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Introduction to Criminology

Second Edition

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Introduction to Criminology Why Do They Do It?

Second Edition

Pamela J. Schram California State University, San Bernardino

Stephen G. Tibbetts California State University, San Bernardino

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Schram, Pamela J., author. | Tibbetts, Stephen G., author.

Title: Introduction to criminology : why do they do it / Pamela J. Schram, California State University, San Bernardino, Stephen G. Tibbetts, California State University, San Bernardino.

Description: Second Edition. | Thousand Oaks : SAGE Publications, [2017] | Revised edition of the authors’ Introduction to criminology, [2014] | Includes bibliographical references and index.

Identifiers: LCCN 2016040618 | ISBN 9781506347561 (pbk. : alk. paper)

Subjects: LCSH: Criminology.

Classification: LCC HV6025 .S38 2017 | DDC 364—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016040618

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Brief Contents

Preface Acknowledgments About the Authors Chapter 1: Introduction to Criminology Chapter 2: Measuring Crime Chapter 3: Classical School of Criminology Thought Chapter 4: Contemporary Classical and Deterrence Research Chapter 5: Early Positivism Chapter 6: Modern Biosocial Perspectives of Criminal Behavior Chapter 7: Psychological/Trait Theories of Crime Chapter 8: Social Structure Theories of Crime I Chapter 9: Social Structure Theories of Crime II Chapter 10: Social Process and Control Theories of Crime Chapter 11: Labeling Theory and Conflict/Marxist/Radical Theories of Crime Chapter 12: Feminist Theories of Crime Chapter 13: Developmental/Life-Course Perspectives Criminality Chapter 14: White-Collar Crime, Organized Crime, and Cybercrime Chapter 15: Hate Crimes, Terrorism, and Home Land Security Chapter 16: Drugs and Crime Glossary Notes Index

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Detailed Contents

Preface Acknowledgments About the Authors Chapter 1: Introduction to Criminology

Introduction Key Concepts to Understanding Criminology

What is a Crime? Case Study: Burke And Hare

What is Criminology and Criminal Justice? The Consensus and Conflict Perspectives of Crime

Learning Check 1.1 The Criminal Justice System

Law Enforcement Courts Corrections The Juvenile Justice System

Learning Check 1.2 Introduction to Comparative Criminology

Applying Theory To Crime: Motor Vehicle Theft Comparative Criminology: Motor Vehicle Theft Criminology Theory

Characteristics of Good Theories Learning Check 1.3

Three Requirements for Determining Causality Why Do They Do It? Diane and Rachel Staudte

Theory Informs Policies and Programs Victimology

Victim Precipitation Incidence/Prevalence of Victimization Child Abuse and Neglect Compensation/Restitution Victim Impact Statements

Learning Check 1.4 Victim Rights Awareness

Conclusion Key Terms Discussion Questions

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Web Resources Chapter 2: Measuring Crime

Introduction Crime Data From Law Enforcement Agencies Case Study: September 11, 2001, Victims

Uniform Crime Reports (UCR) Comparative Criminology: Child Abuse Why Do They Do It? Learning Check 2.1

Supplementary Homicide Reports The National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS) Data Collection Limitations of NIBRS Hate Crime Data Data Collection Law Enforcement Officers Killed and Assaulted Statistics Data Collection

Crime Data from Victims of Crime: The National Crime Victimization Survey Learning Check 2.2

Limitations of the NCVS Comparing the NCVS with the UCR

Crime Data from Self-Report Surveys Monitoring the Future The National Survey on Drug Use and Health National Youth Survey—Family Study

Additional Approaches to Collecting Crime Data The National Youth Gang Survey

Applying Theory to Crime: Hate Crime Spatial Analyses of Crime

Learning Check 2.3 Conclusion Key Terms Discussion Questions Web resources

Chapter 3: Classical School of Criminology Thought Introduction Case Study: Deborah Jeane Palfrey Pre-Classical Perspectives of Crime and Punishment

Punishments under Pre-Classical Perspectives The Age of Enlightenment

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Learning Check 3.1 The Classical School of Criminology

Influences on Beccaria and His Writings Beccaria’s Proposed Reforms and Ideas of Justice Beccaria’s Ideas of the Death Penalty Beccaria’s Concept of Deterrence and the Three Key Elements of Punishment

Learning Check 3.2 Beccaria’s Conceptualization of Specific and General Deterrence Summary of Beccaria’s Ideas and Influence on Policy

Learning Check 3.3 Impact of Beccaria’s Work on Other Theorists

Jeremy Bentham The Neoclassical School of Criminology Why Do They Do It? The Harpe Brothers

Applying Theory to Crime: Other Assaults (Simple) Loss of Dominance of Classical/Neoclassical Theory Policy Implications

Comparative Criminology: Homicide Rates Conclusion Summary of Theories in Chapter 3 Key Terms Discussion Questions Web Resources

Chapter 4: Contemporary Classical and Deterrence Research Introduction Case Study: Wayne Rebirth of Deterrence Theory and Contemporary Research

Formal and Informal Deterrence Rational Choice Theory Learning Check 4.1 Applying Theory to Crime: Driving Under the Influence Comparative Criminology: Threats and Assaults Routine Activities Theory

The Three Elements of Routine Activities Theory Applications of Routine Activities Theory

Learning Check 4.2 Policy Implications Why Do They Do It? The Green River Killer Conclusion Summary of Theories in Chapter 4

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Key Terms Discussion Questions Web Resources

Chapter 5: Early Positivism Introduction Early Biological Theories of Behavior Case Study: Javier

Craniometry Phrenology

Physiognomy Lombroso’s Theory of Atavism and Born Criminals

Lombroso’s Theory of Crime Lombroso’s List of Stigmata Lombroso as the Father of Criminology and THE Father of the Positive School

Learning Check 5.1 Lombroso’s Policy Implications

Why Do They Do It? Dr. Harold Shipman Learning Check 5.2 AFTER Lombroso: The IQ-Testing Era

Goddard’s IQ Test Policy Implications

Sterilization Reexamining Intelligence

Applying Theory to Crime: Burglary Comparative Criminology: Burglary Body Type Theory: Sheldon’s Model of Somatotyping Learning Check 5.3 Learning Check 5.4 Policy Implications Case Study Revisited: Javier Conclusion Summary of Theories in Chapter 5 Key Terms Discussion Questions Web Resources

Chapter 6: Modern Biosocial Perspectives of Criminal Behavior Introduction Nature Versus Nurture: Studies Examining the Influence of Genetics and Environment Case Study: Faith and Hope

Family Studies

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Twin Studies Adoption Studies

Learning Check 6.1 Twins Separated at Birth

Learning Check 6.2 Cytogenetic Studies: The XYY Factor Hormones and Neurotransmitters: Chemicals That Determine Criminal Behavior Applying Theory to Crime: Aggravated Assault Comparative Criminology: Assault Brain Injuries Learning Check 6.3 Central and Autonomic Nervous System Activity Why Do They Do It? Charles Whitman Learning Check 6.4 Biosocial Approaches Toward Explaining Criminal Behavior

Behavioral Genetics Studies Diet/Nutrition Toxins

Policy Implications Conclusion Summary of Theories in Chapter 6 Key Terms Discussion Questions Web Resources

Chapter 7: Psychological/Trait Theories of Crime Introduction Early Psychological Theorizing Regarding Criminal Behavior

Freud’s Model of the Psyche and Implications for Criminal Behavior Case Study: Albert Fish

Hans Eysenck: Theory of Crime and Personality Lawrence Kohlberg: Moral Development

John Bowlby: Attachment Theory Example Case History: Derek B.

Modern Versions of Psychological Perspectives of Criminality IQ and Criminal Behavior

Learning Check 7.1 James Q. Wilson and Richard J. Herrnstein: Crime and Human Nature

Applying Theory to Crime: Rape Comparative Criminology: Sexual Offenses

Psychopathy and Crime

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Box 7.1 Mental Health and the Criminal Justice System Learning Check 7.2

Treatment Why Do They Do It? Ariel Castro

Mental Health Courts Insanity Defense

Learning Check 7.3 Conclusion Summary of Theories in Chapter 7 Key Terms Discussion Questions Web Resources

Chapter 8: Social Structure Theories of Crime I Introduction Early Theories of Social Structure: Early to Late 1800s

Early European Theorists: Comte, Guerry, and Quetelet Case Study: The Black Binder Bandit Durkheim and the Concept of Anomie Learning Check 8.1 Learning Check 8.2 Merton’s Strain Theory

Cultural Context and Assumptions of Strain Theory Learning Check 8.3

Evidence and Criticisms of Merton’s Strain Theory Variations of Merton’s Strain Theory

Cohen’s Theory of Lower-Class Status Frustration and Gang Formation Cloward and Ohlin’s Theory of Differential Opportunity

General Strain Theory Why Do They Do It? Christopher Dorner

Evidence and Criticisms of General Strain Theory Learning Check 8.4 Why Do They Do It? Gang Lu Applying Theory To Crime: Bank Robbery Summary of Strain Theories Policy Implications of Strain Theory Comparative Criminology: Bank Robbery Conclusion Summary of Theories in Chapter 8 Key Terms

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Discussion Questions Web Resources

Chapter 9: Social Structure Theories of Crime II Introduction The Ecological School and the Chicago School of Criminology

Cultural Context: Chicago in the1800s and Early 1900s Case Study: Los Angeles Gangs

Ecological Principles in City Growth and Concentric Circles Shaw and McKay’s Theory of Social Disorganization Learning Check 9.1

Reaction and Research for Social Disorganization Theory Applying Theory to Crime: Stalking Cultural and Subcultural Theories of Crime

Early Theoretical Developments and Research in Cultural/Subcultural Theory Learning Check 9.2 Comparative Criminology: Violence Against Females Criticisms of Cultural Theories of Crime Policy Implications Why Do They Do It? Whitey Bulger Conclusion Summary of Theories in Chapter 9 Key Terms Discussion Questions Web Resources

Chapter 10: Social Process and Control Theories of Crime Introduction Learning Theories Case Study: The Weavers

Differential Association Theory Learning Check 10.1 Differential Reinforcement Theory

Elements of Differential Reinforcement Theory Differential Reinforcement Theory Propositions

Applying Theory to Crime: Murder Psychological Learning Models

Operant Conditioning Comparative Criminology: Homicide

Bandura’s Theory of Imitation/Modeling Reaction to Differential Reinforcement Theory

Neutralization Theory

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Techniques of Neutralization Learning Check 10.2

Reaction to Neutralization Theory Control Theories Early Control Theories of Human Behavior

Thomas Hobbes’s Social Contract Emile Durkheim’s Idea of Collective Conscience Freud’s Concept of Id and Superego

Early Control Theories of Crime Reiss’s Control Theory Toby’s Concept of Stake in Conformity Nye’s Control Theory Reckless’s Containment Theory

Modern Social Control Theories Matza’s Drift Theory Hirschi’s Social Bonding Theory

Integrated Social Control Theories Tittle’s Control–Balance Theory Hagan’s Power–Control Theory

A General Theory of Crime: Low Self-Control Psychological Aspects of Low Self-Control Physiological Aspects of Low Self-Control

Learning Check 10.3 Why Do They Do It ? Jesse Pomeroy Conclusion Summary of Theories in Chapter 10 Key Terms Discussion Questions Web Resources

Chapter 11: Labeling Theory and Conflict/Marxist/Radical Theories of Crime Introduction Labeling Theory Case Study: The Flint, Michigan, Water Crisis Foundation of Labeling Theory

Frank Tannenbaum: The Dramatization of Evil Edwin M. Lemert: Primary and Secondary Deviance Howard S. Becker: The Dimensions of Deviance Edwin M. Schur: Defining Deviance Basic Assumptions of Labeling Theory

Learning Check 11.1

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Evaluating Labeling Theory Research on Labeling Theory Critiques of Labeling Theory

Why Do They Do It? Brian Banks and Wanetta Gibson Conflict Perspectives Applying Theory to Crime: Larceny-Theft The Conservative (Pluralist) Conflict Perspectives

George Vold: Group Conflict Theory Comparative Criminology: Larceny-Theft

Austin Turk: The Power to Define Criminal Behavior Richard Quinney: The Social Reality of Crime

Learning Check 11.2 The Radical Conflict Perspectives

Marxist Criminology William Chambliss and Robert Seidman and the U.S. Criminal Justice System

Additional Explanations of Crime Using a Marxist Framework Colvin and Pauly’s Integrated Structural-Marxist Theory Herman and Julia Siegel Schwendinger and Adolescent Subcultures Steven Spitzer and Problem Populations

Learning Check 11.3 Evaluating Conflict Theories

Research on Conflict Theories Critiques of Conflict Perspectives

Why Do They Do It? Ted Kaczynski Additional Critical Theories

Peacemaking Criminology Restorative Justice Perspective Left Realism

Policies Related to Labeling and Conflict Theories of Crime Conclusion Summary of Theories in Chapter 11 Key Terms Discussion Questions Web Resources

Chapter 12: Feminist Theories of Crime Introduction

A Brief History of Feminism in the United States Case Study: Gertrude Baniszewski

Key Terms of Feminist Perspectives Learning Check 12.1

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Feminist Perspectives on Gender Traditional or Conservative Perspective Liberal Feminism Radical Feminism Marxist and Socialist Feminism Postmodern Feminism

Learning Check 12.2 Additional Feminist Perspectives

Traditional Theories of Female Crime Comparative Criminology: Trafficking in Persons

Cesare Lombroso: Physical Attributes of Female Offenders W. I. Thomas: The Biology of Female Offending Sigmund Freud: Female Inferiority Otto Pollak: Hidden Female Criminality

Learning Check 12.3 Feminist Critiques of Previous Research Studying Women and Crime Liberation Thesis Applying Theory to Crime: Female Sex Offenders Power-Control Theory Feminist Perspectives on Understanding Crime and Criminal Behavior Why Do They Do It? Lavinia Fisher

Objectivity and Subjectivity Qualitative “Versus” Quantitative Analyses Feminist Criminology

Learning Check 12.4 Critiques of Feminist Theories Applying Theory to Crime: Robbery Comparative Criminology: Robbery Policies Based on Feminist Theories of Crime Conclusion Summary of Theories in Chapter 12 Key Terms Discussion Questions Web Resources

Chapter 13: Developmental/Life-Course Perspectives criminality Basic Concepts and Early Developmental Theory Case Study: The Teen Burglar Antidevelopmental Theory: Low Self-Control Theory Learning Check 13.1 Comparative Criminology: Child Abuse

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Modern Developmental/Life-Course Perspectives Sampson and Laub’s Developmental Model Moffitt’s Developmental Taxonomy

Why Do They Do It ? Henry Earl Thornberry’s Interactional Model of Offending

Applying Theory to Crime: Arson Learning Check 13.2 Policy Implications Comparative Criminology: Crime Rates Conclusion Summary of Theories in Chapter 13 Key Terms Discussion Questions Web Resources

Chapter 14: WHITE-COLLAR CRIME, ORGANIZED CRIME, AND CYBERCRIME Introduction What is White-Collar Crime? Definitions and History of White-Collar Crime Case Study: William T. Walters Why Do They Do It? Charles Ponzi Incidence and Impact of White-Collar Crime on Society Learning Check 14.1 Why Do They Do It ? Enron

Economic Costs Physical Costs Breakdown in Social Fabric

Types of White-Collar Crime Crimes Against the Environment

Learning Check 14.2 Labor Violations Transnational Comparisons of White-Collar/Corporate Crime

Comparative Criminology: Bribery Theoretical Explanations of White-Collar Crime Applying Theory to Crime: White-Collar Crime What is Organized Crime?

Definition of Organized Crime Historical Context of Organized Crime in the United States Types of Criminal Organizations The Mafia Outlaw Motorcycle Gangs

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Prison Gangs Urban Street Gangs

Criminal Justice Responses to Organized Crime Chicago Crime Commission The Wickersham Commission The Kefauver Committee

Comparative Criminology: Organized Crime The McClellan Committee The President’s Commission on Law Enforcement and the Administration of Justice Organized Crime Control Act of 1970 The President’s Commission on Organized Crime

Learning Check 14.3 Theoretical Explanations of Organized Crime

What is Cybercrime? Definition of Cybercrime Types of Cybercrime Identity Theft Child Pornography Internet Fraud Cyberstalking Criminal Justice Responses to Cybercrime Relevant Legislation Theoretical Explanations of Cybercrime

Learning Check 14.4 Conclusion Key Terms Discussion Questions Web Resources

Chapter 15: Hate Crimes, Terrorism, and Home land Security Introduction What Is a Hate Crime? Case Study: Charleston, South Carolina, Shooting

Definition of Hate Crimes Hate Groups Anti-Hate-Crime Legislation Hate Crime Statistics Act of 1990

Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994 Church Arson Prevention Act of 1996 Campus Hate Crimes Right to Know Act of 1997 Matthew Shepard and James Byrd, Jr., Hate Crimes Prevention Act of 2009

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Model State Legislation: Hate Crimes/Violence Against People Experiencing Homelessness Why Do They Do It? Matthew Shepard

Theoretical Explanations of Hate Crimes Learning Check 15.1 Multicide

Categories of Mass Killers School Attacks Disparity in Rates of Committing Multicide Across Race and Religious Ideology What Is Terrorism?

Definition of Terrorism Typologies of Terrorism Extent of Terrorism Historical Context of Modern Terrorism The French Revolution Late 19th and Early 20th Century Terrorism

Applying Theory to Crime: Terrorism Comparative Criminology: Terrorism

Contemporary Terrorism Current Context of Terrorism Organizational Networks

Financial Support Influence of the Media Domestic Terrorism

Theoretical Explanations of Terrorism Learning Check 15.2 What Is Homeland Security?

Origins of Homeland Security Definition of Homeland Security Homeland Security Organizational Network

Agencies Responsible for Homeland Security Why Do They Do It? Omar Mateen Bureaucratic Problems and Solutions Issues Related to Civil Liberties

The Torture Debate Human Rights The Constitution

USA PATRIOT Act of 2001 Learning Check 15.3 Policy Implications Conclusion

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Key Terms Discussion Questions Web Resources

Chapter 16: Drugs and Crime Introduction Commonly Abused Drugs

Depressants Case Study: Kenneth Saltzman Diagnosing Alcohol Problems

Narcotics Stimulants Other Drugs

Learning Check 16.1 Trends of Drug Use

Early History of Cocaine and Opioid Addiction Prohibition Era “Reefer Madness” The 1960s and the Baby Boomers The “War on Drugs” Era Current Trends Regarding Drug Use

Why Do They Do It? Ryan Thomas Haight The Drug-Crime Link Learning Check 16.2

The Tripartite Conceptual Framework Modern Policies Related to Reducing Drug Use

Interdiction Strategies Eradication Strategies

Comparative Criminology: Drugs Drug Courts Maintenance and Decriminalization Harm Reduction

Applying Theory to Crime: Drug Selling/Trafficking and Drug Use Learning Check 16.3 Recommendations for Future Policies Why Do They Do It? Pablo Escobar Conclusion Key Terms Discussion Questions Web Resources

Glossary

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Notes Index

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Preface

If you are considering a career in any aspect of criminal justice, and want to know more about the motivations and socio-psychological make-up of serious offenders, then this book is meant for you! Introduction to Criminology: Why Do They Do It? places a primary emphasis on applying the dominant theories in the existing criminological literature for why people commit crimes, and we also examine in detail many recent true (as well as many hypothetical) examples of serious crimes, and demonstrate theoretical applications for why they offended in those particular cases. While other textbooks do a decent job in discussing both the basic theories, as well as exploring the various types of crime, our book is distinctively unique in that it integrates various street crimes within each chapter, and applies theories that are appropriate in explaining such criminal activity. This is extremely important because most instructors never get to the latter typology chapters in a given semester or term. So our approach is to incorporate them into the theoretical chapters in which they apply directly to the theories that are being presented in the sections that they are most appropriate.

The emphasis on specific examples and true crime stories, such as notable serial killers and other recent crime stories, as well as utilizing established theoretical models to explain their offenses in each chapter, is another primary distinction of this book from that of most other criminology textbooks. Obviously, this book is meant to be used as a textbook in an introductory course in criminology, but due to the emphasis on applied theoretical explanations, this book is highly appropriate for higher-level undergraduate and graduate courses in criminological theory, as well as a reference for any person working in the field of criminal justice. This integration of true crimes (and some hypothetical examples) in this text occurs on both a general level, such as our Applying Crime to Theory section in each chapter, as well as more specific cases – the High Profile Crime sections—in each section, which often involve notable cases of serial killers, mass murderers, or other notorious example of offender/offending.

The subtitle of our book, “Why Do They Do It?” is the running theme in this book. Our goal in writing this book was to apply established theories of crime, which are often seen as abstract and hypothetical, to actual examples that have occurred, as well as to hypothetical examples that are quite likely to occur. To this end, we explore the various reasons of offending or the “why they do it” the subtitle for this book for various cases, from the first documented serial killers in the US—the Harpe Brothers in the late-1700s—to the most recent killers, such as California cop-killer/spree-killer Christopher Dorner in 2013 and Dylann Roof, a 21-year-old white male, entering the Emanuel African Methodist Episcopal Church in Charleston, South Carolina in 2015 and shooting numerous members. Importantly, theories will be applied throughout these discussions of the actual crimes. We shall see that some of the theories that applied to the earliest crimes also seem to apply to the most modern crimes as well.

Additionally, our textbook is unique from others because it does not include separate chapters on violent or property crimes, because we have worked those into each chapter, and applied them to the theories explored in those chapters. We strongly believe that by integrating discussions of such serious crimes—all of the FBI Index offenses of murder, rape, robbery, aggravated assault, burglary, motor vehicle theft, larceny, and arson,

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as well as other non-Index crimes such as simple assault and driving under the influence—into the theoretical chapters is the best approach toward explaining why individuals commit such offenses. And the flip side is good as well; by discussing the offenses with the theories, this also provides an example of how to apply theories toward explaining criminal behavior. Again, this goes back to our theme of “why do they do it?” Our integration of such specific offenses into the chapters that discuss relevant theories in explaining them is the best way to approach such material and demonstrates our goal: apply the appropriate theories for the specific crime.

Additionally, our book is distinguished from other textbooks in that we don’t have an overwhelming amount of boxes and special sections that diverge from the text material. Rather, we narrowed down the special sections into three basic categories, largely based on the goal of this text, which are mostly dedicated to applying criminological theory to actual offenses, or true cases. We also added a special section in each chapter regarding international comparison of certain offenses (comparative criminology), with an emphasis on how various rates of such crimes differ across the world, especially as compared to the United States. The offenses we compare range widely, from homicide to human trafficking to the correlations of beer consumption and assaults (Ireland was a high outlier). We felt this was important for readers to see how the US compares to other nations in terms of various criminal offenses. So our goal is for readers to understand the ever-growing global nature of criminality, and where the United States is positioned regarding various rates and trends in illegal behavior.

This text is also unique from all of the others by providing a separate chapter on feminist criminology. Given that over half of our citizens are female, and there has been a recent increase in females committing certain crimes (e.g., simple assault), this is an important addition to the study of crime. Furthermore, while males are still universally responsible for the vast majority of violent acts—murder, robbery, aggravated assault—in all societies, if we can understand why females commit so much less violence, then maybe this will have significant implications for reducing male violence. So this separate chapter is vitally important for not only understanding female offenders, but also has implications for male criminals as well.

Another unique aspect of this book is that we devoted separate chapters on the developmental/life-course perspective, as well as modern biosocial approaches regarding propensities to commit crime. These two frameworks/perspectives have become some of the most accepted and valid frameworks on understanding why individuals engage in criminal behavior, but most other criminology textbooks do not examine these topics as closely as we do. A recent study that surveyed key criminologists in the field showed that the developmental/life-course perspective ranked as the second most accepted perspective in explaining chronic offending (and biosocial perspective ranked #6, out of 24+ theories), yet most other textbooks have only a small portion or shallow coverage of this perspective. This developmental/life-course perspective, as well as the biosocial perspective, currently is the “cutting edge” of the field right now, and our chapters on those frameworks highlights the importance of these theoretical models, as well as the recent empirical studies that have been done in those areas of study.

Our text does follow a somewhat traditional format in that it presents theories chronologically from the

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Classical School to the Positive School of Criminology, discussing all of the established theories in the areas of social structure, social process, and conflict theories as they became popular over time. However, we place much emphasis on examining why certain theories became popular at certain times, which is often due more to politics and societal trends than what empirical studies showed regarding the empirical validity of the given theory. These political and societal trends are vital in every aspect of our lives, and criminological theory is no different. So we tried to work that principle into the text throughout each chapter, showing how crime and theorizing about it is just one manifestation about society at that time period.

Finally, our special typology chapters, located in the last three chapters of the book, are dedicated to more contemporary topics, such as cybercrime, hate crimes, terrorism, white-collar/corporate crimes, drug-related offenses, as well as several others that do not fit into the FBI Index crimes. We have done our best to provide the most current research on these topics, and we hope that readers will gain far more insight on these topics. Furthermore, we believe that our coverage of these modern forms of offending are the most vital in understanding the current state of criminal offending occurring in our society.

Our book also provides an ancillary package with numerous resources to support instructors and students.

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Digital Resources

SAGE edge offers a robust online environment featuring an impressive array of tools and resources for review, study, and further exploration, keeping both instructors and students on the cutting edge of teaching and learning. Learn more at edge.sagepub.com/schram2e.

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http://edge.sagepub.com/schram2e
Instructor Teaching Site

SAGE edge for Instructors supports your teaching by making it easy to integrate quality

content and create a rich learning environment for students. A password-protected site, available at edge.sagepub.com/schram2e, features resources that have been designed to help instructors plan and teach their courses. These resources include an extensive test bank, chapter-specific PowerPoint presentations, lecture notes, sample syllabi for semester and quarter courses, class activities, web resources, and links to the video, audio, city and state rankings, author podcasts, and SAGE journal articles.

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http://edge.sagepub.com/schram2e
Student Study Site

SAGE edge for Students provides a personalized approach to help you accomplish your coursework goals in an easy-to-use learning environment. An open-access student study site is available at edge.sagepub.com/schram2e. This site provides access to the video, audio, city and state rankings, author podcasts, and SAGE journal articles as well as several study tools including eFlashcards, web quizzes, web resources and chapter outlines.

Available tools that can be found in the Interactive eBook:

Videos: Links are provided to videos that correlate to the chapter content and increase student understanding.

Premium videos: Available only in the Interactive eBook, original videos showcase author Stephen Tibbetts discussing real-world examples and strange crimes and a first-person view of the correctional system from former offenders.

Journal articles: Articles from highly ranked SAGE journals such as Crime and Delinquency, Theoretical Criminology, Criminal Justice Review, and more can be accessed.

Audio Links: Links are provided to audio clips that enhance student comprehension of chapter content.

Web Links: Links are provided to relevant websites that further explore chapter-related topics.

Access SAGE premium video through the Interactive eBook!

Learn more at edge.sagepub.com/schram2e/access

Overall, we really hope you appreciate our unique approach to studying criminology, and hope you believe that after reading this book that you will have a better understanding of why offenders do what they do.

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http://edge.sagepub.com/schram2e
http://edge.sagepub.com/schram2e/access
New to This Edition

As we mentioned previously, a constant theme of this book is “Why Do They Do It?” We explore different reasons of offending by presenting various cases, both hypothetical as well as actual cases, current as well as historical. For this edition, we have updated some of these materials, including more recent crime data as well as more current news stories. Other significant changes in this edition include the following:

A more extensive discussion on victimization which focuses on victims of crime and presents key concepts in victimology. An entire chapter is dedicated to measuring crime (Chapter 2). This chapter provides students a strong, and essential, foundation to understanding and appreciating how crime data enhance our understanding of criminal activity. A new section on multicide examines the motivations behind mass murders, school shootings as well as issues of race and religious ideology linked to these types of crimes. Up-to-date coverage of contemporary issues such as gun control, mental health, disparity in the criminal justice system, cybercrime and internet fraud, hate crimes, and terrorism. Critical thinking questions have been included with other features of this text to help students understand the connection between the real-world examples and theory. The revised learning objectives follow Bloom’s taxonomy and provide students with a clearer pedagogical framework.

Pamela J. Schram, PhD

Stephen G. Tibbetts, PhD

California State University, San Bernardino

In the electronic edition of the book you have purchased, there are several icons that reference links (videos, journal articles) to additional content. Though the electronic edition links are not live, all content referenced may be accessed at edge.sagepub.com/schram2e . This URL is referenced at several points throughout your electronic edition.

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Acknowledgments

We would first like to thank Publisher Jerry Westby. It was Jerry's idea for us to write this book, and he has “gone to bat” for us numerous times regarding various unique things about this text, such as integrating the violent and property street crimes into the theoretical chapters, rather than just having separate chapters on these topics at the end of the book that instructors often don't get time to cover in a single term, as well as including separate chapters on feminist and developmental/life-course perspectives. This is a rather unorthodox approach, compared to other introduction to criminology textbooks, but Jerry was fully supportive, even at the outset. So we offer him the highest level of respect for his support in backing us on our rather deviant way of approaching this material.

We would also like to thank the staff at SAGE Publishing, for doing such a great job at putting the book together, which includes checking all of the mistakes we made in drafts of the chapters, as well as so many other things that go into producing this book. We specifically want to thank Associate Editor Theresa Accomazzo for all of her help in getting the drafts of the first edition in order to be sent to the copyeditor, and for giving advice on how to make the book far more polished than it was in its original draft. We also want to thank our copyeditor, , who has gone to great lengths to make us sound much better than we are. She did a fantastic job, and it was a pleasure working with her. Also, we would like give a special thanks to Digital Content Editor Nicole Mangona and Laura Kirkhuff, who were invaluable in finding the various links to videos and other sources that were vital in the e-text version of the text and for pulling together the new original filming for the second edition. Overall, we give the greatest thanks to all of the SAGE staff that worked on this book!

Pamela Schram would like to acknowledge some very special people who had an influence on her life prior to her college years. First and foremost, she would like to thank her ninth grade English teacher, Mr. Joe Devlin. She remembers her first day of English class. Mr. Devlin said, “I can't learn you. First, that is poor English, and second, that is not how it works. I can teach you, but the learning part is on you.” Obviously, this has “stuck” with her; it has been over 30 years and she still remembers his “opening” lecture. Later, he was Pam's Latin teacher; Pam continued to take Latin and she was the only student for Latin III. Mr. Devlin would stay after school to conduct this class. As you can imagine, this was not a popular after school activity. But, it taught Pam an important lesson as to how a truly dedicated teacher cares about his students.

Pam would also like to acknowledge Mrs. Frank. She was her second grade teacher. Mrs. Frank was one of those teachers who would incorporate learning with fun things, especially arts and crafts. Mrs. Frank encouraged Pam to write, especially short stories. These were the times when students learned cursive writing on paper with the various lines for lower and upper case. Pam still has some of those short stories written on the “special writing paper. “ It brings back many fond memories as well as an appreciation for another special teacher who touched her life.

Pam would finally like to give a special thanks to her organ teacher, Mrs. Cessna. (As you can tell, Pam wasn't

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considered popular in school.) Mrs. Cessna was one of the most patient teachers Pam has ever had in terms of continuously giving her encouraging words. It may have also helped that Mrs. Cessna had some hearing difficulties. When most of her friends were taking piano, she decided to try organ lessons. She obviously endured some ridicule, especially from her brothers. Their words of encouragement were something like, “Well, with those lessons you can one day play at the Detroit Tiger stadium.”

As Pam has gotten older, she has realized the numerous people that have touched her life in so many special ways. One of those special people is her co-author Steve Tibbetts. Steve is an extremely intelligent and well- respected criminologist in the field. He is also a wonderful friend with those important words of encouragement, usually with a sense of humor. He has been very patient and understanding with her not just when writing this book but during his years at CSUSB. Through his friendship, he has helped her to be a better person.

Stephen Tibbetts would like to thank some of the various individuals who helped him complete this book. First, he would like to thank some of the professors he had while earning his undergraduate degree in criminal justice at the University of Florida, who first exposed him to the study of crime and inspired him to become a criminologist. These professors include Ron Akers, Donna Bishop, and Lonn Lanza-Kaduce. He would also like to thank several professors who were key influences in his studies during his graduate studies at University of Maryland, such as Denise Gottfredson, Colin Loftin, David McDowell, Lawrence Sherman, and Charles Wellford. A special thanks goes to Raymond Paternoster, who was his mentor during his graduate studies at Maryland, and provided the best advice and support that any mentor could have given.

Tibbetts would also like to mention the support and influence that work with Alex Piquero, and his wife, Nicole Piquero, had on his career. He was lucky enough to share an office with Alex early on in graduate school, and the work that they did together early on in his career was key in inspiring him to do more work on biosocial and life-course criminology, which are both important portions of this book. Tibbetts' collaboration with Nicole Piquero on the issues of white-collar crime was also important, and has led to more recent studies in this often neglected topic of illegal behavior. He would also like to acknowledge several colleagues who have been important in his research in more recent years, such as John Paul Wright at University of Cincinnati, Nichole H. Rafter at Northeastern University, Chris L. Gibson at University of Florida, Kevin Beaver at Florida State University, and Cesar Rebellon at University of New Hampshire.

Tibbetts would also like to include a special acknowledgment to Jose Rivera, who has contributed much to this book in terms of both video and written sections. Jose has gone above-and-beyond in trying to contribute to the information provided in this book, given his experience as a former incarcerated inmate for over 9 years in various prisons in Southern California. He has shown that such inmates can excel after they have been incarcerated, not only by earning his Master's degree in Communication Studies, but by becoming a fantastic educator, which was proven when he was awarded the Graduate Teaching Assistant of the Year Award by his college at California State University, San Bernardino, in 2012. Jose also recently was a recipient of the President Obama's Presidential Volunteer Service Award in 2012 for his work in programs that promote educational opportunities for Latinos.

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Finally, but most important, Tibbetts would especially like to thank his co-author on this book, Pamela Schram, for providing him with the inspiration, motivation, and collaboration for completing this project. Without Pam's constant support and advice, his work on this book could not have materialized. So he gives the highest acknowledgement to Pam; she will always be his most trusted consigliere.

Pam and Steve would like to thank the reviewers of the initial proposal for their advice and critiques. They would also like to express their sincere appreciation to their colleagues who reviewed the text and gave them invaluable feedback:

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Reviewers of First Edition

Kevin Beaver, Florida State University—Tallahassee Doris Chu, Arkansas State University—Jonesboro Christopher Davis, Campbell University—Buies Creek Melissa Deller, University of Wisconsin-Whitewater Daniel Dexheimer, San Jose State University Tina Freiburger, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee Chris L. Gibson, University of Florida Jennifer Grimes, Indiana State University—Terre Haute W. Bruce Johnson, Houston Community College/Northeast College Michael A Long, Oklahoma State University Scott Maggard, Old Dominion University—Norfolk PJ McGann, University Of Michigan—Ann Arbor Anna Netterville, University of Louisiana at Monroe Angela Overton, Old Dominion University—Norfolk Allison Payne, Villanova University—Villanova Lacey Rohledef, University of Cincinnati Anne Strouth, North Central State College—Mansfield Patricia Warren, Florida State University—Tallahassee Henriikka Weir, University Of Texas At Dallas—Richardson Douglas Weiss, University of Maryland Shonda Whetstone, Blinn College

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Reviewers of Second Edition:

Marilyn S. Chamberlin, Western Carolina University Dan Dexheimer, San Jose State University Terri L. Earnest, University of Texas at San Antonio Shanell Sanchez-Smith, Colorado Mesa University Julie A. Siddique, University of North Texas at Dallas Bradley Wright, University of Connecticut Selena M. Respass, Miami Dade College Charles Crawford, Western Michigan University Tina L Freiburger, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee Frank P. Giarrizzi, Jr., Colorado Technical University Lindsey Upton, Old Dominion University Egbert Zavala, University of Texas at El Paso Christopher Salvatore, PhD, Montclair State University

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About the Authors

Pamela J. Schram has published articles on such topics as violent female offenders, female juvenile gang and non-gang members, as well as issues pertaining to women in prison, such as stereotypes about mothers in prison and vocational programming. She has co-authored three books on women in prison, theory and practice in feminist criminology, and a juvenile delinquency text. She is currently interested in issues pertaining to elderly prisoners. Dr. Schram has been involved in various research projects that have primarily focused on evaluating treatment effectiveness such as juvenile diversion options and programs for at-risk youths as well as programs for women in prison. Dr. Schram received her Ph.D. from Michigan State University. She is a professor in the Department of Criminal Justice. She is currently the Associate Dean of the College of Social and Behavior Sciences at California State University, San Bernardino.

Stephen G. Tibbetts is a professor in the Department of Criminal Justice at California State University, San Bernardino (CSUSB). He earned his undergraduate degree in criminology and law (with high honors) from the

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University of Florida, and his masters and doctorate degrees from the University of Maryland. For more

than a decade, he worked as a sworn officer of the court (juvenile) in both Washington County, Tennessee, and San Bernardino County, California, providing recommendations for disposing numerous juvenile court cases. He has published more than 40 scholarly publications in scientific journals (including Criminology, Justice Quarterly, Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, Journal of Criminal Justice, and Criminal Justice and Behavior), as well as eight books, all examining various topics regarding criminal offending and policies to reduce such behavior. One of these books, American Youth Gangs at the Millennium, was given a Choice award by the American Library Association as an Outstanding Academic Title. Tibbetts received a Golden Apple award from the Mayor of San Bernardino for being chosen as the Outstanding Professor at the CSUSB campus in 2010. One of his recent books, Criminals in the Making: Criminality Across the Life Course (Sage, 2008), was recently lauded by The Chronicle of Higher Education as one of the key scholarly publications in advancing the study of biosocial criminology.

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1 Introduction to Criminology

Often, crimes such as the mass shooting in San Bernardino, California, lead people to ask, “Why do they do it?”

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Francine Orr/Getty Images

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Learning Objectives As you read this chapter, consider the following topics:

Describe the various definitions of crime, including the difference between criminal behavior and deviant behavior. Distinguish between criminology and criminal justice. Determine whether a theory would be considered from a consensus or conflict perspective of crime. List and describe the three general components of the criminal justice system. Identify some of the key distinguishing features of the juvenile justice system compared with the adult criminal justice system. Identify the criteria that characterize a good theory. Identify key concepts associated with victimology.

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Introduction

When introducing students to criminology, it is essential to stress how various concepts and principles of theoretical development are woven into our understanding of crime as well as policy. This chapter begins with a brief discussion of such concepts as crime, criminal, deviant, criminology, criminal justice, and consensus and conflict perspectives of crime. The following section presents a general summary of the different stages of the adult criminal justice system as well as the juvenile justice system. Next, this chapter illustrates how criminology informs policies and programs. Unfortunately, there are instances when policies lack evidence and are not founded on criminological theory and rigorous research but are more of a “knee-jerk” reaction. The concluding section provides students with an overview of victimology and various issues related to victims of crime.

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Key Concepts in Understanding Criminology

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What Is a Crime?

There are various definitions of crime. Many scholars have disagreed as to what should be considered a crime. For instance, if one takes a legalistic approach, then crime is that which violates the law. But should one consider whether certain actions cause serious harm? If governments violate the basic human rights of their

citizens, are they engaging in criminal behavior?4 As illustrated by these questions, the issue with defining crime from a legalistic approach is that one jurisdiction may designate an action as a crime while another does not recognize such an action as a crime. Some acts, such as murder, are against the law in most countries as well as in all jurisdictions of the United States. These are referred to as acts of mala in se, meaning the act is “inherently and essentially evil, that is immoral in its nature and injurious in its consequence, without any

regard to the fact of its being noticed or punished by the law of the state.”5

Other crimes are known as acts of mala prohibita, which means “a wrong prohibited; an act which is not

inherently immoral, but becomes so because its commission is expressly forbidden by positive law.”6 For instance, prostitution is illegal in most jurisdictions in the United States. However, prostitution is legal, and licensed, in most counties of Nevada. The same can be said about gambling and drug possession or use.

This text focuses on both mala in se and mala prohibita offenses as well as other acts of deviance. Deviant acts are not necessarily against the law but are considered atypical and may be deemed immoral rather than illegal. For example, in Nevada in the 1990s, a young man watched his friend (who was later criminally prosecuted) kill a young girl in a casino bathroom. He never told anyone of the murder. While most people would consider this highly immoral, at that time, Nevada state laws did not require people who witnessed a killing to report it to authorities. This act was deviant, because most would consider it immoral; it was not criminal, because it was not against the laws of that jurisdiction. It is essential to note that as a result of this event, Nevada made withholding such information a criminal act.

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Case Study

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Burke and Hare During the 1820s, Edinburgh, Scotland, was a major center for those pursuing an education in medicine. Almost 60 years prior to Jack the Ripper, the first serial murderers, William Burke and William Hare, captured media attention. During a 12-month period, Burke and Hare killed 16 people in Edinburgh before being arrested in November 1828. What made these killings so sordid was that Burke and Hare committed them for the sole purpose of selling the cadavers to medical schools for dissection and medical research. They were assisted by Burke’s companion, Helen M’Dougal, and Hare’s wife, Margaret. Burke and Hare would lure their victims with alcohol. Then, they would suffocate their inebriated victims by lying on their chests and holding their mouths and nostrils closed. Subsequently, Burke and Hare would sell these cadavers, “no questions asked,” to Dr. Robert Knox, a promising anatomist.

During the trial, Hare was granted immunity in return for testifying against Burke. Burke was found guilty and sentenced to death by hanging. He was hanged on January 28, 1829. Ironically, the next day, Burke’s cadaver was donated to the University of Edinburgh,

where Professor Alexander Monro conducted the dissection in the anatomical theater.1 In fact, the University of Edinburgh Anatomical Museum has an exhibit of William Burke’s skeletal remains. A description of the exhibit ends with a 19th-century children’s rhyme:

Up the close and down the stair

In the house with Burke and Hare

Burke’s the butcher

Hare’s the thief

Knox the boy who buys the beef.2

In January 2016, Arthur and Elizabeth Rathburn from Grosse Point Park, Michigan (six miles outside Detroit), were indicted for running a black-market body part business. The Rathburns obtained most of the cadavers from two Chicago-area body donation labs. Many of the families who donated the bodies of their loved ones did so with the belief that they would go to science. A number of these cadavers were infected with HIV, hepatitis B, and other diseases. The Rathburns would use chainsaws, band saws, and reciprocating saws to butcher these cadavers for body parts. The Rathburns stored body parts from over 1,000 people inside a warehouse. Subsequently, they would sell these butchered body parts to medical and dental trainees. However, they sometimes did not disclose to their customers that these body

parts were infected with disease.3

Over 180 years separate these two cases; the technological expertise needed to carry out these crimes significantly changed during this time. However, one consistent theme that links these two cases is motive—monetary gain. This is one of the most fascinating aspects to studying crime—although technology may have changed how crimes are committed (e.g., Internet fraud), have the explanations (i.e., “why they do it”) changed?

WHAT MADE THESE KILLINGS SO SORDID WAS THAT BURKE AND HARE COMMITTED THEM FOR THE SOLE PURPOSE OF SELLING THE CADAVERS TO MEDICAL SCHOOLS FOR DISSECTION AND MEDICAL RESEARCH.

Other acts of deviance are not necessarily seen as immoral but are considered strange and violate social norms, such as purposely belching at a formal dinner. These types of deviant acts are relevant even if not considered criminal under the legal definition, for individuals engaging in these types of activities reveal a disposition toward antisocial behavior often linked to criminal behavior. Further, some acts are moving from being deemed deviant to being declared illegal, such as using a cell phone while driving or smoking cigarettes in public. Many jurisdictions are moving to have these behaviors made illegal and have been quite successful, especially in New York and California.

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While most mala in se activities are also considered highly deviant, this is not necessarily the case for mala prohibita acts. For instance, speeding on a highway (a mala prohibita act) is not deviant, because many people engage in this act. Thus, while this is illegal, it is not considered deviant. This book presents theories for all

these types of activities, even those that do not violate the law.7

crime: there are various definitions of crime. From a legalistic approach, crime is that which violates the law.

mala in se: acts that are considered inherently evil.

mala prohibita: acts that are considered crimes primarily because they have been declared bad by the legal codes in that jurisdiction.

deviance: behaviors that are not normal; includes many illegal acts as well as activities that are not necessarily criminal but are unusual and often violate social norms.

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What Is Criminology and Criminal Justice?

The term criminology was first coined by the Italian law professor Raffaele Garofalo in 1885 (in Italian, criminologia). In 1887, French anthropologist Paul Topinard used it for the first time in French

(criminologie).8 In 1934, American criminologist Edwin Sutherland defined criminology as

the body of knowledge regarding crime as a social phenomenon. It includes within its scope the process of making laws, of breaking laws, and of reacting toward the breaking of laws. . . . The objective of criminology is the development of a body of general and verified principles and of other types of

knowledge regarding this process of law, crime, and treatment or prevention.9

Criminology is the scientific study of crime, especially why people engage in criminal behavior. While other textbooks may provide a more complex definition of crime, the word scientific distinguishes our definition

from other perspectives and examinations of crime.10 Philosophical and legal examinations of crime are based on logic and deductive reasoning—for example, by developing what makes logical sense. Journalists play a key role in examining crime by exploring what is happening in criminal justice and revealing injustices as well as new forms of crime. However, the philosophical, legal, and journalistic perspectives of crime are not scientific because they do not involve the use of the scientific method.

Criminal justice often refers to the various criminal justice agencies and institutions (e.g., police, courts, and corrections) that are interrelated and work together toward common goals. Interestingly, many scholars who referred to criminal justice as a system did so only as a way to collectively refer to those agencies and

organizations rather than to imply that they were interrelated.11 Some individuals argue that the term criminal justice system is an oxymoron. For instance, Joanne Belknap noted that she preferred to use the terms crime processing, criminal processing, and criminal legal system, given that “the processing of victims and offenders [is]

anything but ‘just.’”12

criminology: the scientific study of crime and the reasons why people engage (or don’t engage) in criminal behavior.

criminal justice: often refers to the various criminal justice agencies and institutions (e.g., police, courts, and corrections) that are interrelated.

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The Consensus and Conflict Perspectives of Crime

A consensus perspective of crime views the formal system of laws, as well as the enforcement of those laws, as

incorporating societal norms for which there is a broad normative consensus.13 The consensus perspective developed from the writings of late-19th- and early-20th-century sociologists such as Durkheim, Weber,

Ross, and Sumner.14 This perspective assumes that individuals, for the most part, agree on what is right and wrong as well as on how those norms have been implemented into laws and how those laws are enforced. Thus, people obey laws not for fear of punishment but rather because they have internalized societal norms

and values and perceive these laws as appropriate to observe rather than disobey.15 The consensus perspective was more dominant during the early part of the 1900s. Since the 1950s, however, no major theorist has considered this to be the best perspective of law. Further, “to the extent that assumptions or hypotheses about consensus theory are still given credence in current theories of law, they are most apt to be found in ‘mutualist’

models.”16

consensus perspective: theories that assume that virtually everyone is in agreement on the laws and therefore assume no conflict in attitudes regarding the laws and rules of society.

Around the 1950s, the conflict perspective was challenging the consensus approach.17 The conflict perspective maintains that there is conflict between various societal groups with different interests. This conflict is often resolved when the group in power achieves control.

Marsha Gay Reynolds, a JetBlue flight attendant, was accused of transporting $3 million worth of cocaine in her suitcase. What might have motivated such behavior?

Los Angeles Airport Police via AP

Several criminologists, such as Richard Quinney, William Chambliss, and Austin Turk, maintained that

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criminological theory has placed too much emphasis on explaining criminal behavior; rather, theory needs to shift its focus toward explaining criminal law. The emphasis should not be on understanding the causes of criminal behavior but on understanding the process by which certain behaviors and individuals are formally designated as criminal. From this perspective, one would ask different questions. For instance, instead of asking, “Why do some people commit crimes while others do not?” one would ask, “Why are some behaviors defined as criminal while others are not?” Asking these types of questions raises the issue of whether the

formulation and enforcement of laws serve the interests of those in a more powerful position in society.18

conflict perspective: criminal behavior theories that assume most people disagree on what the law should be and that law is used as a tool by those in power to keep down other groups.

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Learning Check 1.1 1. Crime that is evil in itself is referred to as _______________. 2. Acts that are not necessarily against the law but are considered atypical and may be considered more immoral than illegal are