Informative speech on wedding traditions

Human Communication 6e Judy C. Pearson Paul e. nelson sCott titsworth angela M. hosek

listening

CritiCal

thinking

sPeaking

PerCePtion

soCial

Media

Human Communication

SIXTH EDITION

Judy C. Pearson North Dakota State University, emeritus

Paul E. Nelson North Dakota State University, emeritus

Scott Titsworth Ohio University

Angela M. Hosek Ohio University

HUMAN COMMUNICATION, SIXTH EDITION Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121. Copyright © 2017 by McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Previous editions © 2013, 2011, and 2008. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education, including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning.

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iv Part Two Fundamentals of Communication Studies

Your life is punctuated with critical moments in which communication plays an important role. Whether you are talking to a potential employer

during a job interview, a loved one about an important issue facing your family, or an instructor about an assignment, what you say and how you say it can dramatically shape the outcome of an interac- tion. Our goal in writing Human Communication is to help you feel confident in any situation. We want you to have the knowledge, skills, and attitudes necessary to be a successful communicator.

We want you to be ready to • Communicate effectively in novel and uncertain situations

• Assess who you are talking to and establish common ground • Listen effectively and respond appropriately • Practice the skills appropriate to a variety of relationships and

cultures • Adapt your communication using technologies that enhance,

express, and transmit your messages • Speak with confidence and clarity on important topics

Human Communication draws on the best available research to help you develop the knowledge you need to communicate effec- tively in a variety of situations. The research-based theories we present in this text, coupled with the street savvy you have devel- oped over the course of your life, will equip you with a strong

foundation for reading situations, acting appropriately, and adapting your communication behaviors. As instructors in the field of communication, we believe that

personal improvement in communication begins with a clear under- standing of your own attitudes and of the relationships you build with others. Human Communication will help you develop the skills you need to tell the story of your life and serve as a foundation for lifelong success.

— Judy C. Pearson — Paul E. Nelson — Scott Titsworth

— Angela M. Hosek

From the Authors

iv

Brief Contents v

Part 1 Fundamentals of Communication Studies

Chapter 1 Introduction to Human Communication 2

Chapter 2 Perception, Self, and Communication 26

Chapter 3 Language and Meaning 48

Chapter 4 Nonverbal Communication 66

Chapter 5 Listening and Critical Thinking 90

Part 2 Communication Contexts

Chapter 6 Interpersonal Communication 114

Chapter 7 Intercultural Communication 144

Chapter 8 Small-Group Communication 162

Chapter 9 Workplace Communication 192

Part 3 Fundamentals of Public Speaking

Chapter 10 Topic Selection and Audience Analysis 222

Chapter 11 Being Credible and Using Evidence 242

Chapter 12 Organizing Your Presentation 270

Chapter 13 Delivery and Visual Resources 300

Chapter 14 Informative Presentations 322

Chapter 15 Persuasive Presentations 346

Glossary 366

Index 374

brief contents

vi Contents

contents

From the Authors iv Preface xvii Acknowledgments xxvii

Part 1 Fundamentals of Communication Studies

Chapter 1 Introduction to Human Communication 2 The Study of Communication Is Essential 3 Defining Communication 8 Components of Communication 9

People 10 The Message 10 The Channel 10 Feedback 10 Code 11 Encoding and Decoding 11 Noise 11 Situation 11

Communication Principles 12 Communication Begins with the Self 12 Communication Involves Others 13 Communication Has Both a Content and a Relational Dimension 14 Communication Involves Choices 14 Communication Quantity Does Not Increase Communication Quality 14 Communication Is Pervasive 15 Communication Cannot Be Reversed 15

Communication Contexts 15 Intrapersonal Communication 15 Interpersonal Communication 16 Public Communication 16 Mass Communication 16 Digitally Mediated Communication 18

Goals of Communication Study 18 Understanding Communication Competence 18 Understanding Ethical Communication 19 Understanding Communication Theory and Research 20 Communication Skills and Your Career 20

Chapter Review & Study Guide 22 Summary 22 Key Terms 22

“With SmartBook, I remember more of what I read.”

Contents vii

Study Questions 23 Critical Thinking 23 Sizing Things Up Scoring and Interpretation 24 References 24

Chapter 2 Perception, Self, and Communication 26 Defining Perception 27 Differences in Perception 28

Identity Factors 28 Temporal Conditions 29 Past Experiences and Roles 29 Present Feelings and Circumstances 29

The Perceptual Process 30 Selection 30 Organization 31 Interpretation 34

Errors in Our Perceptions 35 Stereotyping 36 First Impressions 37

Who Are You? 39 How You Became Who You Are 39 Learning More About Yourself 41

How You Present Yourself 42

Chapter Review & Study Guide 44 Summary 44 Key Terms 44 Study Questions 44 Critical Thinking 46 Sizing Things Up Scoring and Interpretation 46 References 46

“I like applying what I’ve read by answering

the questions in SmartBook.”

Chapter 3 Language and Meaning 48 Defining Language 49

Language Has Rules 49 Language and Culture Are Intertwined 50 Language Organizes and Classifies Reality 51 Language Is Arbitrary 52 Language Is Abstract 53

Language to Avoid When Speaking 53 Grammatical Errors 53

Slang 54 Clichés 54 Euphemisms 55 Profanity 55 Jargon 56 Regionalisms 56 Gender-Biased, Racist, Heterosexist, and Ageist Language 57

Improving Language Skills 58 Use Descriptiveness 58 Use Concrete Language 60 Differentiate Between Observations and Inferences 61

Chapter Review & Study Guide 63 Summary 63 Key Terms 63 Study Questions 63 Critical Thinking 64 Sizing Things Up Scoring and Interpretation 64 References 65

viii Contents

“SmartBook helps me identify what we are

going to be covering in class.”

Chapter 4 Nonverbal Communication 66 Defining Nonverbal Communication 67 How Verbal and Nonverbal Communication Are Related 68 The Ambiguity of Nonverbal Codes 69

One Code Communicates a Variety of Meanings 69 A Variety of Codes Communicate the Same Meaning 69

Nonverbal Codes 70 Bodily Movement and Facial Expression 70 Physical Attraction 72 Space 73 Time 75 Touching 76 Vocal Cues 78 Clothing and Artifacts 80

Ways to Improve Nonverbal Communication 81

Chapter Review & Study Guide 84 Summary 84 Key Terms 85 Study Questions 85 Critical Thinking 86 Sizing Things Up Scoring and Interpretation 86 References 87

Chapter 5 Listening and Critical Thinking 90 The Importance of Listening in Our Lives 91 Defining Listening 92 The Process of Listening 94

Attention 94 Working Memory 95 Short-Term Memory 95 Long-Term Memory 96

Barriers to Listening 97 Ways to Become a Better Listener 98

Recognize Differences in Listening 99 Listen and Think Critically 100 Use Nonverbal Communication Effectively 101 Use Verbal Communication Effectively 103 Check Your Understanding 104

Effective Listening in Different Situations 105 Listening in the Workplace 105 Listening in the Classroom 106 Listening to Media 107 Listening in a Second Language 108

Ways to Be an Ethical Listener 109

Chapter Review & Study Guide 110 Summary 110 Key Terms 110 Study Questions 111 Critical Thinking 111 Sizing Things Up Scoring and Interpretation 112 References 112

Contents ix

“SmartBook lets me know I am retaining the information.”

Part 2 Communication Contexts

Chapter 6 Interpersonal Communication 114 The Nature of Communication in Interpersonal Relationships 116

Defining Interpersonal Communication 116 Defining Interpersonal Relationships 117 The Importance of Interpersonal Relationships 118 The Dark Side of Interpersonal Relationships 120 Self-Disclosure in the Development of Interpersonal Relationships 120

Friendship 123 The Value of Friendships 123 Friendships and New Technology 124 Cross-Cultural Relationships 125

The Stages in Interpersonal Relationships 126 Developing Relationships 126 Maintaining Relationships 126 When Relationships Deteriorate 128

Motivations for Initiating, Maintaining, and Terminating Relationships 129 Motivations for Initiating Relationships 129 Motivations for Maintaining Relationships 130 Motivations for Terminating Relationships 131

Essential Interpersonal Communication Behaviors 133 Using Affectionate and Supportive Communication 133 Influencing Others 134 Developing a Unique Relationship 134

The Possibilities for Improvement 135 Bargaining 135 Maintaining Behavioral Flexibility 136

Chapter Review & Study Guide 138 Summary 138 Key Terms 138 Study Questions 138 Critical Thinking 139 Sizing Things Up Scoring and Interpretation 139 References 140

x Contents

Chapter 7 Intercultural Communication 144 The Importance of Studying Intercultural Communication 146 Defining Cultures 147

The Goals of Non-Dominant Cultural Communication 148 Intercultural Communication Problems 149

Ethnocentrism 150 Stereotyping 150 Prejudice 151

Characteristics of Different Cultures 152 Individualistic Versus Collectivist Cultures 152 Uncertainty-Accepting Versus Uncertainty-Rejecting Cultures 154 On-Time Versus Sometime Cultures 154

Strategies for Improving Intercultural Communication 155

“SmartBook helps me feel more prepared for class.”

Chapter Review & Study Guide 158 Summary 158 Key Terms 158 Study Questions 158 Critical Thinking 159 Sizing Things Up Scoring and Interpretation 159 References 160

Contents xi

Chapter 8 Small-Group Communication 162 The Importance of Learning About Small Groups 164 Defining Small-Group Communication 166 The Types and Functions of Small Groups 167 Establishing Culture in Small Groups 168

The Development of Group Norms 168 The Development of Roles for Group Members 170 Group Cohesiveness 172 The Effect of Diversity on Group Culture 174

The Role of Leadership in Small Groups 176 Defining Leadership 176 Ways of Enacting Leadership 177

Problem Solving and Decision Making 179 Effective Group Problem Solving 180 Other Work to Accomplish in Groups 182

Technology and Group Communication Processes 183 How to Communicate in Small Groups 185 Being an Ethical Group Member 186

Chapter Review & Study Guide 188 Summary 188 Key Terms 188 Study Questions 189 Critical Thinking 189 Sizing Things Up Scoring and Interpretation 190 References 190

Chapter 9 Workplace Communication 192 Defining Workplace Communication 193

Types of Organizations 194 Communication Networks 195

“I am a big fan of how SmartBook

emphasizes the topics I struggle with.”

Preparing for the Job Market 196 Conducting a Self-Inventory 196 Creating a Personal Network 197 Searching for a Job 198 Preparing Cover Letters 199 Preparing Résumés and Other Credentials 199

Preparing for the Interview 203 Gather Information 204 General Interviewing Strategies 204 Answering Questions Effectively and Ethically 206 Asking Questions Effectively and Ethically 207 Preparing for Illegal Questions 207 The Postinterview Stage 208

Communication Skills Needed on the Job 209 Workplace Communication Competence 209 Specific Workplace Communication Skills 210

Ethical Dimensions in the Workplace 215 Aggressive Communication 215 Honesty 215 Sexual Harassment 216

Chapter Review & Study Guide 217 Summary 217 Key Terms 218 Study Questions 218 Critical Thinking 219 Sizing Things Up Scoring and Interpretation 219 References 219

xii Contents

Part 3 Fundamentals of Public Speaking

Chapter 10 Topic Selection and Audience Analysis 222

How to Select a Topic Appropriate for You and Your Audience 223 Use Brainstorming 224 Survey Your Interests 224 Assess Your Knowledge of the Topic 224 Evaluate Your Commitment to the Topic 225 Consider the Age of the Topic and of the Audience 225 Determine Your Topic’s Importance to Your Audience 226 Topic Selection for English Language Learners 226

Practice Narrowing Your Topic 227

“Reviewing with SmartBook about once

a week is a good way to refresh my memory.”

Analyze Your Audience 229 Observation 229 Inference 230 Research on Your Audience 230 The Questionnaire 231

Adapt to the Audience 235 Adapting Yourself 235 Adapting Your Language 236 Adapting Your Topic 236 Adapting Your Purpose and Goal 236

Chapter Review & Study Guide 239 Summary 239 Key Terms 239 Study Questions 239 Critical Thinking 240 Sizing Things Up Scoring and Interpretation 240 References 241

Contents xiii

Chapter 11 Being Credible and Using Evidence 242 Source Credibility and Its Importance 243 Dimensions of Credibility 245

Competence 245 Trustworthiness 245 Dynamism 246 Common Ground 246 Strategies for Improving Credibility 247

How to Be Strategic in Finding Information 248 Principles for Effective Research 248 Locating Information for Your Presentation 250

Types of Supporting Material 257 Examples 257 Narratives 258 Surveys 258 Testimony 259 Numbers and Statistics 259 Analogies 260 Explanations 260

Definitions 261 Think About the Mix 261

“I feel the homework activities in SmartBook are

most helpful because I need that extra push when learning.”

How to Cite Sources of Information 262 Ethical Principles to Follow for Credibility and Research 263

Ethics and Source Credibility 263 Ethics and Supporting Material 264

Chapter Review & Study Guide 266 Summary 266 Key Terms 266 Study Questions 267 Critical Thinking 268 Sizing Things Up Scoring and Interpretation 268 References 268

xiv Contents

Chapter 12 Organizing Your Presentation 270 The Introduction 271

Gaining and Maintaining Audience Attention 271 Arousing Audience Interest 273 Stating the Purpose or Thesis 274 Establishing Your Credibility 275 Forecasting Development and Organization 276

The Body 276 The Principles of Outlining 277 The Rough Draft 279 The Sentence Outline 280 The Key-Word Outline 281 Organizational Patterns 284 Transitions and Signposts 291

The Conclusion 292 The References 294

Chapter Review & Study Guide 297 Summary 297 Key Terms 297 Study Questions 298 Critical Thinking 298 Sizing Things Up Scoring and Interpretation 299 References 299

“I like the SmartBook assignments because

they keep me on track.”

Chapter 13 Delivery and Visual Resources 300 Defining Delivery 301

The Extemporaneous Method 302 The Impromptu Method 302 The Manuscript Method 303 The Memorized Method 303

Behaviors that Influence Delivery 304 The Vocal Aspects of Delivery 304 Nonverbal Aspects of Presentation 307 Delivery Tips for Non-Native Speakers 310

Ways to Reduce Your Fear of Presenting 311 When to Use Visual Resources 313 Design Principles to Follow When Using Visual Resources 315

Chapter Review & Study Guide 319 Summary 319 Key Terms 319 Study Questions 320 Critical Thinking 320 Sizing Things Up Scoring and Interpretation 321 References 321

Contents xv

Chapter 14 Informative Presentations 322 Preparing an Informative Presentation 323

Identifying Your Goal 323 Identifying Your Purpose 326

Presenting Information Effectively 327 Creating Information Hunger 327 Demonstrating Information Relevance 327 Revealing Extrinsic Motivation 328 Designing Informative Content 328 Avoiding Information Overload 329 Organizing Content 330

Skills for Informative Speaking 330 Defining 331 Describing 331 Explaining 332 Narrating 332 Demonstrating 333

Three Examples of Informative Presentations 333

Chapter Review & Study Guide 342 Summary 342 Key Terms 343 Study Questions 343 Critical Thinking 344 Sizing Things Up Scoring and Interpretation 344 References 345

xvi Contents

Chapter 15 Persuasive Presentations 346 Preparing for a Persuasive Presentation 347

Identifying Your Immediate Purpose 348 Identifying Your Long-Range Goal 348

Persuading Effectively 348 Revealing the Purpose of the Presentation 348 Identifying Your Reason for Persuading 349 Advantages of the Classroom Setting 349

Methods of Persuasion 350 Using Argument to Persuade: Fact, Policy, and Value 350 The Difference Between Evidence and Proof 350 How to Test Evidence 351

Forms of Proof 353 Logos, or Logical Proof 353 Ethos, or Source Credibility 354 Pathos, or Emotional Proof 354 Persuasion Through Visualization 355

Organizing Your Persuasive Message: The Monroe Motivated Sequence 356

Ethical Considerations 357 An Outline of a Persuasive Presentation 359 How to Resist Persuasion 361

Chapter Review & Study Guide 363 Summary 363 Key Terms 363 Study Questions 364 Critical Thinking 364 Sizing Things Up Scoring and Interpretation 365 References 365

Glossary 366 Index 374

xvii Preface xvii

McGraw-Hill Connect: An Overview McGraw-Hill Connect offers full-semester access to comprehensive, reliable content and learning resources for the communication course. Connect’s deep integration with most learning management systems (LMSs), including Blackboard and Desire2Learn (D2L), offers single sign-on and deep gradebook synchronization. Data from Assignment Results reports synchronize directly with many LMSs, allowing scores to flow automatically from Connect into school- specific grade books, if required.

The following tools and services are available as part of Connect for the communication course.

preface

SmartBook

Connect Insight for Instructors

Connect Insight for Students

• SmartBook is an engaging and interactive reading experience for mastering fundamental communication content.

• The metacognitive component confirms learners’ understanding of the material.

• Instructors can actively connect SmartBook assignments and results to higher-order classroom work and one-on- one student conferences.

• Learners can track their own understanding and mastery of course concepts and identify gaps in their knowledge.

• Connect Insight for Instructors is an analytics resource that produces quick feedback related to learner performance and learner engagement.

• It is designed as a dashboard for both quick check-ins and detailed performance and engagement views.

• Connect Insight for Students is a powerful data analytics tool that provides at-a-glance visualizations to help learners understand their performance on Connect assignments.

• SmartBook is an adaptive reading experience designed to change the way learners read and learn. It creates a personalized reading experience by highlighting the most impactful concepts a student needs to learn at that moment in time.

• SmartBook creates personalized learning plans based on student responses to content question probes and confidence scales, identifying the topics learners are struggling with and providing learning resources to create personalized learning moments.

• SmartBook includes a variety of learning resources tied directly to key content areas to provide students with additional instruction and context. This includes video and media clips, interactive slide content, mini- lectures, and image analyses.

• SmartBook Reports provide instructors with data to quantify success and identify problem areas that require addressing in and out of the classroom.

• Learners can access their own progress and concept mastery reports.

• Connect Insight for Instructors offers a series of visual data displays that provide analysis on five key insights:

• How are my students doing?

• How is this one student doing?

• How is my section doing?

• How is this assignment doing?

• How are my assignments doing?

• Connect Insight for Students offers details on each Connect assignment to learners. When possible, it offers suggestions for the learners on how they can improve scores. These data can help guide learners to behaviors that will lead to better scores in the future.

Tool Instructional Context Description

xviii Preface

Tool Instructional Context Description

• The Speech Capture tool allows instructors to easily and efficiently set up speech assignments for their course that can easily be shared and repurposed, as needed, throughout their use of Connect.

• Customizable rubrics and settings can be saved and shared, saving time and streamlining the speech assignment process from creation to assessment.

• Speech Capture allows users, both students and instructors, to view videos during the assessment process. Feedback can be left within a customized rubric or as time-stamped comments within the video- playback itself.

• Speech Capture provides instructors with a comprehensive and efficient way of managing in-class and online speech assignments, including student self- reviews, peer reviews, and instructor grading.

Speech Capture

Instructor Reports • Instructor Reports provide data that may be useful for assessing programs or courses as part of the accreditation process.

• Connect generates a number of powerful reports and charts that allow instructors to quickly review the performance of a given learner or an entire section.

• Instructors can run reports that span multiple sections and instructors, making it an ideal solution for individual professors, course coordinators, and department chairs.

Pre- and Post-Tests • Instructors can generate their own pre- and posts-tests from the Test Bank.

• Pre- and post-tests demonstrate what learners already know before class begins and what they have learned by the end.

• Instructors have access to two sets of pre- and post- tests (at two levels). Instructors can use these tests to create a diagnostic and post-diagnostic exam via Connect.

Simple LMS Integration • Connect seamlessly integrates with every learning management system.

• Learners have automatic single sign-on.

• Connect assignment results sync to the LMS’s gradebook.

Speech Preparation Tools • Speech Preparation Tools provide learners with additional support and include Topic Helper, Outline Tool, and access to third-party Internet sites like EasyBib (for formatting citations) and Survey Monkey (to create audience- analysis questionnaires and surveys).

• Speech Preparation Tools provide learners with additional resources to help with the preparation and outlining of speeches, as well as with audience- analysis surveys.

• Instructors have the ability to make tools either available or unavailable to learners.

Student Reports • Student Reports allow learners to review their performance for specific assignments or for the course.

• Learners can keep track of their performance and identify areas with which they struggle.

Tegrity • Tegrity allows instructors to capture course material or lectures on video.

• Students can watch videos recorded by their instructor and learn course material at their own pace.

• Instructors can keep track of which learners have watched the videos they post.

• Learners can watch and review lectures by their instructor.

• Learners can search each lecture for specific bites of information.

Preface xix

Instructor’s Guide to Connect for Human Communication When you assign Connect you can be confident—and have data to demonstrate—that the learners in your course, however diverse, are acquiring the skills, principles, and critical processes that constitute effective communication. This leaves you to focus on your highest course expectations.

TAILORED TO YOU. Connect offers on-demand, single sign-on access to learners—wherever they are and whenever they have time. With a single, one-time registration, learners receive access to McGraw-Hill’s trusted content. Learners also have a courtesy trial period during registration.

EASY TO USE. Connect seamlessly supports all major learning management systems with content, assignments, performance data, and LearnSmart, the leading adaptive learning system. With these tools you can quickly make assignments, produce reports, focus discussions, intervene on problem topics, and help at-risk learners—as you need to and when you need to.

Human Communication SmartBook A Personalized and Adaptive Learning Experience with Smartbook. Boost learner suc- cess with McGraw-Hill’s adaptive reading and study experience. The Human Communication SmartBook highlights the most impactful communication concepts the student needs to learn at that moment in time. The learning path continuously adapts and, based on what the individual learner knows and does not know, provides focused help through targeted question probes and learning resources.

Enhanced for the New Edition! With a suite of new learning resources and question probes, as well as highlights of key chapter concepts, SmartBook’s intuitive technology optimizes learner study time by creating a personalized learning path for improved course performance and overall learner success.

xx Preface

Hundreds of Interactive Learning Resources. Presented in a range of interactive styles, Human Communication Learning Resources support learners who may be struggling to master, or simply wish to review, the most important communication concepts. Designed to reinforce the most important chapter concepts—from nonverbal communication cues and critical thinking skills to workplace interviewing techniques and organizing presenta- tions—every Learning Resource is presented at the precise moment of need. Whether video, audio clip, or interactive mini-lesson, each of the 200-plus Learning Resources is new to the new edition and was designed to give learners a lifelong foundation in strong communication skills.

SmartBook highlights the key concepts of every chapter, offering the learner a high-impact learning experience (left). Here, highlighted text and an illustration together explain the listening process. Highlights change color (right) when a student has demonstrated his or her understanding of the concept.

Preface xxi

More than 1,000 Targeted Question Probes. Class-tested at colleges and universities nationwide, a treasury of engaging question probes—new and revised, more than 1,000 in all—gives learners the information on communication they need to know, at every stage of the learning process, in order to thrive in the course. Designed to gauge learners’ comprehension of the most important Human Communication chapter concepts, and pre- sented in a variety of interactive styles to facilitate student engagement, targeted question probes give learners immediate feedback on their understanding of the material. Each question probe identifies a learner’s familiarity with the instruction and points to areas where additional remediation is needed.

Informed by the Latest Research. The best insights from today’s leading communications scholars infuse every lesson and are integrated throughout Human Communication.

Fresh Examples Anchored in the Real World. Every chapter of Human Communication opens with a vignette exploring communication challenges in our everyday lives. Dozens of additional examples appear throughout the new edition, each demonstrating an essen- tial element of the communication process. Whether learners are reading a chapter, responding to a question probe, or reviewing key concepts in a learning resource, their every instructional moment is rooted in the real world. McGraw-Hill research shows that high-quality examples reinforce academic theory throughout the course. Relevant examples and practical scenarios—reflecting interactions in school, the workplace, and beyond— demonstrate how effective communication informs and enhances students’ lives and careers.

A Greater Emphasis on Creativity. A new feature, Communicating Creatively, illustrates ways in which originality—from effective collaboration strategies, to emphasizing one’s personality, to using music to boost a message—can be used to augment the communi- cation skills addressed in the chapters.

xxii Preface

New Annotated Student Speech. The Informative Presentations chapter includes three compelling student speeches on contemporary topics, includ- ing an informative presentation new to the new edition. Each speech models how a speaker can increase audience members’ awareness of an issue, integrate sources and other supporting material, and organize the message to help listen- ers better understand a topic.

Tips for Embracing Diverse Cultures. To help stu- dents navigate the communication challenges of a multicultural society, Engaging Diversity boxes offer guidance on topics such as nonverbal cues, disabilities, bilingualism, new technologies, and pro- vocative speech.

Guidance for a Lifetime. The end-of-chapter fea- ture, Be Ready . . . for What’s Next, stresses the lifelong application of communication skills and how mastery of these skills can help learners in other classes, the workplace, and life.

Speech Capture Designed for use in face-to-face, real-time classrooms, as well as online courses, Speech Capture allows you to evaluate your learners’ speeches using fully customizable rubrics. You can also create and manage peer review assignments and upload videos on behalf of learners for optimal flexibility.

Learners can access rubrics and leave com- ments when preparing self-reviews and peer reviews. They can easily upload a video of their speech from their hard drive or use Connect’s built- in video recorder. Learners can even attach and upload additional files or documents, such as a works cited page or a PowerPoint presentation.

Peer Review. Peer review assignments are easier than ever. Create and manage peer review assign- ments and customize privacy settings.

Speech Assessment. Connect Speech Capture lets you customize the assignments, including self- reviews and peer reviews. It also saves your fre- quently used comments, simplifying your efforts to provide feedback.

Self-Reflection. The self-review feature allows learners to revisit their own presentations and com- pare their progress over time.

40 Part One Fundamentals of Communication Studies

in their school experience are more satisfied with school, believe in their abilities, and perform significantly better on national exams like the ACT.25 How can personal identity research be applied to communication? When a speaker creates a message that highlights shared values with listeners, then the listeners perceive a social group identity match and are more likely to be persuaded by the message. Other factors may interfere with this cause–effect relationship, however. For example, if the shared values are unexpected because of someone’s political party membership or other social group affiliations, the message may be rejected and the persuasive attempt may fail.26 Your awareness of who you are develops in your communication with yourself, that is, your intrapersonal communication. Shedletsky writes that intrapersonal communication includes “our perceptions, memories, experiences, feelings, interpretations, inferences, evaluations, attitudes, opinions, ideas, strategies, images, and states of consciousness.”27 Intrapersonal communication can be viewed as talking to ourselves; it is also synonymous with thinking. Intrapersonal communication appears to be the most common context of communication, the foundation for the other contexts. Your awareness of who you are also develops in your communication with others. Once you mastered language, symbolic interactionism—the process of development of the self through the messages and feedback received from others28—shaped you in ways that made you what you are today. You may have been punished for acting up in class, rewarded for athletic skill, or ignored for saying too little. The result is the person you see in the mirror today. To explore who you are, you may

be assigned a speech of self- introduction. This speech may be the first one you deliver in class. Since you know more about yourself than does anyone else in the classroom, you will probably feel very little anxiety about this assignment. Of course, you will want to provide some basic infor- mation about yourself—your name, where you are from, and your current major in college—but this is also an opportunity to share aspects of your personal identity with your classmates. Instead of beginning your speech of introduction with basic information, consider providing some information that is provocative and that will gain the attention of your audience. For example, one student began, “How many people do you know who fly an airplane and have also jumped out of one?” Another speaker stated, “I’ve been in 40 of the 50 states.” A third noted, “I have never lived anyplace but in this city.” These three students found some aspect about themselves to be unique. In one case, the student was adventuresome and a risk taker; the

symbolic interactionism The process in which the self develops through the messages and feedback received from others.

communicating creatively Memorable Message About College As a way to celebrate International Women’s Day, YouTube encouraged people to empower young women with the #DearMe campaign. The #DearMe campaign asks digital creators around the world to upload “video letters” to their younger selves that provide the advice and encouragement that they wish they had heard when they were younger. The campaign encouraged people to use the hashtag #DearMe on social media to share their mes- sages. Although the initial focus was on young girls, these video letters apply to anyone wishing to tell their younger selves or oth- ers a supportive, clarifying, and/or realistic message. A quick search of the videos yields an array of messages, perspectives, and identities. In this section, you have been learning about how your self-perceptions and others’ perceptions of you have, in part, formed who you are. Perhaps you can take the time to create a video or write a handwritten letter to your younger self. What would your letter say? What part does perception play in your message to your younger self?

Source: Brouwer, B. (2015, March). YouTube launches #DearMe campaign for International Women’s Day. Tubefilter (www.tubefilter.com/2015/03/03/ youtube-dearme- campaign-international-womens-day/).

Preface xxiii

Data Analytics Connect Insight provides at-a-glance analysis on five key insights, available at a moment’s notice from your tablet device. The first and only analytics tool of its kind, Insight will tell you, in real time, how individual students or sections are doing (or how well your assign- ments have been received) so you can take action early and keep struggling students from falling behind.

Instructors can see how many learners have completed an assignment, how long they spent on the task, and how they scored.

xxiv Preface

Connect Reports Instructor Reports allow instructors to quickly monitor learner activity, making it easy to identify which learners are struggling and to provide immediate help to ensure those learn- ers stay enrolled in the course and improve their performance. The Instructor Reports also highlight the concepts and learning objectives that the class as a whole is having difficulty grasping. This essential information lets you know exactly which areas to target for review during your limited class time.

Some key reports include:

Progress Overview report—View learner progress for all modules, including how long learners have spent working in the module, which modules they have used outside any that were assigned, and individual learner progress.

Missed Questions report—Identify specific probes, organized by chapter, that are problematic for learners.

Most Challenging Learning Objectives report—Iden- tify the specific topic areas that are challenging for your learners; these reports are organized by chapter and include specific page references. Use this infor- mation to tailor your lecture time and assignments to cover areas that require additional remediation and practice.

Metacognitive Skills report—View statistics showing how knowledgeable your learners are about their own comprehension and learning.

Classroom Preparation Tools Whether before, during, or after class, there is a suite of Pearson products designed to help instructors plan their lessons and to keep learners building upon the foundations of the course.

Annotated Instructor’s Edition. The Annotated Instructor’s Edition provides a wealth of teaching aids for each chapter in Human Communication. It is also cross-referenced with SmartBook, Connect, and other supplements that accompany Human Communication.

Instructors can see, at a glance, individual learner performance: analytics showing learner investment in assignments, and success at completing them, help instructors identify, and aid, those who are at risk.

Preface xxv

Powerpoint Slides. The PowerPoint presentations for Human Communication provide chap- ter highlights that help instructors create focused yet individualized lesson plans.

Test Bank. The Test Bank is a treasury of more than 1,000 examination questions based on the most important communication concepts explored in Human Communication; more than 100 of the questions are new or revised for this edition.

Support to Ensure Success • Digital Success Academy—The Digital Success

Academy on Connect offers a wealth of training and course creation guidance for instructors and learners alike. Instructor support is presented in easy-to-navigate, easy-to-complete sections. It includes the popular Connect how-to videos, step- by-step Click through Guides, and First Day of Class materials that explain how to use both the Connect platform and its course-specific tools and features. http:// createwp.customer.mheducation. com/wordpress-mu/success-academy/

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xxvi Preface

Chapter-by-Chapter Changes to the New Edition: Highlights New and updated material in this edition of Human Communication reflects the latest research in the field, as well as McGraw-Hill Education’s research identifying the skills and topics students find most challenging.

Chapter 1: New discussion of communication as a process in which meaning is negotiated; new examples of how diversity and new technologies impact communication; “setting” added to the components of communication to better emphasize the importance of context

Chapter 2: New opening vignette on how language shapes perceptions and expectations; reframed focus on identity as a factor influencing perception; intergroup perspective added to theoretical framing of chapter; updated research on stereo- typing; new coverage of technology’s impact on perception, first impressions, online identity, and personal branding

Chapter 3: New opening vignette on how words become “real”; new examples of slang and clichéd language; reframed focus on gender-biased language and new discus- sion of trans* language; new coverage of vanishing lan- guages, communicating personality, and using we-and-I statements during job interviews

Chapter 4: New coverage of communicating emotions, using adaptors, adapting nonverbal behaviors to digitally mediated communication, diversity, and nonverbal cues; updated research on the dangers of overemphasizing phys- ical attractiveness

Chapter 5: Updated research on listening habits; new dis- cussion of the changing work environment, social media listening, multitasking with new communication technology, and listening effectively in the workplace

Chapter 6: New discussion of self-disclosure, communica- tion privacy management, social media, and visible and nonvisible disabilities; updated research on grieving and social media

Chapter 7: New opening vignette on culture-based group conflict; updated statistics on diversity in the United

States; new research on the importance of exposing college students to diversity; new coverage of the role of music in building cultural awareness

Chapter 8: New opening vignette on group work during community crises; updated research on group work, group think, and related tech apps; new Emerging Technology and Group Roles section; new coverage of collaborative co- working, the impact of physical structures on human inter- action, managing privacy, and conflict in work groups; new Adapted Competent Group Communication Evaluation Form

Chapter 9: Updated statistics on U.S. workforce trends; new coverage of organizational communication, personal brand- ing, and bilingual communication in the workplace; new table outlining workplace communication competence skills

Chapter 10: New coverage of “dangerous speech,” strate- gies for preventing violence-inciting speech, and strategies for creating provocative speech

Chapter 11: Chapter reorganized to emphasize strategies for locating information for presentations; new coverage of common ground, expertise, and credibility

Chapter 12: Enhanced coverage of audience feedback when creating the body of a speech

Chapter 13: New opening vignette on nonverbal behaviors during delivery; new coverage of infographics and credibility building with diverse audiences

Chapter 14: New sample speech; new coverage of learning preferences among diverse cultures and learning-style differences

Chapter 15: New opening vignette on public protest and advocacy; new coverage of the speaker-audience dialogue and silence as a presentational speaking tool

Acknowledgments xxvii

acknowledgments The authors wish to extend a very sincere thank you to the many colleagues who assisted in the revision of this edition of Human Communication. Many of our communication faculty colleagues and students have provided feedback, both formal and informal, about how to improve both the substance and feel of this book. Such insight is critical, and we are very appreciative of your time and expertise. We are forever grateful to Judy Pearson, Paul Nelson, and Lynn Harter, who were co-authors on previous editions of this book. Your voices, spirit, and commitment to students are, and will forever be, integral parts of this project.

Reviewer Names

Gwen Dooley, Jackson State University Amber Finn, Texas Christian University Chris Goble, Monmouth College Angela Johansson, Kishwaukee College Katherine Lehman-Meyer, St. Mary’s University Amy Lenoce, Naugatuck Valley Community College Yvette Lujan, Miami Dade College, InterAmerican Campus Daniel McRoberts, Northcentral Technical College Greg Ormson, Northcentral Technical College Thomas Ruddick, Edison Community College Shari Santoriello, Suffolk County Community College, Eastern Patricia Smith, Northcentral Technical College Susan Smith, Broward College, South Campus Adam Vellone, Miami Dade College, Homestead Campus

Connect and LearnSmart Contributors

Jocelyn DeGroot Brown, Southern Illinois University, Edwardsville Leah Bryant, DePaul University Brady Carey, Mt. Hood Community College Tim Chandler, Hardin-Simmons University Denise Sperruzza, St. Louis Community College Charlene Widener, Hutchinson Community College

Feature and Connect Plan Reviewers

Lawrence Albert, Morehead State University Theresa Albury, Miami Dade College, Wolfson Campus Brady Carey, Mt. Hood Community College Nader Chaaban, Montgomery College, Rockville Diane Egdorf, Des Moines Area Community College Philip Lane, Miami Dade College, Wolfson Campus Kara Laskowski, Shippensburg University of Pennsylvania Linda Long, North Lake College Xin-An Lu, Shippensburg University of Pennsylvania Kay Mueller, Des Moines Area Community College Renee Strom, St. Cloud State University Anestine Theophile-LaFond, Montgomery College, Rockville

Survey Participants

Rebekah Pointer Adderley, Tarrant County College Dr. Amy M. Atchley, Baton Rouge Community College Manuel G. Avilés-Santiago, Arizona State University Joseph Bailey, Hardin-Simmons University Erin Begnaud, South Louisiana Community College— Lafayette Tonya D. Bell, Labette Community College Bryan Brown, Northern Virginia Community College— Woodbridge Christy Burns, Jacksonville State University Brady Carey, Mt. Hood Community College Tim Chandler, Hardin-Simmons University Gena Christopher, Jacksonville State University Ingrid C Davis, Central Piedmont Community College Kevin Ells, Louisiana State University, Alexandria Diana Elrod-Sarnecki, Des Moines Area Community College Jill Evans, Kettering College John B. French, Cape Cod Community College Chris Goble, Monmouth College Mike Harsh, Hagerstown Community College Daniel Hildenbrandt, Owensboro Community and Technical College Sandy Humphries, South Louisiana Community College Nancy A. Hutchinson, Lipscomb University Khalil Islam-Zwart, Eastern Washington University Tonya Blivens Kariuki, Tarrant County College Carolyn Kershaw, Charter Oak State College Amanda A. Knight, Andrew College Erica Lamm, Northern Virginia Community College Philip Lane, Miami Dade College, Wolfson Campus Amy K. Lenoce, Naugatuck Valley Community College Darren L. Linvill, Clemson University Matthew Malloy, Caldwell Community College and Technical Institute Anne McIntosh, Central Piedmont Community College Jennifer Millspaugh, Richland College Denny Morell, Mass Bay Community College

We are also indebted to the outstanding team of McGraw-Hill Education colleagues who contributed their time and talent to this edition. Nancy Huebner and Lisa Pinto provided critical guidance as we developed a vision for this edition. Your wisdom and pragmatic approach provided us with confidence, while your enthusiasm and vision instilled excitement! There are many other individuals who worked on several essential aspects of this project, including Sally Constable, Samantha Donisi-Hamm, Sheila Frank, Laura Kennedy, Michael O’Loughlin, Jennifer Shekleton, Janet Smith, Linda Su, and Kim Taylo. Thank you for being part of the Human Communication team! We were particularly blessed to work with a delightful editor, Victoria DeRosa. Victoria was a true collaborator on this project. Her eye for detail, insightful suggestions, understanding of our vision, and commitment to be inclusive to students was evident in the work she did with us. We are so thankful to have had you with us on this journey! Finally, we are reminded that book projects are family endeavors. Scott would like to thank Lynn Harter for providing a creative sounding board and unending support for this project. Thanks also to Emma, Ned, and Cleo for their love and fun diversions from the computer! Angela would like to thank Scott for the opportunity to collaborate on this project and for his constant interest in new and bold ideas. She is also grateful for the endless support and patience of her partner, Timothy, and for the little hands and laughter of her children, Lillie and Ayden, that remind her to be still in the moment.

xxviii Acknowledgments

Robert Mott, York College of Pennsylvania Terri Narrell, Snead State Community College Lois B. Nemetz, Louisiana State University, Eunice Steve “Butch” Owens, Navarro College Trudi Peterson, Monmouth College Paul E. Potter, Hardin-Simmons University Danna Prather, Suffolk County Community College Rebecca Putt, Charter Oak State College Gary D. Reeves, Baton Rouge Community College Maryanna Richardson, Forsyth Technical Community College Rosemary Robertson-Smith, Louisiana State University, Eunice

Shari Santoriello, Suffolk County Community College, Eastern Jesse Schroeder, Northwestern Oklahoma State University Don Simmons, Asbury University Patricia Spence, Richland College Kari Stouffer, University of Texas, Dallas Charlene Strickland, Hardin-Simmons University Karol L. Walchak, Alpena Community College Diana M. Withers, Charter Oak State College

Human Communication

introduction to human communication

In this chapter you will learn about the importance of communication in your every- day life. You will find that communication is the foundation on which you build your personal, social, and professional life. You will also learn about communication on a deeper level, including the terms, processes, and contexts of communication.

When you have read and thought about this chapter, you will be able to

1. State reasons why the study of communication is essential.

2. Define communication.

3. Name the components of communication.

4. Explain some principles of communication.

5. Explain how the contexts of communication differ from each other.

6. Set goals for improving yourself as a communicator.

1chapter © Fuse/Getty Images RF

o you remember the process you went through when making deci- sions about college? You likely met with many people, all of whom were trying to arm you with information about topics ranging from scholarships to campus architecture. The job of a college recruiter is a great example to illustrate why communication is so important to our lives and careers.

Sarah Logue has been an undergraduate admissions recruiter for approximately three years. During a recent discussion, Sarah noted that for her job she regularly communicates with parents, students, and even high school staff in presentations that range from one on one to groups to audiences of over a hundred. Many of her interactions are face-to-face, but e-mail and other electronic communication tools are also common for her job.

Sarah is a very effective recruiter because she rec- ognizes the importance of communication for helping applicants feel comfortable with their choice. As she explained in an interview, “Naturally, it’s important to calibrate your message and tone based on your audience—high school students don’t have the same concerns about college as their parents do. Though the information we share is crucial to helping students and their families compare us to other institutions, it can be pretty dry, too. We have to bring it to life or risk

losing our audience. So I use humor, I tell stories about my own experiences and those of stu- dents I’ve known, and I ask questions to draw reluctant students and parents out of their shells.”

Sarah’s job is not unlike many jobs and activities in our culture. More and more of what we do revolves around effective communication. In this chapter, you will begin learning about the process of communication and how it functions across various contexts. We hope that you will follow Sarah’s lead and recognize that much of your future success will stem from understanding how to communicate effectively with others.

D

The Study of Communication Is Essential Communication is central to your life. Effective communication can help you solve prob- lems in your professional life and improve relationships in your personal life.1 In fact, the field of communication studies is on the rise in terms of popularity, degrees earned, and undergraduate majors, so your involvement with this content is timely and useful.2 According to The Huffington Post, studying communication is timely because, as a discipline, communication studies is well suited for trends in digital and social media interactions. Knowledge about ideas such as relationship networks on social media, small-group and team communication, and media theory is becoming vitally relevant for you to be ready to succeed now and in your future.3 Understanding the theory, research, and application of communication will make a significant difference in your life and in the lives of people around the world.4 A quick daily review of social media highlights the importance of communication principles. Communication principles and practices can resolve disputes among nations, as well as

© B.O’Kane/Alamy

4 Part One Fundamentals of Communication Studies

among friends and family. Effective communication may not solve all the world’s prob- lems, but better communication practices can help us solve or avoid many problems. Communication is everywhere. You cannot avoid communication, and you will engage in communication nearly every minute of every day of your life. Communication plays a major role in nearly every aspect of your life. Regardless of your interests and goals, the ability to communicate effectively will enhance and enrich your life. Learning about communication matters and will help you know how to be ready to communicate. Studying communication comprehensively offers the following seven advantages:

1. Studying communication can improve the way you see yourself. Communication is “vital to the development of the whole person.”5 Most of our self-knowledge comes from the communicative experience. As we engage in thought (intrapersonal communication) and in interactions with significant other people (interpersonal communication), we learn about ourselves. People who do not understand the communication process and the development of self-awareness, self-concept, and self-efficacy may not see themselves accurately or may be unaware of their own self-development. Knowing how communication affects self-perception can lead to greater awareness and appreciation of the self.

Learning communication skills can improve the way you see yourself in a second way. As you learn how to communicate effectively in a variety of situations—from interper- sonal relationships to public speeches—your self-confidence will increase. In a study based on the responses from 344 students at a large public university, students who completed a communication course perceived their communication competence to be greater in the classroom, at work, and in social settings. Most dramatic were their per- ceived improvements in feeling confident about themselves, feeling comfortable with others’ perceptions of them, reasoning with people, and using language appropriately.6

• Effective communication can strengthen interpersonal relationships. © Jordan Siemens/Stone/Getty Images

Chapter 1 Introduction to Human Communication 5

In short, your success in interacting with other people in social situations and your achievements in professional settings will lead to more positive feelings about yourself.

2. Studying communication can improve the way others see you. You can control your own behavior to a considerable extent, which will lead to positive outcomes with others. Your interactions can be smoother and you can achieve your goals more easily as you manage the impression you make on others. See the chapter on perception, self, and communication for more on self-presentation and identity management.

You can improve the way others see you a second way. Generally, people like commu- nicating with others who can communicate well. Compare your interactions with some- one who stumbles over words, falls silent, interrupts, and uses inappropriate language to express thoughts to your interactions with someone who has a good vocabulary, listens when you speak, reveals appropriate personal information, and smoothly exchanges talk turns with you. Which person do you prefer? Most of us prefer competent communica- tors. As you become increasingly competent, you will find that others seek you out for conversations, assistance, and advice.

3. Studying communication and engaging in effective communication behaviors can improve your relationships with others. The field of communication includes learning about how people relate to each other and about what type of communication is appropriate for a given situation. Most people value human relationships and find great comfort in friendships, family relationships, and community relationships. Within these relationships we learn about trust, intimacy, and reciprocity.

Human relationships are vital to each of us. Human babies thrive when they are touched and when they hear sounds; similarly, adults who engage in human relationships appear to be more successful and satisfied than do those who are isolated. Human relationships serve a variety of functions. They provide us with affection (receiving and providing warmth and friendliness), inclusion (experiencing feelings that we belong and providing others with messages that they belong), pleasure (sharing happiness and fun), escape (providing diversion), and control (managing our lives and influencing others).7 We learn about the complexity of human relationships as we study communication. We learn, first, that other people in relationships are vastly different from each other. We learn that they may be receptive or dismissive toward us. We learn that they may behave as if they were superior or inferior to us. We learn that they might be approachable or highly formal. We also learn that our interactions with others may be helpful or harmful. Communicators can share personal information that builds trust and rapport. The same personal information can be used outside the relationship to humiliate or shame the other person. Whereas some relationships enhance social support, others are riddled with deception and conflict. Interactions are not neutral. We learn that people coconstruct the reality of the relationship. Families, for example, love to tell stories of experiences they have had when on vacation, when moving across the country, or when some particularly positive or negative event occurred. Indeed, they often take turns “telling the story.” Couples, too, create and tell stories of their lives. Couples’ stories may be positive as the couple emphasizes their feelings of belongingness and their identity as a couple. On the other end of the spectrum, stories may be highly negative as people deceive others with information that allows them to cover up criminal acts, such as drug use, child abuse, or murder. Human relationships are complex. As you study communication, you will clarify the variables involved in relationships—the people, the verbal and nonverbal cues provided, the effect of time, the nature of the relationship, and the goals of the participants. You will be ready to engage in relationships with an understanding of the communication process.

• Studying communication improves critical thinking skills and can help people achieve success in college and on the job. © Hill Street Studios/Blend Images/Getty Images RF

6 Part One Fundamentals of Communication Studies

People who receive communication-skills training experience greater relational satisfaction than those who don’t.8,9 The link between communication skills and life satisfaction is strong. The connection holds true in health contexts,10 including situations in which family members are experiencing life-threatening illnesses.11 For example, couples’ communication during early stages of cancer diagnoses impacts their levels of intimacy and adjustment.

4. Studying communication can teach you important life skills. Studying communication involves learning important skills that everyone will use at some point in his or her life, such as critical thinking, problem solving, decision making, conflict resolution, team building, media literacy, and public speaking.12 Our visual literacy is improved as we understand the technical and artistic aspects of the visual communication medium.13 The increasing focus on visual and social media requires us to attend to how communication skills are at work in these contexts.

Studying communication early in your college career can enhance your success through- out college. Consider the centrality of oral communication to all of your college classes. You regularly are called on to answer questions in class, to provide reports, to offer explanations, and to make presentations. In addition, both your oral and written work depend on your ability to think critically and creatively, to solve problems, and to make decisions. Most likely, you will be engaged in group projects in which skills such as team building and conflict resolution will be central. The same skills will be essential throughout your life.

5. Studying communication can help you feel confident in voicing and advocating your opinions and create space to give voice to others. Few nations have a bill of rights that invites people to convey their opinions and ideas, yet freedom of speech is essential to a democratic form of government. Being a practicing citizen in a democratic society means knowing about current issues and being able to speak about them in conversations, in speeches, and through the media; it also involves being able to critically examine messages from others.

Our understanding of communication shapes our political lives. Mass communication and communication technology have sharply altered the way we consume and use infor- mation as part of the political process. Today many more people have the opportunity to receive information than ever before and through more channels than ever before. Think about how you get information about local, national, and global issues. Do you get alerts from a CNN app pinged to your phone? Do you have an app like Zite or Feedly. com that pulls together information from newspapers and magazines, based on your specified interests, at one location? Perhaps you have specific news programs you watch or newspapers to which you subscribe. In many ways, the methods through which you consume media determine the amount and frequency of the information to which you have access. Through the mass media, and specifically social media, people in remote locations are as well informed as those in large urban centers. The public agenda is largely set through the media. Pressing problems are given immediate attention. McCombs notes, “The agenda-setting role of the mass media links journalism and its tradition of storytelling to the arena of public opinion, a relationship with considerable consequences for society.”14 Whereas some people may feel more enfranchised by digitally mediated communica- tion, particularly social media, to advocate their positions, others feel more alienated as they become increasingly passive in the process. Face-to-face town meetings were the focus of democratic decision making in times past, but today people receive answers to questions, solutions to problems, and decisions about important matters from the media.

Chapter 1 Introduction to Human Communication 7

Social media has become a strong tool in protest movements. In particular, research- ers point to the vital role social media played during the Arab Spring in 2010. During this contemporary social protest movement, sites such as Twitter were used to organize successful antigovernment protests that led to the resignation of Egypt’s dictatorial leader.15 Social media sites also played a large role in organizing protests and spreading messages for the Occupy movement in the United States. Gerbaudo (2012), in his book Tweets and the Streets: Social Media and Contemporary Activism, suggests that new media creates opportunities and risks as people express dissent through social media as part of contemporary protest movements. Have you expressed dissent or agreement about political issues using social media? How did the people in your life react to your posts or involvement? Have your friends or family members been involved in movements that were organized through social media?16 The study and understanding of communication processes is profoundly political. Hart suggests that “those who teach public address and media studies teach that social power can be shifted and public visions exalted if people learn to think well and speak well.”17 Paraphrasing the ancient Greek rhetorician Isocrates, Hart notes, “To become eloquent is to activate one’s humanity, to apply the imagination, and to solve the practi- cal problems of human living.”18 Freedom goes to the articulate. You have the opportunity to be a fully functioning member of a democratic society. You also have the challenge of understanding the media and other information technolo- gies. Studying communication will help you learn how to speak effectively, analyze arguments, synthesize large quantities of information, and critically consume information from a variety of sources. The future of our society depends on such mastery.

6. Studying communication can help you succeed professionally. A look at the job postings in any newspaper will give you an immediate understanding of the importance of improving your knowledge and practice of communication. The employment section of a newspaper or Internet posting has entries like these:

• “We need a results-oriented, seasoned professional who is a good communicator and innovator,” reads one posting for a marketing manager.

• Another posting, this one for a marketing analyst, reads, “You should be creative, inquisitive, and a good communicator both in writing and orally.”

• A posting for a training specialist calls for “excellent presentation, verbal, and writ- ten communication skills, with ability to interact with all levels within organization.”

Employers want to hire people who are competent communicators. If fact, they often say they want effective public communicators and people who can work in teams.19 You may believe that some professions are enhanced by communication skills but that many are not. However, professionals in fields such as accounting, auditing, banking, counseling, engineer- ing, industrial hygiene, information science, public relations, and sales have all written about the importance of oral communication skills.20 More recently, professionals in the computer industry,21 genetics and science,22 farming and ranching,23 education,24 and the health field25 have stressed the importance of communication skills to potential employees. The variety of these careers suggests that communication skills are important across the board. Communication skills are crucial in your first contact with a prospective employer. By studying communication, you can enhance your interviewing skills. Further, human resource interviewers note that oral communication skills, in general, significantly affect hiring deci- sions.26 One survey in 2013 of over 700 employers indicated that effective communication is vital to career success and that they are finding many college graduates lacking such skills.27 Taking this course and being able to persuasively explain how this course has pre- pared you to be an effective communicator will set you apart from other job applicants.

8 Part One Fundamentals of Communication Studies

Employers view your written and oral communication competencies and your ability to listen and analyze messages as essential job skills.28 Similarly, college graduates perceive communication coursework as essential.29 In short, communication competence is important. Communication skills are important not only to equip you for beginning your career but also to help you navigate changes throughout the work life span. Dauphinais observes that communication skills can increase upward mobility in one’s career.30 Business exec- utives note the importance of communication competence.31 Finally, communication skills are among the top priorities for entrepreneurs. What communication skills are employers seeking? Clearly, listening skills are among the most important components of communication32 (see the chapter on listening and critical thinking). Speaking clearly, succinctly, and persuasively is crucial to many jobs, including those in sales,33 which you can read more about in the chapters on lan- guage and meaning, delivery and visual resources, and persuasive presentations. An ability to work in teams or groups is vital,34 and you can read about this in the chapter on workplace communication. Employers are also seeking interpersonal skills,35 which you can learn about in the chapter on interpersonal communication. Public speaking skills are important in most professions because employees are often required to give talks and presentations.36 Finally, employers seek employees with strong written communication skills.37 You will have an opportunity to improve your writing skills as you prepare outlines and manuscripts for public speeches, which you can learn more about in the chapters on public speaking. Ultimately, the content and skills in this course will prepare you to be ready to communicate in ways that matter for your professional career.

7. Studying communication can help you navigate an increasingly diverse world. As you stroll through a mall, deposit money in a bank, go to a movie, or work at your job, odds are that about one in every five people you come into contact with will speak English as a second language. According to the 2007 American Community Survey, conducted by the U.S. Census Bureau, nearly 20% of respondents speak a language other than English in their home. The increasingly diverse population of the United States means that multilingual communication encounters are, for most of us, the norm rather than the exception. Learning how to communicate in today’s world, whether English is your first language or not, requires an understanding of communication and culture and how those two concepts are related.

As you develop an understanding of basic communication concepts and learn how to apply those concepts in everyday interactions, you will be better equipped to bridge language and cultural barriers and promote effective interpersonal relationships, teamwork, and digitally mediated communication.

Defining Communication Now that you have considered why learning about communication is important, you need to know exactly what the term means. Over the years, scholars have created hundreds of definitions of communication. How they define the term can limit or expand the study of the subject. In this edition of Human Communication, we will adopt a broad definition of communication that is applicable to many different situations and contexts in which people interact. Communication comes from the Latin word communicare, which means “to make common” or “to share.” The root definition is consistent with our definition of com- munication. We define communication as the process of using messages to generate meaning. Communication is considered a process because it is an activity, an exchange, or a set of behaviors—not an unchanging product. Communication is not an object you can hold in your hand; it is an activity in which you participate. David Berlo, a pioneer in

communication The process of using messages to generate meaning.

process An activity, an exchange, or a set of behaviors that occurs over time.

Chapter 1 Introduction to Human Communication 9

the field of communication, probably provided the clearest statement about communication as a process:

If we accept the concept of process, we view events and rela- tionships as dynamic, ongoing, ever changing, continuous. When we label something as a process, we also mean that it does not have a beginning, an end, a fixed sequence of events. It is not static, at rest. It is moving. The ingredients within a process interact; each affects all the others38

In stating that communication is a process, we mean that you can- not look at any particular communication behavior as a snapshot and fully understand what is happening. Suppose that you were in a coffee shop and observed an interaction between a customer and a server. The customer asks for a double-shot espresso, and the barista responds by asking, “Sure you don’t want a latte?” The customer responds by say- ing, “Definitely no,” to which the barista says, “Wow, must be a bad day.” On its face, this interaction could seem somewhat abrupt—maybe even inappropriate. But, if the customer is a regular, the barista might know that this is an unusual order, inferring that the need for an extra jolt of caffeine is indicative of a hectic day for the patron. In this example, the communication interaction started well before the actual behaviors you observed. Those behaviors were part of an ongoing pro- cess of communication between the customer and the barista. How the customer responds to the “bad day” comment, perhaps with annoyance or with a story about what is going on, will further influence that unfolding communication process. Messages include verbal and nonverbal symbols, signs, and behaviors. When you smile at another person, you are sending a message. When a radio announcer chooses language to emphasize the seriousness of a recent event, she is creating a message. The public speaker might spend days choosing just the right words and considering his bodily movements, gestures, and facial expression. People hope to generate common meanings through the messages they provide. Meaning is the understanding of the message. You know that all of the messages you generate are not shared by others with whom you try to communicate. You try to flirt with someone you meet in class, but the other person seems oblivious to your subtle nonverbal signals. College professors are generally very knowledgeable about a subject matter, but they vary greatly in their ability to convey shared meanings. Understanding the meaning of another person’s message does not occur unless the two communicators can elicit common meanings for words, phrases, and nonverbal codes. During the process of communication, we naturally attempt to negotiate meaning with others. For instance, during class, you might raise a hand to have a professor clarify the meaning of a term. During a conversation with a friend, you might use a shake of the head to indicate that you are not following her point. In both examples, you used verbal or nonverbal symbols or codes to provide feedback and negotiate meaning with another person. This negotiation is constant, and it means that the process of com- munication is continually unfolding as we attempt to share common meaning with others.

Components of Communication In this section you will learn how communication in action really works. The components of communication are people, messages, channels, feedback, codes, encoding and decoding, noise, and situation.

meaning The understanding of the message.

• Understanding emerges from shared experience. © OJO Images/Getty Images RF

10 Part One Fundamentals of Communication Studies

PEOPLE People are involved in the human commu- nication process in two roles—as both the sources and the receivers of messages. A source initiates a message, and a receiver is the intended target of the message. Indi- viduals do not perform these two roles independently, however; instead, they are the sources and the receivers of messages simultaneously and continually. The people with whom we communicate are diverse. They are of different ages and genders and perhaps from different cultural backgrounds. Each of these characteristics associated with diversity can influence the process of communication as people attempt to negotiate the meaning of messages.

THE MESSAGE The message is the verbal and nonverbal form of the idea, thought, or feeling that one per- son (the source) wishes to communicate to another person or a group of people (the receiv- ers). The message is the content of the interaction. The message includes the symbols (words and phrases) you use to communicate your ideas, as well as your facial expressions, bodily movements, gestures, physical contact, and tone of voice, as well as other nonverbal codes. The message may be relatively brief and easy to understand or long and complex. Some experts believe that real communication stems only from messages that are intentional, those that have a purpose. However, we believe that some messages can be unintentional. For example, you may not intend to show your emotions in certain situations, but your facial expressions and tone of voice might tip others off that you are angry or anxious. These unintended messages add potentially important information to the communication interaction.

THE CHANNEL The channel is the means by which a message moves from the source to the receiver of the message. Think about how you communicate with your family. In some situations you are face-to-face and use your voice to send messages through sound waves. In other situations you might use your voice to talk over the phone, and yet other situations might involve text messages or status updates on social media. Each of these examples illus- trates how the same communicators—you and your family—can use multiple channels to send messages. Of course, the channel used can potentially influence the meaning assigned to the messages. For instance, what are the implications of breaking up with a partner using text or even Twitter as opposed to a face-to-face conversation?

FEEDBACK Feedback is the receiver’s verbal and nonverbal response to the source’s message. Ideally, you respond to another person’s messages by providing feedback, so that the source knows the message was received as intended. Feedback is part of any communication situation. Even no response, or silence, is feedback, as are restless behavior and quizzical looks from students in a classroom. It is through feedback that communicators negotiate meaning in the process of communicating. Silence could signal disagreement. A raised eyebrow could imply a lack of understanding. A simple word, “Fantastic!” could show excitement in response to

source A message initiator.

receiver A message target.

message The verbal or nonverbal form of the idea, thought, or feeling that one person (the source) wishes to communicate to another person or a group of people (the receivers).

channel The means by which a message moves from the source to the receiver of the message.

feedback The receiver’s verbal and nonverbal response to the source’s message.

code A systematic arrangement of symbols used to create meanings in the mind of another person or persons.

verbal codes Symbols and their grammatical arrangement, such as languages.

building behaviors Current Behaviors 360 Feedback Write down at least three communication skills you think you regularly do well in your daily conversations with others. Next, list three communication skills you need to improve on over the course of this semester. Now ask at least three people from different social groups in your life to answer the same questions about you. For example, you could pick a friend, a sibling, and a parental figure. How do their answers compare to yours? What are the top two communication behaviors you want to focus on improving as a result of this class? Let the people in your life know you are working on these skills; their support will encourage you to practice these skills.

Chapter 1 Introduction to Human Communication 11

another person’s idea. Because we are simultaneously senders and receivers of messages, we are constantly providing feed- back to others in an attempt to negotiate meaning.

CODE A computer carries messages via binary code on cable, wire, or fiber; similarly, you converse with others by using a code called “language.” A code is a systematic arrange- ment of symbols used to create meanings in the mind of another person or persons. Words, phrases, and sentences become “symbols” used to evoke images, thoughts, and ideas in the mind of others. If someone yells “Stop” as you approach the street, the word stop has become a symbol that you are likely to interpret as a warning of danger. Verbal and nonverbal codes are the two types of code used in communication. Verbal codes consist of symbols and their grammatical arrangement. All languages are codes. Nonverbal codes consist of all symbols that are not words, including bodily movements, the use of space and time, cloth- ing and other adornments, and sounds other than words. Non- verbal codes should not be confused with nonoral codes. All nonoral codes, such as bodily movement, are nonverbal codes. However, nonverbal codes also include oral codes, such as pitch, duration, rate of speech, and sounds like “eh” and “ah.”

ENCODING AND DECODING If communication involves the use of codes, the process of communicating can be viewed as one of encoding and decoding. Encoding is the process of translating an idea or a thought into a code. Decoding is the process of assigning meaning to that idea or thought. Think about the process you go through when ordering pizza with friends. In response to the typical question of “What do you want?” how often is “I like anything” provided in response? When ordering the pizza, do you take free rein to order a large pie with anchovies, extra onions, and jalapen~os? Probably not. You probably know to not interpret “I like anything” too literally. So, you might use feedback to clarify what is off limits. During communication, our use of codes to encode and decode often requires additional explanation to arrive at solid shared meaning. That’s why feedback is so important to the communication process.

NOISE In the communication process, noise is any interference in the encoding and decoding processes that reduces the clarity of a message. Noise can be physical, such as loud sounds; distracting sights, such as a piece of food between someone’s front teeth; or an unusual behavior, such as someone standing too close for comfort. Noise can be mental, psycho- logical, or semantic, such as daydreams about a loved one, worry about the bills, pain from a tooth, or uncertainty about what the other person’s words mean. Noise can be anything that interferes with receiving, interpreting, or providing feedback about a message.

SITUATION The final component of communication is the situation, the location where communica- t ion takes place. Later in the chapter you will learn about six different contexts for

nonverbal codes All symbols that are not words, including bodily movements, the use of space and time, clothing and adornments, and sounds other than words.

encoding The process of translating an idea or a thought into a code.

decoding The process of assigning meaning to the idea or thought in a code.

noise Any interference in the encoding and decoding processes that reduces message clarity.

situation The location where communication takes place.

engaging diversity Age Differences in Social Media The rising dominance of social media poses a challenge for businesses. How is it possi- ble to get messages to consumers? You might think that advertising can simply trans- late to social media, but are all social media platforms productive? A recent article in Business Insider attempted to explain how one’s age influences perceptions of various social media outlets. For instance, older peo- ple tend to love Facebook, whereas teens view it like an awkward family dinner with rel- atives. Adults love Twitter, but teens largely don’t get the point. And, whereas Snapchat is liberating to younger users, older adults have really not figured out that it even exists. The point? Age influences how we interact with social media. As we interact with people of differing ages, we have to remember that the menu of social media alternatives differs.

Source: Moss, C. (2015, January 9). A teenager finally explains what adults just don’t get about Facebook, Instagram, and Snapchat. Business Insider (www. businessinsider.com/what-teenagers-think-of- social-media-2015-1).

12 Part One Fundamentals of Communication Studies

communication, ranging from interpersonal to mass communication. Each context provides a different type of situation in which you com- municate. For instance, a conversation between two people tends to be less formal, whereas a public speech before hundreds might be more formal. The relationship between people could also affect the situation. You communicate with your boss differently than with your co- workers. Even the channel can impact the situation—face-to-face communication might be more personal than some forms of social media. The situation combines other elements of the communication process to influence the overall tone of the interaction.

Communication Principles A definition of communication may be insuf- ficient to clarify the nature of communication. To explain communication in more detail, we consider here some principles that guide our understanding of communication.

COMMUNICATION BEGINS WITH THE SELF How you see yourself can make a great differ- ence in how you communicate. Carl Rogers39 wrote, “Every individual exists in a continually changing world of experience of which he [or she] is the center.” For instance, when people are treated as though they are inferior, or intel- ligent, or gifted, or unattractive, they will often begin acting accordingly. Many communica- tion scholars and social scientists believe that people are products of how others treat them and of the messages others send them. As persons, our understanding of the world is limited by our experiences with it.

John Shotter suggests that we cannot understand communication through external, abstract, and systematic processes. Instead, he describes communication as a “ceaseless flow of speech-entwined, dialogically structured, social activity.”40 In other words, com- munication is participatory; we are actively involved and relationally responsive in our use of communication. Shotter would contrast his perspective of a participatory-holistic view of communication with one that is abstract and systematic. To contrast these two perspectives, let us consider an example. Suppose you have a roommate who is from another country. The roommate’s religion, belief system, and daily habits challenge your perspective of communication, derived from interacting primarily with people in the United States who hold Western and Christian values. To the extent that you each try to impose your own preconceptions on the communication you share, you may be dissatisfied and experience conflict. By preimposing “rules” of communication derived from your earlier experiences in two distinctive cultures, you are bound to fail

Communication Skills in Context We communicate in a variety of contexts. To improve your skill as a communicator, you should assess your own com- munication skills in each of the general communication contexts so that you can identify your strengths and areas for growth. Read each of the following questions carefully, and respond using the following scale:

1 = Strongly disagree 2 = Disagree 3 = Neither agree nor disagree 4 = Agree 5 = Strongly agree

1. I can use communication to solve conflicts with friends.

2. I am able to express my ideas clearly when working in a group.

3. I am comfortable when giving public speeches. 4. I can use the Internet to locate highly reputable

information. 5. Other people tell me that I am a good speaker. 6. My friends tell me that I am a good listener. 7. Others listen to my opinions in group meetings. 8. People rely on me to find information on the web. 9. I am good at delivering speeches. 10. I can effectively lead groups to discuss problems. 11. I make friends easily. 12. I am skilled at using computers to communicate

with others (e.g., using Skype, IM, chat rooms, and other communication tools).

Note: This list has no “right” or “wrong” answers. It simply provides an overview of your communication skills at the beginning of the course. You might want to complete the survey again at the end of the course to determine whether your scores have changed. A guide for interpreting your re- sponses appears at the end of the chapter.

sizing things up

Chapter 1 Introduction to Human Communication 13

in this new relationship. If you are able to move beyond such a view and allow your perception of your communication to become a product of your interactions, you may be able to communicate in interesting and effective ways. Every day, we experience the centrality of ourselves in communication. As a par- ticipant in communication, you are limited by your own view of every situation. A student, for instance, may describe a conflict with an instructor as unfair treatment: “I know my instructor doesn’t like the fact that I don’t agree with his opinions, and that’s why he gave me such a poor grade in that class.” The instructor might counter, “That student doesn’t understand all the factors that go into a final grade.” Each person may believe that he or she is correct and that the other person’s view is wrong. As you study communication, you will learn ways to better manage such conflict.

COMMUNICATION INVOLVES OTHERS George Herbert Mead said that the self originates in communication.41 Through verbal and nonverbal symbols, a child learns to accept roles in response to the expectations of others. For example, Dominique Moceanu, a successful Olympic gymnast, was influ- enced quite early in life by what others wanted her to be. Both her parents had been gymnasts, and apparently her father told her for years that her destiny was to be a world- class gymnast.42 Most likely, she had an inherent ability to be a good one, but she may not have become a medal-winning gymnast without the early messages she received from her parents and trainers. Like Moceanu, you establish self-image, the sort of person you believe you are, by the ways others categorize you. Positive, negative, and neutral mes- sages that you receive from others all play a role in determining who you are. You may be aware of how important your peers are to your academic career. Students report that peers provide support for a variety of reasons: they allow you to vent about teachers and classes; provide you with information about assignments, classes, and other academic matters; offer positive statements that build your self-esteem and sense of worth; and make statements that motivate you to attend class, to do your homework, and to generally succeed at your work.43 Other people are essential to how you feel about yourself during college and throughout your life.

•  Understanding can emerge from dialogue. © Kristy-Anne/Design Pics RF

14 Part One Fundamentals of Communication Studies

Communication itself is probably best understood as a dialogic process. A dialogue is simply the act of taking part in a conversation, discussion, or negotiation. When we describe and explain our communicative exchanges with others, we are doing so from a perspective of self and from a perspective derived from interacting with others. Our understanding of communication occurs not in a vacuum but in light of our interactions with other people.44 In a more obvious way, communication involves others in the sense that a competent communicator considers the other person’s needs and expectations when selecting messages to share. The competent communicator understands that a large number of messages can be shared at any time, but sensitivity and responsiveness to the other communicators are essential. In short, communication begins with the self, as defined largely by others, and involves others, as defined largely by the self.

COMMUNICATION HAS BOTH A CONTENT AND A RELATIONAL DIMENSION All messages have both a content and a relational dimension. Messages provide substance and suggest a relationship among communicators. Another way to think about this dis- tinction is that the content of the message describes the behavior that is expected, whereas the relational message suggests how it should be interpreted. For example, if I say, “Sit down,” the content of the brief message is a request for you to be seated. Relationally, I am suggesting that I have the authority to tell you to be seated. Consider the difference between “Sit down!” and “Would you care to be seated?” Whereas the content is essen- tially the same, the relational aspect seems far different. Generally, the content of the message is less ambiguous than is the relational message.

COMMUNICATION INVOLVES CHOICES Communication is far more than simple information transmission. Communication involves choices about the multiple aspects of the message: the verbal, nonverbal, and behav- ioral aspects; the choices surrounding the transmission channels used; the characteristics of the speaker; the relationship between the speaker and the audience; the characteristics of the audience; and the situation in which the communication occurs. A change in any one of these variables affects the entire communication process. The fact that communication involves choices has powerful implications, and it also involves risk. As author Brene Brown suggests in her book Daring Greatly, we regularly make choices about whether or not we show up and are seen and heard.45 Can you recall a time when you have been asked for your opinion but chose not to say what you really thought? Or perhaps a family member posted a comment on Facebook that you didn’t agree with, but you chose not to comment back to them with your thoughts because of the potential risk involved in publicly challenging your family member. How did that choice to not use your voice make you feel? In contrast, has there been a time when you said what you wanted to say, whether it was in response to a friend’s opinion on oil fracking or a family member’s Facebook comment about immigration reform that you disagreed with? How did that choice to use your voice make you feel? Every encounter with others, whether it is face-to-face or mediated, involves choices, and we hope that each chapter you read and the communication skills you practice in your classes help you to be ready to support and defend your choices.

COMMUNICATION QUANTITY DOES NOT INCREASE COMMUNICATION QUALITY You might believe that a course on communication would stake claims on the importance of increased communication. You may have heard counselors or therapists say: “What we need is more communication.” However, greater amounts of communication do not necessarily

dialogue The act of taking part in a conversation, discussion, or negotiation.

Chapter 1 Introduction to Human Communication 15

lead to more harmony or more accurate and shared meanings. Sometimes people disagree, and the more they talk, the more they learn that they are in conflict. Other times people have very poor listening or empathy skills and misunderstand vast quantities of information. Com- munication, defined simply as verbiage, does not necessarily lead to positive outcomes.

COMMUNICATION IS PERVASIVE Although communication involves choices and more communication is not necessarily better communication, communication is pervasive and occurs almost every minute of your life. In other words, communication spreads to all aspects of your life. If you are not communicating with yourself (thinking, planning, reacting to the world around you), you are observing others and drawing inferences from their behavior. Even if others did not intend messages for you, you gather observations and draw specific conclusions. A person yawns, and you believe that he is bored with your message. A second person looks away, and you conclude that she is not listening to you. A third person smiles (perhaps because of a memory of a joke he heard recently), and you believe that he is attracted to you. We are continually gleaning meanings from others’ behaviors, and we are constantly behaving in ways that have communicative value for them.

COMMUNICATION CANNOT BE REVERSED Have you ever insulted someone accidentally? You may have tried to explain that you did not intend to insult anybody, said you were sorry for your statement, or made a joke out of your misstatement. Nonetheless, your comment lingers both in the mind of the other person and in your own mind. As you understand the irreversibility of communication, you may become more careful in your conversations with others, and you may take more time prepar- ing public presentations. You cannot go back in time and erase your messages to others.

Communication Contexts Communication occurs in a context—a set of circumstances or a situation. Communica- tion occurs between two friends, among five business acquaintances in a small-group setting, and between a lecturer and an audience that fills an auditorium. At many colleges and universities, the communication courses are arranged by context: interpersonal com- munication, interviewing, small-group communication, public speaking, and mass com- munication. Across these contexts of communication there are key similarities and dif- ferences. Although the process of making meaning might be consistent from one context to another, they differ greatly on the number of people involved, the formality expected by communicators, and the opportunity for feedback.

INTRAPERSONAL COMMUNICATION Intrapersonal communication is the process of using messages to generate meaning within the self. Intrapersonal communication is the communication that occurs within your own mind. Think about a situation at work in which you have an ongoing conflict with a co-worker. When talking with that person in meetings, you likely engage in dia- logue with yourself trying to anticipate how the person will react to your statements or actions. So, if you say to that person, “Great job on that presentation,” you might ask yourself if he or she will interpret your comment as patronizing, even if you were trying to be totally authentic. That internal questioning illustrates how we use intrapersonal communication to try to create and infer meaning when we communicate with others. Intrapersonal communication occurs, as this example suggests, when you evaluate or examine the interaction that occurs between yourself and others, but it is not limited to such situations. This form of communication occurs before and during other forms of

context A set of circumstances or a situation.

intrapersonal communication The process of using messages to generate meaning within the self.

16 Part One Fundamentals of Communication Studies

communication as well. For instance, you might argue with yourself during a conversation in which someone asks you to do something you do not really want to do: before you accept or decline, you mull over the alternatives in your mind. Intrapersonal communication also includes such activities as solv- ing problems internally, resolving internal conflict, planning for the future, and evaluating yourself and your relationships with others. Intra- personal communication—the basis for all other communication—involves only the self. Each one of us is continually engaged in intrapersonal communica- tion. Although you might become more easily absorbed in talking to yourself when you are alone (while walking to class, driving to work, or taking a

shower, for instance), you are likely to be involved in this form of communication in crowded circumstances as well (such as during a lecture, at a party, or with friends). Think about the last time you looked at yourself in a mirror. What were your thoughts? Although intrapersonal communication is almost continuous, people seldom focus on this form of communication. Indeed, not all communication experts believe that intrapersonal communication should be examined within communication studies. The naysayers argue that communication requires two or more receiv- ers of a message, and since there are no receivers in intrapersonal communication, no communication actually occurs. They reason that intrapersonal communication should be studied in a discipline such as psychology or neurology—a field in which experts study the mind or the brain. Nonetheless, intrapersonal communication is recognized by most scholars within the discipline as one context of communication for you to know and understand.

INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION When you move from intrapersonal to interper sonal communica- tion, you move from communication that occurs within your own mind to communication that involves one or more other persons.

Interpersonal communication is the process of using messages to generate meaning between at least two people in a situation that allows mutual opportunities for both speaking and listening. Like intrapersonal communication, interpersonal communication occurs for a variety of reasons: to solve problems, to resolve conflicts, to share informa- tion, to improve perceptions of oneself, or to fulfill social needs, such as the need to belong or to be loved. Through our interpersonal communication, we are able to estab- lish relationships with others that include friendships and romantic relationships.

interpersonal communication The process of using messages to generate meaning between at least two people in a situation that allows mutual opportunities for both speaking and listening.

dyadic communication Two-person communication.

small-group communication The process of using messages to generate meaning in a small group of people.

communicating creatively

• Intrapersonal communication occurs in our reflections. © John Lund/Drew Kelly/ Sam Diephuis/Blend Images

LLC RF

Can Rituals Drive Creativity? How often have you heard people say that you need to “think out- side the box”? They seem to imply that to be creative, you must do something totally unique and different from your routine. Art Markman, a psychology and marketing professor at the University of Texas, thinks differently. He recommends that you develop rituals to help you be more creative. For instance, you might create a particular space that will be conducive to your creativity. He also stresses that true creativity comes from significant knowledge and experience with a particular topic. At its heart, creativity happens through intrapersonal communication as you think to yourself about how to accomplish something in new and novel ways.

Source: Markman, A. (2014, September 8). The importance of ritual to the creative process. Hit the Ground Running (www.fastcompany.com/3035281/hit-the-ground- running/the-importance-of-ritual-to-the-creative-process).

Chapter 1 Introduction to Human Communication 17

communication as well. For instance, you might argue with yourself during a conversation in which someone asks you to do something you do not really want to do: before you accept or decline, you mull over the alternatives in your mind. Intrapersonal communication also includes such activities as solv- ing problems internally, resolving internal conflict, planning for the future, and evaluating yourself and your relationships with others. Intra- personal communication—the basis for all other communication—involves only the self. Each one of us is continually engaged in intrapersonal communica- tion. Although you might become more easily absorbed in talking to yourself when you are alone (while walking to class, driving to work, or taking a

shower, for instance), you are likely to be involved in this form of communication in crowded circumstances as well (such as during a lecture, at a party, or with friends). Think about the last time you looked at yourself in a mirror. What were your thoughts? Although intrapersonal communication is almost continuous, people seldom focus on this form of communication. Indeed, not all communication experts believe that intrapersonal communication should be examined within communication studies. The naysayers argue that communication requires two or more receiv- ers of a message, and since there are no receivers in intrapersonal communication, no communication actually occurs. They reason that intrapersonal communication should be studied in a discipline such as psychology or neurology—a field in which experts study the mind or the brain. Nonetheless, intrapersonal communication is recognized by most scholars within the discipline as one context of communication for you to know and understand.

INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION When you move from intrapersonal to interper sonal communica- tion, you move from communication that occurs within your own mind to communication that involves one or more other persons.

Interpersonal communication is the process of using messages to generate meaning between at least two people in a situation that allows mutual opportunities for both speaking and listening. Like intrapersonal communication, interpersonal communication occurs for a variety of reasons: to solve problems, to resolve conflicts, to share informa- tion, to improve perceptions of oneself, or to fulfill social needs, such as the need to belong or to be loved. Through our interpersonal communication, we are able to estab- lish relationships with others that include friendships and romantic relationships.

interpersonal communication The process of using messages to generate meaning between at least two people in a situation that allows mutual opportunities for both speaking and listening.

dyadic communication Two-person communication.