbell’s Model of Job Performance 156

Typical versus Maximum Performance 160 Criterion Deficiency and Contamination 161

Module 4.2 Extensions of the Basic Performance Model 163 Task Performance versus Organizational Citizenship Behavior 163

Causes and Correlates of OCB 165 The Dark Side of Performance: Counterproductive Work Behaviors 166

Causes of and Treatments for CWB 168 OCB and CWB: Two Ends of the Same Continuum? 170 Adaptive Performance 170 A Brief Recap 172 A Comprehensive Framework for Considering Performance:

The “Great Eight” 173 The Case of Expert Performance 174

Types of Performance Measures 174

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Module 4.3 Job Analysis: Fundamental Properties and Practices 176 The Uses of Job Analysis Information 176 Types of Job Analysis 179 How Job Analysis Is Done 181

Module 4.4 Job Analysis: Newer Developments 183 Electronic Performance Monitoring as Part of a Job Analysis 183 Cognitive Task Analysis 184 Personality-Based Job Analysis 185 A Summary of the Job Analysis Process 187 Computer-Based Job Analysis 187 O*NET 187 Competency Modeling 189

Module 4.5 Job Evaluation and the Law 192 Job Evaluation 192 The Concept of Comparable Worth 193 Job Analysis and Employment Litigation 194

5 Performance Measurement 197

Module 5.1 Basic Concepts in Performance Measurement 198 Uses for Performance Information 198

Relationships among Performance Measures 199 Hands-On Performance Measures 199 Electronic Performance Monitoring 200 Performance Management 203

Module 5.2 Performance Rating—Substance 205 Close-Up on a Rating System 205 Theories of Performance Rating 207 Focus on Performance Ratings 207

Overall Performance Ratings 207 Trait Ratings 208 Task-Based Ratings 209 Critical Incidents Methods 209 OCB and Adaptive Performance Ratings 210 Structural Characteristics of a Performance Rating Scale 210

Rating Formats 212 Graphic Rating Scales 212 Checklists 212 Behavioral Rating 213

Employee Comparison Methods 215 A New Variation on the Paired Comparison Method: CARS 216 Concluding Thoughts on Performance Rating Formats 216

Module 5.3 Performance Rating—Process 219 Rating Sources 219

Supervisors 219

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Peers 221 Self-Ratings 221 Subordinate Ratings 221 Customer and Supplier Ratings 222 360-Degree Systems 222

Rating Distortions 222 Central Tendency Error 223 Leniency/Severity Error 223 Halo Error 223

Rater Training 224 Administrative Training 224 Psychometric Training 224 Frame-of-Reference Training 224

The Reliability and Validity of Ratings 225 Reliability 225 Validity 225

Module 5.4 The Social and Legal Context of Performance Evaluation 227 The Motivation to Rate 227 Goal Conflict 229 Performance Feedback 230

“Destructive” Criticism 230 360-Degree Feedback 231

Performance Evaluation and Culture 233 Performance Evaluation and the Law 234

Performance Evaluation and Protected Groups 237

6 Staffing Decisions 241

Module 6.1 Conceptual Issues in Staffing 242 An Introduction to the Staffing Process 242 The Impact of Staffing Practices on Firm Performance 243 Stakeholders in the Staffing Process 245

Line Managers 245 Co-Workers 245 Applicants 246

Staffing from the International Perspective 247

Module 6.2 Evaluation of Staffing Outcomes 249 Validity 249

Selection Ratios 250 Prediction Errors and Cut Scores 251 Establishing Cut Scores 252

Utility 253 Fairness 254

Module 6.3 Practical Issues in Staffing 256 A Staffing Model 256

Comprehensive Selection Systems 256 Compensatory Selection Systems 256

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Combining Information 257 Statistical versus Clinical Decision Making 257 The Hurdle System of Combining Scores 258 Combining Scores by Regression (The Compensatory Approach) 259 Score Banding 260 Subgroup Norming 261

Deselection 261 Number of Decisions to Be Made 262

Large Staffing Projects 262 Small Staffing Projects 263

21st-Century Staffing 264

Module 6.4 Legal Issues in Staffing Decisions 267 Charges of Employment Discrimination 267 Employment Discrimination Outside of the United States 268 Theories of Discrimination 269

Intentional Discrimination or Adverse Treatment 269 Unintentional Discrimination or Adverse Impact 269

Case Study 6.1 271

7 Training and Development 275

Module 7.1 Foundations of Training and Learning 276 Training, Learning, and Performance 277 Training Needs Analysis 278 The Learning Process in Training 281

Trainee Characteristics 281 Learning and Motivational Theories Applied to Training 283 Principles of Learning 285

Learning Organizations 287

Module 7.2 Content and Methods of Training 290 Training Methods 290

On-Site Training Methods 290 Off-Site Training Methods 292 Distance Learning and Computer-Based Training 293

Training “Critical Thinking” 294 Transfer of Training 295

Module 7.3 Evaluating Training Programs 298 Training Evaluation 298 Training Criteria 299 Utility Analysis 300 Training Evaluation Designs 300 Equal Employment Opportunity Issues in Training 302

Module 7.4 Specialized Training Programs 304 Management and Leadership Development 304

Assessment Centers 304 360-Degree Feedback 305

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Contents xiv

Coaching 306 Informal Training 307

Sexual Harassment Awareness Training 308 Ethics Training 309 Cross-Cultural Training 310

PART 3 ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

8 The Motivation to Work 317

Module 8.1 An Introduction to Motivation 318 The Central Position of Motivation in Psychology 318 A Brief History of Motivation Theory in I-O Psychology 319 Metaphors for Motivation 320

Person as Machine 320 Person as Scientist 321

The Meaning and Importance of Motivation in the Workplace 322 Motivation and Performance 322 Motivation and Work–Life Balance 323 Motivation and Personality 324

Module 8.2 Motivational Theories—Classic Approaches 326 Person-as-Machine Theories 326

An Internal Mechanical Theory: Maslow’s Need Theory 326 An External Mechanical Theory: Reinforcement Theory 328

Person-as-Scientist Theories 329 Vroom’s VIE Theory 330 Equity Theory 331

Module 8.3 Modern Approaches to Work Motivation 334 Person-as-Intentional Approaches 334

Goal-Setting Theory 334 Control Theories and the Concept of Self-Regulation 338

The Concept of Self-Efficacy in Modern Motivation Theory 339 Action Theory 340 Common Themes in Modern Approaches 341

A New Motivational Topic: The Entrepreneur 342

Module 8.4 Practical Issues in Motivation 346 Can Motivation Be Measured? 346 Cross-Cultural Issues in Motivation 347 Generational Differences and Work Motivation 349 Motivational Interventions 351

Contingent Rewards 351 Job Enrichment 352 ProMES 353

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9 Attitudes, Emotions, and Work 355

Module 9.1 Work Attitudes 356 The Experience of Emotion at Work 356 Job Satisfaction: Some History 357

The Early Period of Job Satisfaction Research 357 Antecedents and Consequences of Job Satisfaction 359

The Measurement of Job Satisfaction 361 Overall versus Facet Satisfaction 363 Satisfaction Questionnaires 363

The Concept of Commitment 365 Forms of Commitment 365

Organizational Identification 367 Employee Engagement 370

Module 9.2 Moods, Emotions, Attitudes, and Behavior 372 Is Everybody Happy? Does It Matter If They Are? 372 The Concept of “Resigned” Work Satisfaction 372 Satisfaction versus Mood versus Emotion 374

Dispositions and Affectivity 376 The Time Course of Emotional Experience 377 Genetics and Job Satisfaction 379 The Concept of Core Self-Evaluations 379

Withdrawal Behaviors 382

Module 9.3 Special Topics Related to Attitudes and Emotions 384 Job Loss 384 Telecommuting 386 Work–Family Balance 388 Psychological Contracts 390 Work-Related Attitudes and Emotions from the Cross-

Cultural Perspective 391

10 Stress and Worker Well-Being 395

Module 10.1 The Problem of Stress 396 Studying Workplace Stress 396 What Is a Stressor? 398 Common Stressors at Work 399

Physical/Task Stressors 399 Psychological Stressors 400

Consequences of Stress 404 Behavioral Consequences of Stress 404 Psychological Consequences of Stress 405 Physiological Consequences of Stress 407

Work Schedules 408 Shift Work 408 Flexible and Compressed Workweek Schedules 409

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Module 10.2 Theories of Stress 413 Demand–Control Model 413 Person–Environment Fit Model 414 Individual Differences in Resistance to Stress 415

The Type A Behavior Pattern 416

Module 10.3 Reducing and Managing Stress 421 Primary Prevention Strategies 422

Work and Job Design 422 Cognitive Restructuring 423

Secondary Prevention Strategies 423 Stress Management Training 424 Relaxation and Biofeedback Techniques 424 Social Support 425

Tertiary Prevention Strategies 426 Summary of Stress Intervention Strategies 426 Future Work Trends and Challenges to Stress and

Stress Management 427

Module 10.4 Violence at Work 429 Stress and Workplace Violence 430 Levels of Violence 431 The Experiential Sequence of Violence 432 The “Typical” Violent Worker 432 Theories of Workplace Violence 433

Frustration–Aggression Hypothesis 433 The “Justice” Hypothesis 434

A Special Type of Violence: Bullying 436 What Can We Conclude about Workplace Violence? 439

11 Fairness and Diversity in the Workplace 441

Module 11.1 Fairness 442 The Concept of Justice 442 Justice, Fairness, and Trust 444 Approaches to Organizational Justice 445

Distributive Justice 446 Procedural Justice 447 Interactional Justice 449 Deontic Justice 451 Justice versus Injustice 451

Module 11.2 The Practical Implications of Justice Perceptions 453 Performance Evaluation 454 Applicant Perceptions of Selection Procedures 455

A Special Case of Applicant Reactions: Stereotype Threat 457

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The Special Case of Affirmative Action 459 Culture and Affirmative Action Programs 462

Module 11.3 Diversity 464 What Does Diversity Mean? 464 The Dynamics of Diversity 465

Group and Multicultural Diversity 467 Managing Diversity from the Organizational Perspective 468 Leadership and Diversity 471

12 Leadership 473

Module 12.1 The Concept of Leadership 474 Some Conceptual Distinctions 474

Leader Emergence versus Leadership Effectiveness 475 Leader Emergence 475

The Problem of Defining Leadership Outcomes 476 Negative Leadership Outcomes: The Destructive Leader 477

Leader versus Manager or Supervisor 478 The Blending of Managerial and Leadership Roles 479

Leader Development versus Leadership Development 481 The Motivation to Lead 482

Module 12.2 Traditional Theories of Leadership 485 The “Great Man” Theories 485 The Trait Approach 486 The Power Approach to Leadership 486 The Behavioral Approach 487

The Ohio State University Studies 487 The University of Michigan Studies 489

The Contingency Approach 490 The Consequences of Participation: The Vroom–Yetton Model 491

Module 12.3 New Approaches to Leadership 494 Leader–Member Exchange (LMX) 494 Transformational Leadership 496 Authentic Leadership 499 The Charismatic Leader 500

Module 12.4 Emerging Topics and Challenges in Leadership Research 503 Leadership in a Changing Workplace 503 Male and Female Leaders: Are They Different? 505

The Demographics of Leadership 505 The Leadership Styles of Men and Women 507

Personality and Leadership 509

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Cross-Cultural Studies of Leadership 511 Leadership in a Diverse Environment 514 Guidelines for Effective Leadership 515

13 Teams in Organizations 517

Module 13.1 Types of Teams 518 Groups and Teams: Definitions 519 Types of Teams 519

Quality Circles 520 Project Teams 521 Production Teams 521 Virtual Teams 523

Module 13.2 Input-Process-Output Model of Team Effectiveness 527 Team Inputs 528

Organizational Context 528 Team Task 528 Team Composition 528 Team Diversity 531

Team Processes 532 Norms 532 Communication and Coordination 533 Cohesion 533 Decision Making 535

Team Outputs 536

Module 13.3 Special Issues in Teams 539 Team Appraisal and Feedback 539

ProMES 540 Team Roles 541 Team Development 542 Team Training 544 Cultural Issues in Teams 545

14 The Organization of Work Behavior 547

Module 14.1 The Conceptual and Theoretical Foundations of Organizations 548 Organizations and People 548 Organization as Integration 551 Theories of Organization 552

Classic Organizational Theory 552 Human Relations Theory 554 Contingency Theories 555 Systems Theory 559 Conclusions about Theories of Organization 561

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Module 14.2 Some Social Dynamics of Organizations 563 Climate and Culture 563

A Brief History of Climate and Culture 564 Organizational Climate and Culture from the

Multicultural Perspective 565 When Cultures Clash 566

An Application of Culture and Climate: Safety 567 Socialization and the Concept of Person–Organization (P–O) and

Person–Job (P–J) Fit 570 Organizational Socialization 570 Positive Consequences of Socialization 573 Socialization and National Culture 574 Models of Socialization and Person–Organization Fit 575

Module 14.3 Organizational Development and Change 580 Organizational Change 580

Episodic Change 581 Continuous Change 582 Resistance to Change 584

Examples of Large-Scale Organizational Change Initiatives 585 Total Quality Management (TQM) 585 Six Sigma Systems 586 Lean Production Manufacturing 587

Emerging Commonalities among Organizational Interventions 588

Glossary G-1 References R-1 Name Index I-1 Subject Index I-16

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In the first three editions of this book, we pursued the premise that the world of work in the 21st century was very different from what it had been as recently as 15 years earlier. That premise is even more relevant today and worth repeating. Today’s workplace is tech- nological and multicultural. Work is often accomplished by teams rather than by single individuals. In any given company or department, there is greater diversity in terms of demographic characteristics, interests, and styles than in past decades. Although mental and physical abilities remain important attributes for predicting job success, other attributes such as personality, interpersonal skills, and emotional intelligence are receiv- ing increased attention. A satisfying life is increasingly defined as striking a balance between work and non-work. In addition, the psychological stability of work may be at an all-time low. Mergers, acquisitions, downsizing, outsourcing, the challenges to finan- cial and housing markets, and rapidly changing technologies have all made the idea of lifelong employment at one company, or even in one occupation, an elusive dream. This text ties together all of these themes in a way that explores the rich and intriguing nature of the modern workplace.

An important thing to keep in mind in studying I-O psychology is that work is com- plex and cannot be reduced to a set of equations or principles. In the real world, all of the components of work, the work environment, and, most importantly, the people who populate the workplace interact in complicated ways. For example, in considering orga- nizational and individual effectiveness, we cannot think of hiring strategies in a vacuum. Hiring is preceded by recruiting and screening. It is followed by training and socializa- tion. Once the individual joins the organization, there are issues of satisfaction, perfor- mance, rewards, and motivation. The way the organization is designed, both psychologically and physically, can limit or enhance productive efforts and worker emo- tions. This textbook necessarily treats these topics one at a time, but no topic covered in the text can really stand alone. In the real world, the topics are related, and we will show these relationships in the text.

Objectives for the Fourth Edition

The first three editions of this text were warmly received by both instructors and students, not only in the United States but internationally as well. The objectives for this fourth edi- tion are to retain the accessibility of the first three editions, incorporate the latest research findings, and provide organizational applications of the principles of I-O psychology.

Accessibility

A continuing goal of this book is to package information in a way that makes it accessi- ble to students and instructors. The fourth edition retains the 14-chapter format, which we believe provides a comfortable way to present the substance of I-O psychology. We have also retained the four-color design, which brings I-O psychology to life, especially with the use of color photographs. The art program also engages students with New Yorker and Dilbert cartoons, carefully chosen to emphasize the point at hand. Although recent I-O research provides a wealth of new material to explore, the book’s length has been reduced in this fourth edition by omitting, or streamlining the discussion of, less current material.

Preface

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Preface xxi

Cutting Edge Topics and Research

As has been the custom in earlier editions, this edition provides the most important citations for topics rather than all relevant citations. When the first edition was published, it had the most current coverage of the field of I-O in any available text. That remained true of the sec- ond and third editions, and it is now true of the fourth edition as well. This edition presents many new topics, including social networking sites (e.g., Facebook) and the workplace, I-O psychologists’ role in sustainable and environmentally conscious organizations, employee engage- ment, genetics and entrepreneurship, SIOP’s new status as a consultative nongovernmental organization (NGO) to the United Nations, and evidence-based I-O psychology. There is expanded coverage of many topics, including international and cross-cultural issues, compe- tency modeling, core self-evaluations, legal issues, entrepreneurial motivation, authentic leadership, personality-based job analysis, emotional intelligence, bullying, leader stereotypes, emotional labor, procedural justice in performance evaluations, and telecommuting.

Applying I-O Psychology Principles

Industrial-organizational psychology is a dynamic field with many applications to real-life experiences. Throughout the text, you will find applications of I-O principles ranging from popular television shows like The Apprentice to timely examples like the Wal-Mart gen- der discrimination lawsuit and the growing use of technology in training and in teams.

Structure of the Book: Parts, Chapters, and Modules

Because the field of industrial and organizational psychology is so broad, the text is bro- ken into three parts. Part I, “Fundamentals,” addresses the basics of the field by examin- ing what I-O psychologists do and where they do it, as well as the methods we use to accomplish research and application. Part II, “Industrial Psychology,” considers topics in personnel psychology such as individual differences, assessment, job performance, job anal- ysis, performance evaluation, staffing, and training. Part III, “Organizational Psychology,” examines organizational topics such as motivation, work attitudes, stress and workplace health, fairness, leadership, work teams, and organizational design.

Within each chapter, concepts and topics have been further divided into stand-alone modules, which offer a great deal of flexibility for learning and instruction. A module con- sists of material that is relatively homogeneous within a particular chapter. As examples, one module might deal with the historical development of a concept, the second with mod- ern approaches, the third with applications of the concept, and the fourth with related concepts. Some chapters have as few as three modules, whereas others have four or five modules, depending on how much material is covered by the chapter. Each module ends with a summary of the main points and a list of glossary terms.

Every module can be considered valuable in one way or another. Nevertheless, covering every module may not be compatible with every course syllabus. Thus, each module has been designed as a stand-alone unit, permitting the instructor to cover or skip any particular mod- ule. As an example, an instructor might cover the first three modules in a chapter but choose to skip the final module on “Specialized Topics.” This modular approach gives instructors max- imum flexibility. In addition to covering or deleting a module within a chapter, or changing the order of modules within a chapter, an instructor can assign modules across chapters, in essence creating a new “chapter.” For example, an instructor might assign a module on statis- tics from Chapter 2, a module on job analysis from Chapter 4, and a module on assessment from Chapter 3 to create a “validity” chapter. Although we believe that the modules within a chapter complement one another, instructors might prefer a different order of modules.

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Preface xxii

As you read through the book, you will notice that a given topic may appear in sev- eral different chapters. That is not a mistake or oversight. The fact is that some topics have relevance in many different chapters, and to mention them only once presents too simplistic a view of work dynamics. As an example, competencies are higher-order forms of ability, personality, interests, and attitudes. Competency modeling is an enhanced form of job analysis. Competencies can be learned, and there are both leader competencies and team competencies. This means that you will see the term “competency” in several chap- ters. Even though you will see the term often, it will be treated from a different perspective each time it appears. You will see similar treatments of issues related to work/family bal- ance. This balance is important in the attitudes that an individual holds toward work and organizations. Balance is also important in addressing work stress and work design. So “balance” will appear in multiple chapters. We hope that this method of treatment provides a richer understanding of the effects of work on people and people on work.

Supplements for Students and Instructors

Work in the 21st Century offers several supplements to enhance learning processes and teach- ing activities. The supplements are available on the text’s website: www.wiley.com/ college/landy

Website for Instructors

The instructor side of the Work in the 21st Century website contains all the material instruc- tors need for course design, and it is a convenient way to access the Instructor’s Manual, Test Bank, PowerPoint slides, Internet resources for each chapter, and supplementary material.

Instructor’s Manual

The Instructor’s Manual includes learning objectives, chapter outlines, glossary terms, and suggestions for class discussions and activities.

PowerPoint Slides

This package of 30–50 slides per chapter includes lecture outlines in addition to figures and tables from the text. The slides can be used as is or customized to match your course design and goals.

Test Bank

This array of 30–50 multiple-choice items per chapter covers all the important concepts with factual and applied questions as well as questions of a more conceptual nature to facilitate critical thinking.

Website for Students

The student side of the Work in the 21st Century website at www.wiley.com/college/landy contains the Student Study Guide and Workbook as well as links to a variety of Internet resources for further exploration.

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Preface xxiii

Student Study Guide and Workbook

Available on the student side of the website, this study guide is a valuable tool for maxi- mizing students’ understanding of material and preparation for exams. The guide was devel- oped in close conjunction with the textbook and facilitates the instructor’s course design by providing students with the same learning objectives, chapter outlines, and glossary terms as the Instructor’s Manual. In addition, it includes practice exam questions and exercises for each chapter. The workbook exercises, based on organizational issues that I-O psy- chologists are often asked to study and resolve, promote active learning, critical thinking, and practical applications of the ideas and concepts discussed in class and in the textbook.

Acknowledgments

Throughout our work on all four editions of this book, many colleagues have been kind enough to send us their work in particular areas or to provide helpful suggestions for particular topics. These colleagues include Patti Ambrose, Bruce Avolio, Zeynep Aycan, Talya Bauer, Laura Borgogni, Wally Borman, André Büssing, Dan Cable, Paula Caligiuri, Gian Vittorio Caprara, Gary Carter, Wayne Cascio, Diane Catanzaro, Donna Chrobot-Mason, Jan Cleveland, Cary Cooper, Filip de Fruyt, Peter Dorfman, Fritz Drasgow, Dov Eden, Miriam Erez, Jim Farr, Harold Goldstein, Irv Goldstein, Randy Gordon, Mark Griffin, Art Gutman, Richard Hackman, Lee Hakel, Michael Harris, Dave Harrison, Chris Hartel, Beryl Hesketh, Scott Highhouse, David Hofmann, Geert Hofstede, Ann Howard, Susan Jackson, Dick Jeanneret, Ruth Kanfer, Jerry Kehoe, Rich Klimoski, Laura Koppes, Steve Kozlowski, Filip Lievens, David Lubinski, Dianne Maranto, John Mathieu, Jack Mayer, Terry Mitchell, Susan Mohammed, David Morris, Nigel Nicholson, Rupande Padaki, Sharon Parker, Elizabeth Poposki, Bob Pritchard, Anat Rafaeli, Doug Reynolds, Tracey Rizzuto, Ivan Roberston, Robert Roe, Paul Sackett, Wilmar Schaufeli, Gary Schmidt, Heinz Schuler, Graham Seager, Norbert Semmer, Peter Smith, Karen Smola, Dirk Steiner, Robert Tett, Paul Thayer, Kecia Thomas, Susan Vanhemmel, Peter Warr, Dieter Zapf, and Shelly Zedeck. In addition, several colleagues went well out of their way to help us by providing reviews of draft material, suggestions for additional research, and contacts with researchers whose excellent work might have gone unnoticed. These colleagues include Robert Baron, Dave Bartram, Stuart Carr, David Day, Michelle Dean, Michael Frese, Bob Guion, Rick Jacobs, Tim Judge, Kurt Kraiger, David Kravitz, Kevin Murphy, Neal Schmitt, Ben Schneider, Rolf van Dick, Bernie Weiner, Howard Weiss, and Bob Wood.

Several colleagues at Landy Litigation Support Group (LLSG) and San Diego State University (SDSU) provided substantive and logistic support throughout multiple editions of work on this book. At LLSG, these include Kylie Harper, Barb Nett, Erik Olson, and Angie Rosenbaum. At SDSU, many colleagues within and outside the psychology depart- ment helped to provide a supportive environment in which to work. In particular, Mark Ehrhart, Kate Hattrup, Lisa Kath, Jorg Matt, Scott Roesch, and Emilio Ulloa represent a wonderful group of applied psychologists at SDSU. Lauren Ostroski, Gina Sadler, and Jacob Seybert provided outstanding support in identifying relevant research updates.

Thanks are also due to those who accepted Wiley’s invitation to review the previous edition of this book. These reviewers include Michele Baranczyk (Kutztown University), Tara Behrend (George Washington University), Margaret Beier (Rice University), Jeremy Beus (Texas A&M University), John Binning (Illinois State University), Greg Loviscky (Penn State University), Russell Matthews (Louisiana State University), and Mitchell Sherman (University of Wisconsin–Stout).

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Preface xxiv

Our editorial team at Wiley was led by acquisitions editor Robert Johnston and assis- tant editor Brittany Cheetham, both of whom provided expert guidance through all of the critical steps in developing this fourth edition. We are also grateful for the assistance and support of our previous executive editor, Chris Cardone, who brought us to Blackwell Publishing before it merged with Wiley. We are very fortunate to have had the help and guidance of freelance development editor Elsa Peterson on multiple editions of this book. Elsa is a spectacular editor and a good friend who enhances everything she touches. Senior production editor Anna Melhorn oversaw the transformation of the manuscript into the book, and production editor Suzanne Ingrao did a fantastic job of seeing the book through the copyediting and proofing stages. Photo editor Sheena Goldstein was very help- ful in identifying relevant photos that highlighted concepts in the text. Margaret Barrett and Patrick Flatley have taken charge of bringing the text to the attention of our target audience of instructors and students. We express our heartfelt thanks to these individu- als and the many other members of our Wiley team.

A Note from Jeff Conte

Frank Landy’s influence on me and on this book is immeasurable. He was my advisor, mentor, textbook co-author, advocate, and friend. I feel very fortunate to have worked so closely with Frank on this textbook for over a decade. During the course of our work on the book, we had many interesting discussions and debates about I-O psychology, work, life, and work/life balance. We worked very hard on this book, but we also had a lot of fun, including many belly laughs that were often brought on by an outrageous but accu- rate remark by Frank. I miss him greatly, and I know many others in the field do, too. Frank’s knowledge and ideas about I-O psychology live on in this book and in his many other publications. In addition, I’d like to highlight two sources that show Frank’s per- sonality and zest for life. First, the April 2010 issue of The Industrial-Organizational Psychologist (http://www.siop.org/tip/april10/toc.aspx) is dedicated to Frank and includes several fond and funny stories about him. Second, Frank’s autobiography (http://www. siop.org/Presidents/landy.aspx), written as part of his responsibilities after having served as president of SIOP, provides an engaging and entertaining view of a series of develop- mental episodes in Frank’s career and life.

I would like to thank Kylie Harper, Frank’s wife, for writing Frank’s updated author bio. I also thank Rick Jacobs, a friend and mentor who has greatly influenced my think- ing about I-O psychology and who has been very supportive throughout my career. I greatly appreciate the support and encouragement that I have received over the years from my parents (Anne and Tom) and siblings (T. J., Scott, and Deanna). I would also like to thank Paula Caligiuri and Kat Ringenbach for their support throughout the four editions of this book. I am very thankful to Kevin and Mary Dean, who have helped in so many ways with our home and family life over the past few years. Most importantly, I would like to thank my wife, Michelle Dean, and my daughters, Caroline and Colleen, for their support while I was working on this book and for the wonderful diversions they provided when I was taking breaks.

I welcome and appreciate comments and suggestions about the book from instructors and students alike. I look forward to receiving feedback about the book and improving future editions based on this feedback.

Jeff Conte jeff.conte@mail.sdsu.edu

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I Fundamentals

1 What Is Industrial and Organizational Psychology? 3

2 Methods and Statistics in I-O Psychology 49

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1 What Is Industrial and OrganizationalPsychology?

Module 1.1 The Importance of I-O Psychology 4

The Importance of Work in People’s Lives 4 The Concept of “Good Work” 5 Authenticity: A Trend of Interest to I-O

Psychologists 7

How Does I-O Psychology Contribute to Society? 7 What Is I-O Psychology? 7 Evidence-Based I-O Psychology 11 SIOP as a Resource 12

How This Course Can Help You 12 The Importance of Understanding the

Younger Worker 14

Module 1.2 The Past, Present, and Future of I-O Psychology 17

The Past: A Brief History of I-O Psychology 17 1876–1930 18 1930–1964 20

The Present: The Demographics of I-O Psychologists 23 Pathways to a Career in I-O Psychology:

A Curious Mixture 24 What We Call Ourselves 25

The Future: The Challenges to I-O Psychology in the 21st Century 25

A Personal View of the Future: Preparing for a Career in I-O Psychology 26 Education and Training 26 Getting into a Graduate Program 27

Module 1.3 Multicultural and Cross-Cultural Issues in I-O Psychology 29

The Multicultural Nature of Life in the 21st Century 29 Cross-National Issues in the

Workplace 31 Why Should Multiculturalism Be Important

to You? 33 Why Is Multiculturalism Important for

I-O Psychology? 33

Some Theories of Cultural Influence 35 Hofstede’s Theory 35 Some Thoughts on Theories of Cultural

Influence 39

Module 1.4 The Organization of This Book 41

Themes 41

Parts 42

Resources 42

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The Importance of Work in People’s Lives

Most adults devote the majority of their waking weekday (and often weekends as well!) to work. High school and college students, too, find themselves using a great deal of their discretionary hours in part-time jobs, particularly during the summer months. For many, this is a greater devotion of time and energy than to any other single wak- ing human activity. For this reason alone, we can assume that work is important to people. Then there is the fact that most people need to earn money, and they do so by working. But the experience of work goes well beyond the simple exchange of time for money.

Work is easy to describe to others and, as a result, has been the subject of many good nonpsychological books about the experience of work. For example, a book called Gig (Bowe, Bowe, & Streeter, 2000) presented interviews with workers describing their jobs. It is easy to find the best and the worst work experiences in those interviews. Consider the two workers quoted in Box 1.1: a bus driver in Los Angeles who describes her work as a good experience and a flagger on state highways in Kentucky who describes it in less favorable terms. Although these interviews are at the lower rungs on the job ladder, they tell us as much about the meaning of work as interviews with CEOs, engineers, and midlevel managers.

In spite of ambivalent feelings about their jobs, most people would keep working even if they had the opportunity to stop. The National Research Council, in a book about the changing nature of work (NRC, 1999), adds support to this observation. When asked the question “If you were to get enough money to live as comfortably as you would like for the rest of your life, would you continue to work or would you stop working?” the percentage of people reporting that they would continue working has averaged approximately 70 percent since at least 1973. This is dramatic evidence of the centrality of work as a noneconomic experience. This is strong testimony to the mean- ing of work—not a particular job, but the experience of working—in defining who we are.

The importance of work is further confirmed by talking to people who are about to lose or who have lost their jobs. As we will see, work is a defining characteristic of the way people gauge their value to society, their family, and themselves.

M O D U L E 1 . 1

The Importance of I-O Psychology

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1.1 The Importance of I-O Psychology 5

The Concept of “Good Work”

Gardner (2002) notes that psychology has often ignored how workers actually “concep- tualize their daily experiences—the goals and concerns they bring to the workplace.” He goes on to characterize what he calls “good work” (Gardner, Csikszentmihalyi, & Damon, 2001). Good work is work that “exhibits a high level of expertise, and it entails regular concern with the implications and applications of an individual’s work for the wider world” (Gardner, 2002, p. B7). These concepts have been turned into an extensive endeavor, called the “GoodWork Project,” which is directed toward identifying and, if possible, creating good work. As the project leaders point out, good work is tougher to do than it might seem. “Pressure to keep costs low and profits high, to do more in less time, and to fulfill numerous life roles, including that of a parent, a spouse, a friend,

B O X 1 . 1 I N T E R V I E W S F R O M G I G : A M E R I C A N S T A L K A B O U T T H E I R J O B S A T T H E T U R N O F T H E M I L L E N N I U M ( B OW E E T A L . , 2 0 0 0 )

I’m a “bus operator.” They don’t like calling us bus drivers, they like to call us “bus operators.” I have no idea what the difference is. “You’re not bus drivers, you’re bus operators.” Okay, no problem. . . .

The route I prefer—everybody thinks I’m nuts— is the 81. . . . Let’s face it, the 81, basically we pick up the poor people. The 81 is basically what they consider the low-class passengers. But for being low class, they pay. And they don’t give me any hassles. And they always say, “Hi, how are you?” Or “Good afternoon,” or “Good morning.” . . .

Of course, the biggest thing is learning about how to deal with so many different types of people. You deal with different nationalities. Different kinds of everything. You gotta know the rules. In this part of town, they treat me good, maybe because they see me as the same nationality. But, like, when I go to South Central, umm, it’s okay for them to treat me like garbage, but I can’t go around and treat them like garbage. That’s the way it is. And then like when I go into San Marino or Beverly Hills, I get treated different and I have to treat them different, because hey, I’m nothing compared to what they are. You learn to read and you have to adjust your- self to whatever area you’re driving in. Because each area is different and people act different. And every day is something new. Fortunately, for me, I enjoy that aspect. Most of the time, I love these peo- ple. They make the job for me. (pp. 151–153)

****** Flagging’s miserable. Your feet hurt, your back aches, and constantly all day long you’re told what

a piece of shit you are for holding people up. A town’ll call in and want a pothole fixed, but they don’t want to stop and wait while you actually do the work. So it’s just really—it’s aggravating that you’re tryin’ to do your job yet you’re get- tin’ bitched at for doin’ it. . . . [And] after you do let traffic go and you’re standin’ off to the side of the road letting ‘em go by, they’ll swerve over like they’re goin’ to hit you. Just to be mean, I guess.

But that’s not the worst. The worst is to be the back flagger, the one who works behind all the equipment as they go up the road blacktopping. Because when they lay the blacktop, it’s just incredibly hot, so you’re standin’ on this fresh laid blacktop that’s, I think, three hundred degrees. . . .

But, you know, I kind of like it. Because it’s a chal- lenge. I feel like I’ve accomplished something just standing out there, just making it through each day. Because I guess when I first started working, I was the first girl that worked here. . . . I was actually the first girl to ever work on the road crew. (pp. 139–140)

SOURCE: Bowe, J., Bowe, M., & Streeter, S. (2000). Gig: Americans talk about their jobs at the turn of the millennium. Copyright © 2000, 2001 by John Bowe, Marisa Bowe, and Sabin Streeter. Used by permission of Crown Publishers, a division of Random House, Inc. and Levine, Plotkin & Menin, LLC. Any third party use of this material, outside of this publication, is prohibited. Interested parties must apply directly to Random House, Inc. and Levine, Plotkin & Menin, LLC for permission.

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Chapter 1 What Is Industrial and Organizational Psychology?6

(a student!!), a worker, can all make cut- ting corners tempting” (www.good- workproject.org). This “corner cutting” leads to what the researchers call “com- promised” work: work that is not illegal or unethical, but that still undermines the core values of a trade or a profession—the lawyer who creates opportunities for billing extra hours, the plumber who uses inferior, cheaper materials for a repair.

Martin Luther King, Jr., captured the essence of good work eloquently: “If a man is called to be a street sweeper, he should sweep streets even as Michelangelo painted, Beethoven composed music, or Shakespeare wrote poetry. He should sweep streets so well that all heaven and earth will pause to say, ‘Here lived a great street sweeper who did his job well’” (King, 1956).

Consider the role of an I-O psychologist who worked in Iraq to hire and train the new Iraqi police force. David Morris is an I-O psychologist who had been helping cities and states in the United States select police officers until September 2004. He decided to trade “his comfortable house in Alexandria, Virginia for a bunk bed in the converted office of Baghdad’s former police training facility” (Dingfelder, 2005, p. 34). Every day, Morris and his staff of 15 administered various tests to up to 300 candidates for possible hire. He and his staff could have earned as much if not more screening applicants for the Philadelphia, or Atlanta, or Dallas police force. But instead, they did such screening in Baghdad to help with the restoration of civil order to Iraq. This is good work as well.

The interesting aspect of “good” and “bad” work is that the individual worker and the employer together have the power to define good work or to transform good work into bad and vice versa. A disreputable accounting firm can cheat and mislead clients and the public, thus engaging in bad work; that same firm and its employees could be doing good work if they are helping people to manage their money and protect their retirement plans. Good work is not simply the province of politicians or soldiers or relief workers.

Gardner describes the depressing consequences of settling for “bad” work:

We resign ourselves to our fate. It is difficult to quit one’s job, let alone one’s whole profession, and few in midlife . . . have the fortitude to do so. As a result, . . . few feel in a position where they can perform good work. (Gardner, 2002, p. B7)

The study of work by I-O psychologists and students (you!) is potentially “good work” because it enables you to develop and use skills, and to use them for the benefit of some- one other than simply yourself. I-O psychologists have also broadened their focus of study to consider the experience of work. Since the mid-1990s there has been a rapid and sub- stantial increase in I-O research related to the feelings that workers bring to and take from the workplace. In addition, there has been a dramatic increase in research directed toward work–life balance issues. Thus, I-O psychology has recognized that the “experience” of work is more complex than simply tasks and productivity and accidents. You will see the results of this research in Chapter 9.

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American I-O psychologist David Morris screened applicants in Iraq for several years.

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1.1 The Importance of I-O Psychology 7

Authenticity: A Trend of Interest to I-O Psychologists

I-O psychology often incorporates cultural shifts and changes. In the past few years, “authen- ticity”—referring to that which is real, genuine, not artificial—has become a popular concept in America. You will see references to “authentic” coffee, music, clothing and furniture lines, foods, and so forth. The attraction of authenticity may also be reflected in some popular TV reality shows such as American Idol, Ice Road Truckers, and The Deadliest Catch, as well as some less dramatic shows dealing with changing families or embarking on a new diet to lose weight. A popular book (Gilmore & Pine, 2007) argues that, in a world where virtual reality is becoming increasingly prevalent, authenticity is “what consumers really want.”

In I-O psychology, we might extend the definition of authenticity to a more philosophical level: “an emotionally appropriate, significant, purposive, and responsible mode of human life” (McKean, 2005, p. 106). Viewing authenticity in that way, we can see authen- ticity reflected in the search for “good work” and inspirational leadership. In fact, the term “authentic leadership,” which had not appeared in the literature before 2002, has now appeared over 50 times since then. We will cover this form of leadership in Chapter 12. In various chapters, we will take note of what appears to be the search for authenticity in work and organizations.

How Does I-O Psychology Contribute to Society?

What Is I-O Psychology?

Throughout this book we will use the term I-O psychology as a synonym for industrial and organizational psychology. The simplest definition of industrial and organizational psychology is “the application of psychological principles, theory, and research to the work setting.” In everday conversation, I-O psychologists are often referred to as work psychologists. Don’t be fooled, however, by the phrase “work setting.” The domain of I-O psychology stretches well beyond the physical boundaries of the workplace because many of the fac- tors that influence work behavior are not always found in the work setting. These factors include things like family responsibilities, cultural influences, employment-related legis- lation, and non-work events (reflect, for example, on how the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, changed the working life of most people).

Even more significant is the influence of personality on work behavior. Whereas an individual’s personality may actually influence work behavior, his or her personality is often influenced by events that occurred before he or she began full-time employment. In addition, I-O psychologists are concerned about the effect of work on non-work behaviors. Spouses and children are well aware of the effect of a “bad day at work” on home life. I-O psychology concentrates on the reciprocal impact of work on life and life on work.

We can also think of I-O psychology as a combination of knowledge and skills that can be applied in a wide diversity of settings rather than just in the arena of traditional work. The example of David Morris helping to select the Iraqi police force is one of those examples. In a similar vein, I-O psychologists are helping to revise the test given to individuals seeking U.S. naturalization (Ulewicz, 2005).

I-O psychologists have become increasingly interested in building sustainable and envi- ronmentally conscious organizations (Huffman, Watrons-Rodriguez, Henning, & Berry, 2009). Several I-O psychologists have described efforts to lead the way in helping organizations to be more sustainable (e.g., DuBois & DuBois, 2010; Jackson & Seo, 2010). Some of these efforts

Industrial-organizational (I-O) psychology The application of psychological principles, theory, and research to the work setting.

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Chapter 1 What Is Industrial and Organizational Psychology?8

include organizational initiatives that were implemented for traditional business pur- poses (e.g., cost savings, process efficiency) but can in turn yield environmental bene- fits, which are also known as eco-benefits (Klein, Sanders, & Huffman, 2011). For example, organizational policies involving online testing and assessment (Chapter 3), telecommuting (Chapter 9), and com- pressed workweeks (Chapter 9) have all been linked with environmental sustain- ability. Klein and colleagues (2011) note that I-O psychologists can guide organiza- tions in identifying and measuring their eco-benefits and in promoting these bene- fits as another important outcome that can be considered along with more traditional outcomes such as individual, team, and organizational performance. The electronics company Panasonic (2011) has announced

major new eco-sustainability goals (e.g., double the number of drop-off locations in its elec- tronics recycling program from 800 to 1,600 sites, reduce greenhouse gas emissions at its headquarters by half) that are likely to be adopted by other organizations. I-O psychologists can help lead the way in documenting both intended and unintended eco-benefits in organizations.

In one of the broadest and most ambitious extensions of I-O psychology, Stuart Carr, a New Zealand I-O psychologist, has suggested ways in which I-O psychologists can bring their expertise to bear on humanitarian issues (Carr, 2007). Along with other I-O psy- chologists such as Lori Foster Thompson and Adrian Furnham, Carr has been working to promote prosocial applications of psychology called humanitarian work psychology: the application of I-O psychology to the humanitarian arena, especially poverty reduction and the promotion of decent work, aligned with local stakeholders’ needs, and in partnership with global aid/development groups. Carr suggests that our expertise in areas such as team building and training, stereotypes, organizational justice, and mental models is exactly the type of knowledge and skill necessary for bringing together the essential coalition of gov- ernments, aid organizations, and private industry. Carr and colleagues have formed a global network of fellow I-O psychologists interested in addressing the I-O contributions to reduc- ing world poverty (http://www.humworkpsy.org/). Carr also writes a column (e.g., Carr, 2012) related to I-O psychology and poverty reduction in the quarterly publication of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology called TIP (The Industrial- Organizational Psychologist) (see below).

In a recent symposium, Carr and other I-O psychologists discussed projects as broad as a U.N. resolution addressing psychological issues in poverty and as narrow as a micro-credit project directed by an I-O psychologist for desperately poor women in rural Nicaragua (Schein, 2008). Interestingly, many in the audience for that symposium were psychology students who expressed great appreciation for examples of how I-O psychologists could make a dif- ference in some of the major global problems of the 21st century. Carr’s work, and the exam- ples in the previous paragraphs, demonstrate how far-reaching I-O psychology can be.

A more formal definition of I-O psychology, approached from the perspective of the I-O psychologist and what he or she does, has been adopted by the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (an association to which many I-O psychologists, both practitioners and researchers, belong, and which we will refer to in this text by the acronym SIOP):

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I-O psychologists have been instrumental in a micro-loan program to help women in Nicaragua start their own businesses.

Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP) An association to which many I-O psychologists, both practitioners and researchers, belong. Designated as Division 14 of the American Psychological Association (APA).

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1.1 The Importance of I-O Psychology 9

Industrial-Organizational (called I-O) Psychologists recognize the interdependence of individuals, organizations, and society, and they recognize the impact of factors such as increasing government influences, growing consumer awareness, skill shortages, and the changing nature of the workforce. I-O psychologists facilitate responses to issues and problems involving peo- ple at work by serving as advisors and catalysts for business, industry, labor, public, academic, community, and health organizations.

They are:

Scientists who derive principles of individual, group, and organizational behavior through research; Consultants and staff psychologists who develop scientific knowledge and apply it to the solution of problems at work; and Teachers who train in the research and application of Industrial-Organizational Psychology. (http://www.siop.org/history/crsppp. aspx. © 2012 Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Reprinted by permission of SIOP, www.siop.org.)

Refer to Tables 1.1 and 1.2 for lists of the common areas of concentration for I-O psy- chologists and the common job titles they hold. A new series on the SIOP website (http:// www.siop.org/psychatwork.aspx) called “Psychology at Work: What do I-O psychologists

TABLE 1.1 Common Areas of Concentration for I-O Psychologists

SOURCE: Adapted from http://www.siop.org/history/ crsppp.aspx. © 2012 Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Reprinted by permission of SIOP, www.siop.org.

Selection and placement Developing tests Validating tests Analyzing job content Identifying management potential Defending tests against legal challenge

Training and development Identifying training and development needs Forming and implementing technical and managerial training programs Evaluating training effectiveness Career planning

Organizational development Analyzing organizational structure Maximizing satisfaction and effectiveness of employees Facilitating organizational change

Performance measurement Developing measures of performance Measuring the economic benefit of performance Introducing performance evaluation systems

Quality of work life Identifying factors associated with job satisfaction Reducing stress in the workplace Redesigning jobs to make them more meaningful

Engineering psychology Designing work environments Optimizing person–machine effectiveness Making workplaces safer

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Chapter 1 What Is Industrial and Organizational Psychology?10

really do?” provides profiles of I-O psychologists that include how they became interested in I-O psychology, what a typical day is like, what aspects of the job are most challeng- ing, why I-O psychology matters, and advice to future I-O psychologists.

Traditionally, I-O psychology has been divided into three major concentrations: per- sonnel psychology, organizational psychology, and human engineering. We will briefly con- sider each of these concentrations. Even though we will talk about them separately, they often overlap considerably, as we will see.

Personnel psychology (often seen as part of human resources management, or HRM) addresses issues such as recruitment, selection, training, performance appraisal, promo- tion, transfer, and termination. The approach assumes that people are consistently dif- ferent in their attributes and work behaviors and that information about these differences can be used to predict, maintain, and increase work performance and satisfaction.

Organizational psychology combines research and ideas from social psychology and organizational behavior. It addresses the emotional and motivational side of work. It includes topics such as attitudes, fairness, motivation, stress, leadership, teams, and the broader aspects of organizational and work design. In some senses, it concentrates on the reactions of people to work and the action plans that develop as a result of those reactions. Both work and people are variables of interest, and the issue is the extent to which characteristics of the people match the characteristics or demands of the work. Of course, organizational psy- chology has implications for performance, but they may not be as direct as is the case with personnel psychology.

Human engineering (also called human factors psychology) is the study of the capaci- ties and limitations of humans with respect to a particular environment. The human

TABLE 1.2 Common Job Titles for I-O Psychologists

Staff member, manager, director, vice president of: Personnel Human resources Organizational planning Personnel development Organizational development Management development Personnel research Employee relations Training Affirmative action

Assistant, associate, full professor of: Psychology Management Organizational behavior Industrial relations Human resources

Corporate consultant Private consultant Research scientist: private sector Research scientist: government Research scientist: military Research scientist: test publisher

Personnel psychology Field of psychology that addresses issues such as recruitment, selection, training, performance appraisal, promotion, transfer, and termination.

Human resources management (HRM) Practices such as recruitment, selection, retention, training, and development of people (human resources) in order to achieve individual and organizational goals.

Organizational psychology Field of psychology that combines research from social psychology and organizational behavior and addresses the emotional and motivational side of work.

Human engineering or human factors psychology The study of the capacities and limitations of humans with respect to a particular environment.

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1.1 The Importance of I-O Psychology 11

engineering approach is almost the opposite of the personnel approach. Remember, in the personnel approach the goal is to find or fit the best person to the job. In the human engi- neering approach the task of the human engineer is to develop an environment that is com- patible with the characteristics of the worker. The “environmental” aspects this may include are quite diverse; among them are tools, work spaces, information display, shift work, work pace, machine controls, and even the extent to which safety is valued in the organization or work group. Human engineering, more than personnel or organizational psychology, inte- grates many different disciplines. These disciplines include cognitive science, ergonomics, exercise physiology, and even anatomy. For that reason, we will touch only lightly on topics that form the core of human engineering—work design and safety in the workplace. Nevertheless, if human engineering interests you, there are many excellent texts in the area (e.g., Salvendy, 2006; Wickens & Hollands, 2000; Wickens, Lee, Gordon, & Liu, 2004).

In the past few pages, you have seen a number of examples of the capabilities of the I-O psychologist. The most striking characteristic of the profession is that research is actu- ally used to address a concrete problem or issue. There is a clear connection between research conducted using the tools of science and the practice of I-O psychology. This emphasis on the application of scientific knowledge is known as the scientist-practitioner model. This does not mean that every practicing I-O psychologist must also be an active researcher or that every I-O psychologist who does research must be an active practi- tioner. It simply means that science and practice are both important parts of I-O psy- chology. As an example, real problems related to medical accidents and mistakes in operating rooms lead to research on safety culture in hospitals. Similarly, university-based research on team training is tested in hospital environments. An excellent popular version of the scientist-practitioner model can be seen in the TV show CSI: Crime Scene Investigation. A badly decomposed body is found and a team of forensic practitioners (i.e., the detec- tives) bring back samples of clothing, skin, teeth, and so forth to the laboratory for anal- ysis (by the scientists). Sometimes they do their own analysis and sometimes they have more skilled colleagues do the analysis. But regardless of who actually does the analysis, it is done for one reason—to find the murderer. I-O psychology is a bit less exciting than detective work, but the underlying motivation is the same—to address a real issue or prob- lem in the workplace.

Evidence-Based I-O Psychology

I-O psychologists have become increasingly focused on making evidence-based decisions in their work in organizations. Cascio and Aguinis (2011) have updated their well-known Applied Psychology in HRM textbook with “Evidence-Based Implications for Practice” in every chapter. Many of these evidence-based implications are based on empirical research conducted by I-O psychologists. This trend can also be seen in the human resources (HR) field with Rousseau and Barends’s (2011) discussion about how to become an evidence-based HR prac- titioner. They suggest that HR practitioners use a decision-making process that combines crit- ical thinking with use of the best available scientific evidence. I-O psychologists are well positioned to develop and utilize evidence-based practices as they have adopted the scientist-practitioner model to guide the field as well as to guide the training of I-O Master’s and PhD students. In a focal article in the journal I-O Psychology: Perspectives on Science and Practice, Briner and Rousseau (2011) point out that the medical field has done a better job of implementing evidence-based practice than has I-O psychology and that making I-O psychology research more accessible to HR practitioners will help with such implementation. In this direction, SIOP and the Society for Human Resource Management (SHRM) are taking steps to put evidence-based I-O psychology into the hands of HR practitioners by publishing collabora- tive articles. The first two articles in the series are on “Skill-Based Pay: HR’s Role” and “Driving Customer Satisfaction through HR: Creating and Maintaining a Service Climate,” and many

Scientist-practitioner model A model that uses scientific tools and research in the practice of I-O psychology.

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Chapter 1 What Is Industrial and Organizational Psychology?12

more articles are planned for this series. This is a promising first step in the process of increas- ing evidence-based practice and decision making in I-O psychology and the related field of human resources management. Nevertheless, additional collaborative efforts will be needed to increase the use of evidence-based I-O psychology in organizations.

SIOP as a Resource

The Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology is the single best resource for anyone interested in I-O psychology. The society accepts student members. SIOP’s web- site (www.siop.org) is regularly updated and includes the following types of information:

● The history of I-O psychology and of SIOP ● Membership information ● An electronic version of the quarterly newsletter of SIOP, called TIP (The Industrial-

Organizational Psychologist) ● JobNet, a system that matches employers seeking I-O psychologists with applicants

for I-O positions ● A listing of educational institutions that offer graduate training programs in I-O

psychology ● A list of SIOP publications ● A list of upcoming conferences ● A social media page that includes information about SIOP’s Facebook, Twitter,

Exchange Blog, and Wiki sites ● High-interest topics to I-O psychologists

How This Course Can Help You

Working is a part of almost everyone’s life. Outside of the classroom, you will likely do what most other people do: spend 50 percent or more of your waking weekday hours at work. This means that a course in I-O psychology should benefit you in several ways. First, it can help you understand what you are experiencing in the workplace. Most students have an exposure to work by the time they finish high school. Most continue to work in some capacity in college (during the summer and/or at part-time jobs during the school year). This textbook does not tell you what emotions to experience at work. Instead, we try to provide a broader context for you to understand various policies and practices that you are likely to experience in your work. For example, material in this text will provide a basis for knowing if the HR policies your organization follows are new or old, tested or untested, likely to be effective or ineffective. Second, chances are that you will eventually be placed in the position of managing the work of others and in that role either develop- ing or at least implementing work-related policies. You may very well become a leader even without asking to be one. The material of this course and the text itself should pro- vide you with a good foundation for developing and/or implementing effective policies. Third, in the course of your daily life you will almost certainly hear friends and family talk about their joys and frustrations with their organizations and work. Many of them will not have the understanding gained from a course like the one you are taking now. You will be able to act as a resource in helping them understand the policies that are affect- ing them.

You might wonder why a course in I-O might be preferred over a course in human resources, or labor relations, or general management. The answer can be found in the earlier discussion of the scientist-practitioner model. That is how I-O is different. It applies

TIP (The Industrial- Organizational Psychologist) Quarterly newsletter published by the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology; provides I-O psychologists and those interested in I-O psychology with the latest relevant information about the field.

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1.1 The Importance of I-O Psychology 13

the results of scientific research to real-world problems. These other courses consider the same real-world problems, but they do not depend on research for drawing con- clusions. Instead they depend on experience, or current practices, or suggested “best” practices. And this is a valuable approach as well, but an I-O course is built around the results of scientific research. Although most of the students who read this book for a course they are taking will be neither active researchers nor active practitioners of I-O psychology, there is a high probability that they will be consumers of I-O research in considering their own jobs or the jobs of subordinates. In addition, many will be exposed to concepts of I-O psychology through interactions with psychological consul- tants or other managers. This course will help those readers become knowledgeable consumers.

You will see another benefit from this course that goes beyond the relationship of you or your friends and relatives to a particular organization or job. There are national debates that relate to work. As a result of having taken this course, you will be better informed about many of the issues that form these debates than your colleagues or relatives. As exam- ples of the debates that are currently on the table, consider the following:

1. Is employment discrimination old news or is it still occurring? If it is occurring, who are its most common victims? To the extent that it is occurring, what can be done to reduce it? What are the various steps in an employment discrimination lawsuit?

2. How serious is the issue of stress in the workplace? How can workplace stress affect the rest of your life? Is stress a legitimate “disease”? Can it be considered as an occu- pational hazard? How can stress be reduced at work?

3. Are today’s workplaces adequately safe? How can work be made safer? What are the respective responsibilities of workers and employers for creating and maintaining safety at the workplace?

4. How can the jobless be brought back into the workforce? How effective are welfare- to-work programs, which require work in return for government subsidies? What can be done to increase the probability of today’s welfare recipient becoming tomorrow’s full-time employee? If the government proposes to pay welfare recipi- ents less than the minimum wage in return for their work requirement, will this help or hinder the passage from welfare to work?

5. To what extent should work and non-work lives be kept separate? Should working parents expect their employing organizations to provide family-friendly work- places? In households with two wage earners, how can both partners lead produc- tive and satisfying work lives yet still maintain a productive and satisfying relationship with each other?

6. Do foreign-based companies actually have better methods of production, or are they more profitable simply because they pay their workers less? Is there any value to U.S. employers in adopting the work practices of other countries, or should we stick with what has made America great? Should everyone working for an American com- pany, either in the United States or in another country, be expected to accept American culture as part of the work environment?

These are just some of the debates that you will see in any newspaper or on any televi- sion news program over the course of several months. When you have finished this course, you will have a knowledge base to discuss these and similar issues responsibly. That does not mean that you can solve these problems, but it does mean that you will have some- thing sensible and unique to add to the discussion.

You may also have discussions with others who have taken a course like this; perhaps your parents, co-workers, or managers. If they have not taken this course in the past 5 to

Welfare-to-work program Program that requires individuals to work in return for government subsidies.

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Chapter 1 What Is Industrial and Organizational Psychology?14

10 years, they may be working from an outdated experience and knowledge base. Just con- sider how the world has changed since, say, the 1980s:

● Personal computers now dominate the workplace. ● Many workers do their work from home (telecommute), and many work groups

and work teams are located in many different offices and work as virtual teams, seldom if ever meeting physically as a group.

● Client meetings, organizational meetings, and training are conducted through videoconferencing.

● Work performance can be monitored electronically. ● Three out of every five jobs are now directly or indirectly providing a service rather

than manufacturing “goods.” ● Increasingly more work is done by teams as opposed to individuals. ● There is little stability in many business sectors. Downsizing, rightsizing, mergers,

and acquisitions have radically altered the psychological contract between an orga- nization and its employees so that few workers can expect to spend their careers with one organization.

● Workers are expecting greater recognition and support from their organizations with respect to creating and maintaining family-friendly workplaces.

● Workforces are becoming increasingly diverse, and not only in terms of age, gen- der, sexual orientation, race, and disability. Managing diversity today means embracing an increasingly broad spectrum of interests, values, attitudes, and cultures.

● The nature of work has become more fluid, where jobs may not be well defined, tasks may not be routine, and the groups assigned to tasks may vary in their type and number of people.

● Work is now international or global.

The information you derive from this course will be substantially different from what your parents’ generation learned in a similar course.

The Importance of Understanding the Younger Worker

A great deal of the published research in I-O psychology deals with managerial, profes- sional, and other white-collar full-time employees who are older than a category that might be labeled “young adults.” In the 21st century, we need to question the appropriateness of this research focus. As Loughlin and Barling (2001) report, in Austria, Denmark, and Sweden combined, approximately 70 percent of young people between the ages of 15 and 24 are employed in some capacity. In the United States and Canada, 80 percent of high school students work for pay. By 12th grade, most of these students are employed for more than 20 hours per week.

Loughlin and Barling (2001) argue that it is a mistake to ignore the population of young workers for several reasons: (1) They represent a large portion of a population of part- time workers, and as part-time work becomes more common, we need to know all we can about the experience of part-time work; (2) one’s first job is likely to have a substantial influence on the filters through which subsequent work experiences are viewed. As Loughlin and Barling (2001) suggest, “teenagers seem to be more influenced by their work environments than adults and . . . these attitudes and aspirations are stable once estab- lished during teenage years” (p. 548).

Mainstream literature tends to characterize the “first job” as the first full-time job after a decision is made to forgo further education. But your first job might be more correctly

Telecommuting Accomplishing work tasks from a distant location using electronic communication media.

Virtual team Team that has widely dispersed members working together toward a common goal and linked through computers and other technology.

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1.1 The Importance of I-O Psychology 15

seen as your first paying job outside of the home environment, regardless of whether it occurs at age 14, age 19, or age 25. Surveys the authors of this text have done with college students suggest that jobs such as cashier, customer service rep, camp counselor, lifeguard/swim instructor, waitserver, and retail salesperson are the most common paid positions for younger adults. Experiences in these jobs are often memorable if for no other reason than motivating the job holder to aspire to work that will never repeat these experiences! Nevertheless, they help form early impressions of management and supervision, “good” work, and work/life balance. As such, these experiences are understudied.

The little I-O research that has been done on younger work- ers suggests the following:

1. For younger adults, jobs that provide an opportunity to use current skills or develop new skills are most satisfy- ing (Green & Montgomery, 1998; Mortimer, Pimental, Ryu, Nash, & Lee, 1996).

2. For younger adults who do not have the opportunity to use current skills, or develop new skills, cynicism and lack of interest in the work can result (Stern, Stone, Hopkins, & McMillion, 1990).

3. Young workers represent a very valuable commodity or resource since their education levels tend to be higher than their parents’, they are more sophisticated technologi- cally, they tend to see the world globally rather than domestically, they have no prob- lem being “connected” 24 hours a day, and multicultural school environments have given them an open-mindedness that was rare in earlier generations (Loughlin & Barling, 2001).

The paradox of younger workers goes beyond issues of research focus, too. Younger adults represent a valuable resource in terms of skills and experiences they have independent of paid work. Yet at the entry level, paid work often consists of menial activities that neither tap current skills nor develop new ones. This, in turn, leads to demotivation, cynicism, and a negative view of work in general. Zemke, Raines, and Filipczak (2000) cite man- agement and supervision as the real culprit in the negative experiences of younger part- time workers.

Virtually everyone reading this text has had some experience as a paid worker, and we encourage you to consider this experience when reading the following chapters. Moreover, it will be useful for you to remember these experiences when you become a supervisor or leader, even in your part-time life. As a shift manager at Burger King, think twice on slow days before directing subordinates to wipe tables that are already clean. Instead, take the opportunity to ask them what they are good at that might contribute to the shift produc- tivity or what they’d like to become good at that might contribute to future productivity.

Recently, Butler (2007) has examined the issue of work–school conflict for college-age students. Many students work part-time (and some even full-time) to fund their educa- tion. Not surprisingly, Butler found that students struggled to keep a balance between work and school and that work often had a negative effect on schoolwork. This was particularly true when the work consisted of long hours and difficult schedules, provided little real con- trol to the student-worker, and did not permit opportunities to complete schoolwork. The research showed that when the nature of the student work was related to the student’s major,

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Chapter 1 What Is Industrial and Organizational Psychology?16

both school satisfaction and school performance increased. In contrast, long hours and work that allowed no control on the part of the student actually decreased academic performance. As we will see in Chapter 10, these results are similar to what has been found when study- ing work–life balance outside of the school years.

Butler justifiably argues that school should come first and work should simply facili- tate the educational experience. He suggests that universities and colleges become more proactive in creating or facilitating work programs that foster, rather than impede, edu- cation and in counseling students with respect to what jobs might create conflict versus those that will promote the educational experience. The lesson may be that mindless jobs with long hours can do more harm than good for the student.

● Work is important because it occupies much of our time, provides us with a livelihood, and defines how we feel about ourselves. “Good work” enables workers to develop and use skills to benefit others.

● I-O psychology applies psychological principles, theory, and research to the workplace and to all

MODULE 1.1 SUMMARY

aspects of life that are touched by work. SIOP is the primary professional membership organiza- tion for I-O psychologists.

● In this course you will gain knowledge about the workplace, work-related issues, and the ways that work has changed over recent decades.

industrial-organizational (I-O) psychology

Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP)

personnel psychology

KEY TERMS

human resources management (HRM)

organizational psychology human engineering or human

factors psychology scientist-practitioner model

TIP (The Industrial- Organizational Psychologist)

welfare-to-work program telecommuting virtual team

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The Past: A Brief History of I-O Psychology

We will present the historical context of various I-O topics when we cover them in sub- sequent chapters; here we will sketch the evolution of I-O psychology in broad and sim- ple terms. For the interested reader, Koppes (2007) has published a useful book tracing this development of I-O psychology in great detail. In particular, we will present a brief description of the development of American I-O psychology as it is valuable for you to see how the science evolved in the United States. Having said that, we also point out that there were parallel developments in other countries, such as Britain (Chmiel, 2000; Kwiatkowski, Duncan, & Shimmin, 2006), Australia, Germany, the Netherlands (van Drunen & van Strien, 1999), and eastern European countries such as Romania (Pitariu, 1992; Rosca & Voicu, 1982). For many foreign countries, unfortunately, there is no pub- lished English-language account of their development of I-O psychology. However, one of the first modern American I-O psychologists, Morris Viteles, did a wonderful job of describing the status of I-O psychology around the world during the period from 1922 to 1932 (Viteles, 1932). Arthur Kornhauser (1929) also provided a description of I-O psy- chology in England and Germany. One of the most comprehensive surveys of interna- tional applied psychology (particularly with respect to vocational counseling) as it was practiced in 1937 appears in a book by Keller and Viteles (1937). In addition, a more recent survey of early non-American I-O psychology, in particular the work of Otto Lipmann (German) and Charles Myers (British), has been provided by Vinchur (2005), and there is an entire chapter on the topic of non-American I-O by Warr (2006). As we present the various topics, note that we make use of a wide variety of contemporary research and theory produced by non-American scholars. Salgado (2001) has published a comprehen- sive review of the landmarks of scientific personnel selection internationally covering the period 1900–2001. For further reading on the development of I-O psychology as a science and a practice in America, we recommend several excellent and detailed reviews (Benjamin, 1997; Katzell & Austin, 1992; Landy, 1997).

You may ask why we need any historical treatment. The answer is that to know where we are now and where we are going as a field, it helps to know how we got here. As an example, much of the current effort being devoted to research on emotional intelligence is wasted because the researchers ignored 60 years of earlier research on social intelligence— a similar concept—and wandered down the same dead ends as their earlier counterparts

M O D U L E 1 . 2

The Past, Present, and Future of I-O Psychology

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Chapter 1 What Is Industrial and Organizational Psychology?18

(Landy, 2005b, 2006). As the philosopher Santayana suggested (1905), those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it (p. 284).

When we look at history from a broad perspective, it is possible to make some good guesses about the future. And knowing the discipline’s history helps us understand the context in which research and application were conducted, which in turn helps us appre- ciate the value of that research today. Consider Table 1.3, which lists the titles of articles in the first year of publication of one of the major I-O journals, the Journal of Applied Psychology (JAP). Now look at Table 1.4. This is a list of articles that appeared in 2008 in the same journal. Quite a contrast! There are two reasons for the difference between what was important in 1917 and what is important today. The first reason is the change in the world of work. The second reason is the accumulation of knowledge about work-related behavior in the past 90 years. Figure 1.1 presents a broad time line in the evolution of I-O psychology. Important dates and developments in I-O psychology that have occurred since 1982 are covered throughout the remainder of this book.

1876–1930

The roots of I-O psychology trace back nearly to the beginning of psychology as a science. Wilhelm Wundt founded one of the first psychological laboratories in 1876 in Leipzig, Germany. Within 10 years, he had established a thriving graduate training and research enterprise. He hoped to put scientific psychology on an even footing with the more established physical sciences of chemistry, physics, and biology. In the mid-1880s, he trained two psychologists who would have a major influence on the eventual emergence of I-O psychology: Hugo Munsterberg and James McKeen Cattell (Landy, 1997; Sokal, 1982). Munsterberg left Germany for America in 1892 and became the director of the psychological laboratories at

TABLE 1.4 Titles of Research Articles in the Journal of Applied Psychology, 2008

A new archival approach to the study of values and value–behavior relations: Validation of a value lexicon Early predictors of job burnout and engagement Event justice perceptions and employee’s reactions: Perceptions of social entity justice as a moderator Harmful help: The costs of backing up behavior in teams The productivity measurement and enhancement system: A meta-analysis Subjective cognitive effort: A model of states, traits, and time Safety in work vehicles: A multilevel study linking values and individual predictors to work-related driving crashes “Did you have a nice evening?” A day-level study on recovery experiences, sleep, and affect Ethnic and gender subgrouping differences in assessment center ratings: A meta-analysis Personality and organizational culture as determinants of influence

TABLE 1.3 Titles of Research Articles in the Journal of Applied Psychology, 1917

Estimates of the military value of certain personal qualities The legibility of the telephone directory The psychology of a prodigious child A test for memory of names and faces Practical relations between psychology and the war The moron as a war problem Mental tests of unemployed men A trial of mental and pedagogical tests in a civil service examination for policemen and firemen The attitude and reaction of the businessman to psychology A note on the German recruiting system

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1.2 The Past, Present, and Future of I-O Psychology 19

Harvard University. Initially, he was a devoted experimental psychologist who actually rejected any value for the application of psychology to the workplace (Benjamin, 2006). Soon, however, he saw the potential of psychology to address many practical problems of the early 20th century.

Munsterberg was also one of the first to measure abilities in workers and tie those abil- ities to performance—something that in hindsight may seem like an obvious path to fol- low but was innovative at the time. In another departure from the practice of his day, he applied rudimentary statistics to “analyze” the results of his studies. The world’s first I-O psychology textbook, written in 1912 and translated from German to English in 1913, was another of Munsterberg’s memorable contributions to the field. At the time of his death in 1916, Munsterberg was at the pinnacle of his career at Harvard. In conjunction with pursuing his research on industrial efficiency, he devoted considerable energy to persuading the leaders of American government and industry that I-O psychology was a key contributor to the nation’s economic development. I-O psychology was really only “industrial” psy- chology in those days, devoted to the goal of increasing productivity. It was known by some as “economic” psychology.

Cattell was an American contemporary of Munsterberg and is recognized for being among the first to realize the importance of differences among individuals as a way of predicting their behavior. Wundt, under whose direction Cattell studied, was interested in general laws of behavior and less interested in the differences among participants in responding to his experimental stimuli. He and other experimental psychologists of the time consid- ered those differences to be “errors” that served to complicate and muddy their results. Cattell observed instead that these differences were reliable properties of the participants and could be used to understand behavior more fully. After a brief stay in England, Cattell joined the faculty of the University of Pennsylvania in 1888, and then of Columbia University in 1893, where he remained until his retirement in 1917.

At around the same time as Munsterberg and Cattell were doing their work, two other leaders in I-O psychology, Walter Dill Scott and Walter Van Dyke Bingham, were work- ing at the Carnegie Institute, developing methods for selecting and training sales person- nel (Landy, 1997). When the United States entered the First World War in 1917, Scott and Bingham volunteered to help with the testing and placement of more than a million army recruits. Together with other prominent psychologists, they adapted a well-known

FIGURE 1.1 Important Dates in the Evolution of I-O Psychology

1888 Cattell measures individual differences

1892 Munsterberg arrives at Harvard; American Psychological Association founded

1913 Munsterberg publishes first English text in I-O psychology

1930 Mayo publicizes the Hawthorne studies

1941 World War II: Human engineering applied to solve aircraft accidents

1950 Explosion of commercial tests

1982 SIOP founded

1890 Cattell develops first Mental Test

1917 World War I: Scott and Bingham enlist in Army and develop group intelligence tests; Lillian Gilbreth awarded first I-O PhD

1923 Mayo arrives in United States

1932 Viteles publishes first modern text in I-O psychology

1945 I-O psychology becomes Division 14 of the American Psychological Association

1964 Civil Rights Act —Title VII

1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980

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Chapter 1 What Is Industrial and Organizational Psychology?20

intelligence test (the Stanford–Binet test, designed for testing one individual at a time) to make it suitable for mass group testing. This new form of test was called the Army Alpha. (The Army Beta test was like the Army Alpha but was nonverbal and administered to recruits who were illiterate.) When the war ended, private industry set out to emulate the suc- cessful testing of army personnel, and mental ability testing soon became commonplace in the work setting.