Linguistics for everyone 2nd edition answer key

Linguistics for Everyone

© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

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Instructor’s Manual and Answer Key

Linguistics for Everyone

An Introduction

Kristin Denham Western Washington University

Anne Lobeck Western Washington University

Australia • Brazil • Japan • Korea • Mexico • Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States

© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

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© 2013 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning

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ISBN-13: 978-1-111-83658-0 ISBN-10: 1-111-83658-2

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Contents

Part 1 Instructor’s Resource Manual and Answer Key 1 Features of the Book 1

Possible Course Organization and Schedules 3

Chapter Overview 3

Part 2 Answer Key 13 1 What Is Language and How Do

We Study It? 14

2 The Human Capacity for Language 19

3 Phonetics: Describing Sounds 25

4 Phonology: The Sound Patterns of Language 33

5 Morphology: Words and Their Parts 43

6 Morphological Typology and Word Formation 55

7 Syntax: Heads and Phrases 61

8 Syntax: Phrase Structure and Syntactic Rules 71

9 Semantics: Making Meaning with Words 82

10 Semantics and Pragmatics: Making Meaning with Sentences 94

11 The Early Story of English 103

12 English Goes Global 112

13 Representing Language: The Written Word 116

14 The Life Cycle of Language 123

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1 © 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

1 As we point out in the Preface to Linguistics for Everyone, linguis- tics isn’t just for linguists anymore. More and more interdisciplin- ary linguistics programs and departments are cropping up across the country, and introductory linguistics courses often include students from a variety of majors, many of whom have had no prior expo- sure to the scientific study of language described in this book. Nev- ertheless, as the many features of this book illustrate, linguistics has broad application across a number of different fields, in addition to being an area of study in and of itself. As we mention in the Preface, “[l]inguistics contributes to our understanding of anthropology, soci- ology, computer science, speech pathology, communications, journal- ism, history, political science, you name it.” You may be relatively new to this field of teaching introductory linguistics, and your students may or may not be linguistics majors; for these reasons, we have designed this book to pique the interest of students regardless of major and experience, and to be very “teachable,” with multiple features that you can use to design assignments and promote exploration of language.

I. Features of the Book

Several innovative features will help you organize material and de- sign classroom activities and assignments. • The “At a Glance” and “Key Concepts” features will help you

organize your approach to each chapter and will prime your students to address its concepts; they offer the opportunity for lively discussions that engage students’ natural interest in language and tie that to their study of linguistics. These features are a way to prepare students for the chapter’s topics and get them focused, as well as giving you a preview of the chapter topics to help with organization.

P A R T

Instructor’s Resource Manual and Answer Key

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2 • PA RT 1 Instructor’s Resource Manual and Answer Key

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• Students will find the “Language Alive!” “Did You Know . . .?” and “Linguistics in the News” features both interesting and instructive. They are intended to spark students’ curiosity, and to answer some questions about language and the ways we communicate (“So that’s why we say…” “I always wondered about that.” “Now it makes sense.”) and to lend a sense of immediacy to their study of linguistics. You can use these to prompt small group discussion and debate about, for example, cultural influences on language, sexism in language, animal communication—topics that relate linguistics to the world around us. Many of these are also good topics for research assignments.

• The “Accent On” feature focuses on careers in which linguistics is necessary or advantageous and shows students the practical applications of linguistics (and maybe entices a few to major in linguistics). The “Accent On” can also be the focus of an assignment or discussion; for example, students could select one of the “Accent On” professions and write an essay on it, using the resources in “For More Information” in the feature box and in the “Sources and Resources” list. Or they might interview a person in a language-related job and ask them to identify other professional areas where knowledge of linguistics is useful.

• The “Hwæt!” features are pure gravy. They are peripheral bits of information that are interesting or curious and not necessarily “linguistic”— fun facts related to material in the chapter. You could challenge students to contribute their own features, indicating their (valid) sources, of course. Perhaps these could be used in future editions of the text.

• The marginal definitions of terms (boldfaced in the text) will help you construct quizzes and exams; at a glance, you can see where terms have been introduced, which indicates the topics students have studied. The marginal glosses will help your students review the terms for exams and quizzes and can serve as a check for understanding of key points and terminology. Ask them to provide examples/evidence for the margin definitions in order to encourage discovery rather than memorization.

• The “Review, Practice, and Explore” sections contain a variety of exercises and activities—basic practice of linguistic analysis, general and specific topics for discussion, research ideas for short essays and papers, analysis of other languages, and problem-solving exercises that extend the concepts introduced in the chapter. The large number and varied types of activities allow you to choose those that suit your students and your goals for this course.

• All exercises are keyed to the relevant areas in the text so that you can assign them as students progress through the chapter for immediate review and reinforcement, or you can assign some or all of them at the end of the chapter for a comprehensive review and an opportunity to pursue points of particular interest. We recommend taking advantage of the exercise keys and assigning the RPE (or a selection thereof) along with class reading assignments. This encourages students to come to class prepared and promotes more active

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Chapter Overview • 3

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learning; students not only complete daily reading assignments but also must actively engage the material prior to coming to class.

• Group Work/Research Presentations: the “Accent On,” “Linguistics in the News,” and research topics in the “Review, Practice, and Explore” sections offer excellent options for collaborative assignments (written assignments that are either handed in or given as presentations).

• The chapter summary offers a quick review of the main points. • The “Sources and Resources” list contains specific places to investigate to

deepen and broaden knowledge of any of the chapter’s topics, so offers an excellent place to begin research projects on any of the chapter’s topics. It is not just the citations from the chapter, but also related relevant sources.

II. Possible Course Organization and Schedules

Different instructors will choose, of course, to organize the course material in dif- ferent ways, depending on the length of the term, the goals of the course, and the goals of the instructors. As discussed above, the core material of any introduction to linguistics course is included in Chapters 3–9 (phonetics, phonology, morphol- ogy, syntax, semantics), which is one possible focus, and which could involve teaching these chapters in some detail. Another more general focus (an overview of the areas of linguistic study) would involve picking and choosing material from the core, but also including discussion of additional chapters (Chapter 11 on the history of English, Chapter 12 on language variation, and Chapter 13 on writing systems). Chapter 14 is designed as a capstone chapter, bringing together threads introduced in other chapters, and can be included as material covered in class, or as a resource for final research projects and presentations. Below, we highlight features of each chapter that will help you organize the material along these two general lines: with a focus on the grammatical system itself, or with a more general focus, an overview of topics of study in linguistics.

III. Chapter Overview

We devote two chapters to each core area (phonetics/phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics), which allows several options: You can teach both chap- ters as a unit, pick and choose sections from each to make up a single unit, or teach sections and assign others to students for presentations, group work, and so on. We also weave language change and variation throughout each chapter, in addition to including chapters that focus on these topics.

Chapter 1: “What Is Language and How Do We Study It?” addresses the na- ture of human language (versus other communication systems) and also includes a

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4 • PA RT 1 Instructor’s Resource Manual and Answer Key

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discussion of the origins of linguistic science (a topic other textbooks often omit) and an introduction to how linguistics differs from other approaches to the study of language. This chapter provides an accessible overview of the general questions that linguistics seeks to answer: What is language? What is grammar? How does the human language system differ from other communication systems? It’s im- portant to have students read it, because it is a good introduction to the course and contains nothing that will baffle them. Students can even read the chapter before the first day of class in preparation for discussion (if you are constrained by time even before your class begins); or, of course, they can read it during the first week of class. The Research, Practice, and Explore exercises in this chapter are also ac- cessible to students with no prior knowledge of linguistics, and can be assigned in advance of (and as a prerequisite to) class discussion.

Chapter 2: “The Human Capacity for Language” is an important chapter for in- troducing students to the study of linguistics, which is why we have included it as the second chapter in the book. This chapter provides an overview of the contri- butions of both psycholinguistics and neurolinguistics to the study of language. The material presented is an excellent “hook” for students, piquing their curiosity about the biological foundations of language, which is precisely what students are not only unaware of, but what they typically find immediately fascinating. In ad- dition, this chapter lays an important foundation for discussion of the more techni- cal aspects of grammatical structure in later chapters, by introducing students to evidence of the biological foundations of language (through their own intuitions about grammar, first and second language acquisition, linguistic savants, language and the brain, pidgins and creoles, and language genesis). We find that regard- less of students’ majors, beginning the course with this material provides a solid foundation upon which to tackle other more theoretical aspects of language. This material is also easily supplemented with excellent video resources, such as Chris- topher the linguistic savant on the Linguistic Society of America video archive, and the first two sections of Gene Searchinger’s Human Language video series.

Chapter 3: “Describing Sounds” provides an introduction to English phonet- ics, with a unique twist: an emphasis on language change and variation. In addi- tion to providing an overview of English consonants and vowels, minimal pairs, and allophones and phonemes, the chapter illustrates language change over time and space exemplified by both historic and contemporary vowel shifts: the Great Vowel Shift of the sixteenth century, and the ongoing Northern Cities Vowel Shift (among others, discussed in the Research, Practice, and Explore section). You therefore have different options available for teaching this chapter: focusing on the phonetics of English and phonetic transcription and/or including in the unit a discussion of the historical and sociolinguistic aspects of language change and variation, in the form of vowel shifts. We find that introducing students to phonetic

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Chapter Overview • 5

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transcription is enriched by the discussion of dialect variation and the history of English, actively engaging them in listening to and analyzing their own speech and that of others. The approach to phonetics in this chapter provides you with a way to tackle early on the underpinnings of language discrimination based on accent (supplemented by some of the fine activities on the PBS Do You Speak American? website, such as Test Your Vowel Power), or to focus more specifically on phonetics (exploring, along with the material in the chapter, Peter Ladefoged’s phonetics website). Our decision to use the symbols /š č ǰ ž / instead of their IPA counterparts comes after years of using both and finding that there is much less confusion for students to not use digraphs. It’s quite simple for students to modify to the traditional IPA symbols if they continue study in linguistics.

Chapter 4: “The Sound Patterns of Language” requires as a prerequisite the ma- terial in Chapter 3; students will need a basic understanding of allophones and phonemes, and literacy in the IPA in order to navigate the material here. The chapter provides accessible examples of a number of different phonological pro- cesses (assimilation, deletion, epenthesis and metathesis rules, etc.) and a general introduction to suprasegmental phonology (syllable structure, stress, and intona- tion). This chapter can be taught in its entirety should your goal be to provide a more comprehensive overview of a wide selection of phonological processes, but it is also possible to teach a selection of the phonological rules we discuss, to introduce the concept of phonological rules. Should you choose this more general goal in teaching this chapter, we recommend supplementing the discussion of (a few) of the phonological processes discussed here with the Did You Know…? and Language Alive! features, which highlight “real-life” examples of pronunciations explained by phonological processes (rather than by speakers being “lazy” or un- educated), such as invented spellings (such as chruk for truck, jrink for drink, and kald for called), sounds that have dropped out of English (and how are they re- flected in spelling?), pronunciations such as aks and tenashoes (other examples?).

Chapter 5: “Words and Their Parts” introduces students to the ways in which words can be divided into (free and bound) morphemes, and focuses on the kinds of knowledge we use to understand word structure (etymology, recurrence of a root or suffix in another word, etc.). We also introduce content and function words here, as well as syntactic categories, an important foundation for Chapter 7 on syntax. We discuss derivational and inflectional morphemes; the section on derivational morphology includes a discussion of word tree diagrams (as a way of exemplifying how we build words up in ordered steps), and the discussion of in- flectional morphology includes historical examples (the origins of the English case system) as well as details of the English pronoun system and of English verb forms.

There are several different ways to teach this chapter, depending on your chosen focus. The basic material on (bound and free) morphemes, function and

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6 • PA RT 1 Instructor’s Resource Manual and Answer Key

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content words, and syntactic categories can form a core unit, and instructors can choose how much additional material they wish to include. You can choose to introduce derivational morphology, for example, without also discussing tree diagrams, and you can provide an overview of inflectional morphology without delving into the detail the chapter offers. The sections you do not wish to cover might be assigned as outside reading or for small group discussion. The Research, Practice, and Explore exercises and activities can be similarly focused; some target general concepts, and others investigate morphological concepts in more detail, and you can select accordingly.

Chapter 6: “Morphological Typology and Word Formation” includes a section on synthetic and analytic languages, which provides a preview of how inflectional morphology interacts with syntax, and how languages vary according to how in- flectional information is expressed. This chapter also provides a good foundation for the discussion of the changes that took place during the development of Eng- lish in Chapter 11, as English moves from a synthetic language to a more analytic one. If you plan on teaching Chapter 11 (“The Early Story of English”), teaching this section of Chapter 6 provides a good introduction to concepts that will be re- visited in Chapter 11.

The rest of this chapter concerns word formation rules (clipping, blending, com- pounding, etc.). It is very accessible to students and a good section to assign for them to read on their own. Word formation rules are interesting to students and something that they can come to class fully prepared to discuss. Slang, profanity, and lexicog- raphy are also discussed in this chapter, all of which are accessible topics and offer the opportunity for student-directed investigation (leaving you time to focus in class on other more technical aspects of grammar that require more instructor guidance).

The chapter pair on syntax, Chapters 7: “Syntax: Heads and Phrases” and Chapter 8: “Syntax: Phrase Structure and Syntactic Rules” offers a number of different teaching alternatives, depending on your focus.

The discussion of syntactic categories in Chapter 7 overlaps neatly with the introduction of syntactic categories in Chapter 5, though in Chapter 7, we include syntactic evidence for each category and a set of simple phrase structure rules to illustrate them. Beyond the discussion of categories, this chapter focuses on what phrase structure rules allow us to express about syntax: linear order, phrases, heads, and category labels, and includes an introduction to the notion of the clause and to the grammatical functions of subject and predicate. The material in this chapter provides students with important terminology and an introduction to basic concepts of sentence structure, an important foundation for discussions of theory (which try to go beyond description, to find answers to the question of “why” sentences are structured they way they are). We find that while the syntactic evidence for cat- egories (nouns are words preceded by determiners, for example) is accessible to students because it is based on their intuitive knowledge, reading and manipulating

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Chapter Overview • 7

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phrase structure rules takes more guidance and time. We therefore recommend that students have ample time to practice reading and using phrase structure rules prior to moving on to Chapter 8. The decision to include “old style” phrase structure rules is informed by years of experimentation with using them and trying other alternatives. Their use has shown us that they do provide a good way of represent- ing the unconscious structural rules we have in English, while providing a way to constrain the complex system to make it most accessible for this level.

Chapter 8 focuses on aspects of syntactic structure that are not explained by phrase structure rules alone, and what we can learn about syntax by examining more data and evidence, and by using scientific investigation to answer questions about sentence structure. It begins with a discussion of evidence for hierarchical structure (ambiguity) and goes on to address substitution, coordination, movement, and deletion. These concepts and the evidence we present to illustrate them are best navigated in class, with instructor guidance, on a par with Chapter 4 on phonology. Again, as with Chapter 4, you may wish, depending on your focus, to spend time on each syntactic operation presented in this chapter, or to choose one or two, to illustrate the concept of a syntactic operation more generally (you might, for ex- ample, choose to discuss only deletion or only movement, but not both).

Chapter 9: “Semantics: Making Meaning with Words” focuses on word mean- ings, and includes discussion of meaning relationships (the various “nyms”), but also focuses on the fact that word meanings change over time, offering ex- amples of various types of meaning change throughout the history of Eng- lish. So here again, language change—with specific examples from Middle and Old English—is incorporated into the chapter. This allows you the option of high- lighting meaning change and variation or to stick with more formal aspects of meaning relationships themselves (semantic features and fields, entailment and markedness, semantic relationships, and the nyms).

The latter section of the chapter is on the many nonliteral, or figurative, mean- ings of words, making this section especially appropriate for courses with English majors or other humanities majors (and can be applied to the study of literature in accessible ways). This chapter is quite easily navigated by students with little instructor guidance, and includes a great variety of material (from which you may wish to pick and choose).

Chapter 10: “Semantics and Pragmatics: Making Meaning with Sentences” fo- cuses on how we construct meaning from sentences themselves and from the con- text in which they are uttered. As with other chapters, it is possible here to focus on formal linguistics or to broaden the focus to utterance meaning more gener- ally. The first section of the chapter, on sentence meaning, focuses on propositions and their truth conditions, entailment and paraphrase, and presupposition. The next section, on thematic roles and argument structure, forms a bridge between semantics and syntax, outlining how these two grammatical components overlap.

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8 • PA RT 1 Instructor’s Resource Manual and Answer Key

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The chapter then moves from semantics of sentences to pragmatics (meaning in context). These divisions allow for different teaching options; you might choose to teach sentence meaning and argument structure for a more formal linguistics focus, and have students pursue the section on pragmatics on their own, through group or individual assignments. Alternatively, you might choose to put more focus on meaning in context, conversational maxims, politeness, and Speech Act Theory, and to introduce students to the complex interplay of social and linguistic factors in forming meaning, including our cultural expectations, as well as atti- tudes about power and solidarity, social conventions, and so on. Also in this chap- ter is a discussion of the research on the ways in which language might (and might not) shape how we think and view the world—a topic of interest to everyone, and an important topic to discuss in the context of the science of language, in order to dispel myths (about numbers of words for snow, for example). The question of whether our language influences how we think is an excellent topic for debate, discussion, and research projects.

Chapter 11: “The Early Story of English” provides an overview of the major historical events that led to Present Day English, beginning with the origins of historical linguistics and the comparative method, Indo-European and other lan- guage families, and then focusing on Old, Middle, and Early Modern English. It is an important chapter to include for English majors (especially those majoring in English education)—and is of interest to everyone. However, because there is dis- cussion of language change throughout the core chapters, it is possible to omit this chapter and still have students come away with a good understanding of language change, and even with examples from Old and Middle English, since many such examples are included in the core chapters. If you omit this chapter from class dis- cussion, you could possibly include it as an outside-of-class group assignment, in order to familiarize students with the development of English.

The study of the historical development of English can easily fill an entire course, and narrowing this material down to a week-long unit is possible but requires some careful organization. We suggest introducing historical linguistics and the comparative method in class (having students work with the cognate lists in the chapter and in the Research, Practice, and Explore section) as a foun- dation. Then, spend one class period each on Old, Middle, and Early Modern English. The final section of the chapter, on the birth of prescriptive grammar in England, can be the topic of outside study group discussion or individual as- signment. Students will already be familiar with the notion of prescriptive and descriptive grammar (from Chapter 1 and throughout the other chapters), as well as with the notions of language authority and language discrimination, but the discussion of the origins of prescription in this chapter introduces the historical context in which these notions emerge.

Because of the wide range of material covered in this chapter we recommend daily, rather than weekly, homework assignments in order to facilitate discussion rather than lecture.

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Chapter Overview • 9

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Chapter 12: “English Goes Global” is unique in its presentation. We do not simply march through a selection of American English dialects with sample features. Instead, emphasis is placed on how language change (over time) and language variation (in progress) are one and the same process. Because students are familiar with many features of various dialects from the core chapters, more emphasis is placed here on the social factors that correlate with language variation (including region, ethnicity, race, gender, and social class), and the interconnectedness between language and identity. The chap- ter is accessible, so if time is tight, students can read the chapter on their own. Many research project ideas could be developed around material from this chapter.

Chapter 13: “Representing Language: The Written Word” focuses on the many differences between spoken and written language. Included is a discus- sion of the history of writing systems, including the alphabetic system of Eng- lish. Unique among typical history of writing chapters is discussion of how contemporary standards of spelling, writing conventions, and punctuation are still changing, illustrating the ways in which a print system can affect our ideas about language and standardization in our literate society (linking this chapter closely with both Chapter 11 and Chapter 12). The topics covered here also provide excellent material for research projects if time does not allow a thorough exploration of the material during class time. Alternatively, if time allows, Chapters 11, 12, and 13 can all be taught together as a unit that focuses on language change and variation, and their effects on speech, writing, and language attitudes.

Chapter 14: “The Life Cycle of Language” is a unique chapter among intro- ductory texts—and one not to be missed! Here again, as in Chapters 11, 12, and 13, focus is on the fact that languages are crucially affected by power. There is a unique section on the origins of language, and what that might tell us about why our brains are organized for language as they are. This chapter also returns to a discussion of pidgins and creoles, offering them as examples of language genesis. The inclusion of language endangerment and language death and the reasons behind it are also unique and offer further opportunities for research-based projects and papers. We return to many of the topics from the text here, providing some final thoughts, so it is an excellent chapter to end with.

Sample Syllabi If instructors want to include all of the chapters, here are a few ways to include the information within terms of different lengths. These can, of course, be further modified in a multitude of ways, but we provide some course schedules that we have used effectively.

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10 • PA RT 1 Instructor’s Resource Manual and Answer Key

© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

I. 11-Week Term This organization allows all chapters to be covered, though consolidates some pairs into single weeks, in a way that works quite well. (We’ve tried it!) Assign- ments should be done daily or weekly, selecting RPE from each chapter. Some of the RPEs work well for group work, so assigning some as individual assign- ments and some as group assignments is effective.

Week 1 Chapters 1 and 2 What Is Language and How Do We Study It?; The Human Capacity for Language

Week 2 Chapter 3 Phonetics: Describing Sounds

Week 3 Chapter 4 Phonology: The Sound Pattern of Language

Week 4 Chapters 5 and 6 Morphology: Words and Their Parts; Typology and Word Formation

Week 5 Chapter 7 Syntax: Heads and Phrases

Week 6 Chapter 8 Syntax: Phrase Structure and Syntactic Rules

MIDTERM EXAM could be about here.

Week 7 Chapters 9 and 10 Semantics: Making Meaning with Words; Semantics and Pragmatics: Making Meaning with Sentences

Week 8 Chapter 11 The Early Story of English

Week 9 Chapter 12 English Goes Global

Week 10 Chapter 13 Representing Language: The Written Word

Week 11 Chapter 14 The Life Cycle of Language

II. 10-Week Term In this syllabus, we suggest returning to Chapters 1 and 2 at the end of the course. This arrangement is more like some traditional approaches; after the core concepts and technical tools are mastered, students can return to questions of UG, innateness, and acquisition. Also, these chapters tie in well with the material in Chapter 14.

Week 1 Chapter 3 Phonetics: Describing Sounds

Week 2 Chapter 4 Phonology: The Sound Pattern of Language

Week 3 Chapters 5 and 6 Morphology: Words and Their Parts; Typology and Word Formation

Week 4 Chapters 7 and 8 Syntax: Heads and Phrases; Syntax: Phrase Structure and Syntactic Rules

MIDTERM EXAM could be about here.

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Chapter Overview • 11

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Week 5 Chapters 9 and 10 Semantics: Making Meaning with Words, Semantics; Pragmatics: Making Meaning with Sentences

Week 6 Chapter 11 The Early Story of English

Week 7 Chapter 12 English Goes Global

Week 8 Chapter 13 Representing Language: The Written Word

Week 9 Chapter 14 The Life Cycle of Language

Week 10 Chapters 1 and 2 What Is Language and How Do We Study It?; The Human Capacity for Language

III. 14-Week Term This schedule works well if you can have time to study one chapter per week. More frequent testing works better with this longer-term schedule; suggested slots for quizzes are given. This also may be preferable for a large class in which daily or weekly assignments are less practical.

Week 1 Chapter 1 What Is Language and How Do We Study It?

Week 2 Chapter 2 The Human Capacity for Language

QUIZ 1

Week 3 Chapter 3 Phonetics: Describing Sounds

Week 4 Chapter 4 Phonology: The Sound Pattern of Language

QUIZ 2

Week 5 Chapter 5 Morphology: Words and Their Parts

Week 6 Chapter 6 Morphology: Typology and Word Formation

QUIZ 3

Week 7 Chapter 7 Syntax: Heads and Phrases

Week 8 Chapter 8 Syntax: Phrase Structure and Syntactic Rules

QUIZ 4

Week 9 Chapter 9 Semantics: Making Meaning with Words

Week 10 Chapter 10 Semantics and Pragmatics: Making Meaning with Sentences

QUIZ 5

Week 11 Chapter 11 The Early Story of English

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12 • PA RT 1 Instructor’s Resource Manual and Answer Key

© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

Week 12 Chapter 12 English Goes Global

QUIZ 6

Week 13 Chapter 13 Representing Language: The Written Word

Week 14 Chapter 14 The Life Cycle of Language

QUIZ 7

IV. Shorter Term (Summer 7-Week Term, for Example) This organization allows two chapters a week, pairing chapters that work well together. A smaller selection of RPE assignments from each of the weekly chap- ters can be assigned.

Week 1 Chapters 1 and 2 What Is Language and How Do We Study It?; The Human Capacity for Language

Week 2 Chapters 3 and 4 Phonetics: Describing Sounds; Phonology: The Sound Pattern of Language

Week 3 Chapters 5 and 6 Morphology: Words and Their Parts; Morphology: Typology and Word Formation

Week 4 Chapters 7 and 8 Syntax: Heads and Phrases; Syntax: Phrase Structure and Syntactic Rules

Week 5 Chapters 9 and 10 Semantics: Making Meaning with Words; Semantics and Pragmatics: Making Meaning with Sentences

Week 6 Chapters 11 and 12 The Early Story of English; English Goes Global

Week 7 Chapters 13 and 14 Representing Language: The Written Word; The Life Cycle of Language

Acknowledgments Many thanks to Nicholas Cousino, linguistics major extraordinaire, for help with the editing of this instructor’s manual and answer key. Please don’t blame him if there are errors, and please do contact the authors (kristin.denham @wwu.edu, anne.lobeck@wwu.edu) with any feedback.

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2 P A R T

For your convenience, we include the questions of “Review, Practice, and Explore” sections of the chapters along with the responses to the exercises. Of course, all the items do not have spe- cific correct answers. In some cases, we offer possible answers to convey our thinking when designing the exercises and activities, but you might accept different answers from your students.

Answer Key

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14 • PA RT 2 Answer Key

© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

Review, Practice, and Explore – Chapter 1

1.1 Onomatopoeia and Arbitrariness One of Hockett’s design features of language is arbitrariness. Arbitrary signs or symbols have no connection to what they represent. In language, the connection between words and meanings is ar- bitrary, which is illustrated by the fact that different languages have different words for the same concept (‘horse’ is cheval in French and Pferd in German). What about onomatopoeia? Think about words like buzz and woof. Is the connection between these words arbitrary or not? Look up some ex- amples from other languages. What do such examples tell you about onomatopoeia and arbitrariness?

Answers will vary. Though the connection between sound and meaning is not entirely arbitrary with onomatopoeia, it does vary across languages, demonstrating that it’s not completely imitative.

Japanese dog bark – wan wan

Japanese cow moo – mou mou

Japanese sound of pouring rain – zaa zaa

1.2 Sign Systems Investigate some of the different sign systems that we use other than language. Examples are traffic signs, Morse code, and the hand signals referees and umpires make at sports events. These systems can sometimes be quite complex. What design features do they have, and how are they similar to or different from the human language system?

Answers will vary.

1.3 Prairie Dog Language Researcher Con Slobodchikoff of Northern Arizona University has studied prairie dogs for more than 20 years and concluded that their communication system has many of the same features as human language. According to Slobodchikoff (1998), prairie dogs have different barks (“nouns”) for different predators, and they combine these “words” with other sounds, or “modifiers,” that indicate size, color, and other features. He also claims that prairie dogs coin new “words” by assigning new barks to new objects or animals in their environment. Prairie dogs, he argues, have words for coyo- tes, skunks, and badgers, as well as for such nonpredators as deer, elk, and cows, and even for “the man with the yellow coat.” Investigate Slobodchikoff’s work on prairie dogs and determine which of Hockett’s design features prairie dogs seem to possess and which they don’t. (See http://www .animallanguageinstitute.net/AboutUs/tabid/64/Default.aspx)

Answers will vary.

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Review, Practice, and Explore – Chapter 1 • 15

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1.4 Animal Communication Systems Investigate the communication system of a species other than one belonging to the primates. Much research exists on the systems used by dolphins and whales, different varieties of birds, bees, wolves and other canines, and so forth. Discuss which of the design features the system exhibits and how it is similar to and/or different from human language.

Answers will vary.

1.5 Primate Experiments Conduct some research on the attempts to teach primates communication systems, and discuss the ways in which they challenge Hockett’s design features. The most debate centers on whether primates can recombine symbols to create new expressions (duality of patterning), and whether they can acquire the system from other primates. Here are the primary primates with the names of the primary researchers: Washoe (Gardner, Fouts), Nim Chimpsky (Terrace), Kanzi (Savage- Rumbaugh), Koko (Patterson), Lana (Rumbaugh), and Sarah (Premack).

Answers will vary.

1.6 What Do You Mean by Grammar? As we’ve pointed out in the chapter, the term grammar has many meanings. Explain the distinct meanings of grammar in the following sentences. If you can think of others, discuss them as well. You may use a dictionary if you like, but do not rely on it alone.

a. I better watch my grammar around you! b. Please proofread your paper for grammar and style. c. I’m taking a class on Spanish grammar. d. There have been three grammars written on the language Quechua. e. Our innate capacity for the grammar of a language is quite amazing.

I better watch my grammar around you!

This refers to what is seen as the prescriptively correct use of words, sentences, and pronunciations. For example, avoiding double negatives or stigmatized forms such as ain’t.

Please proofread your paper for grammar and style.

This refers to grammar as the standards of written language, including punctuation and organization.

I’m taking a class on Spanish grammar.

This refers most likely to the morphology and syntax of the language (and perhaps also to its vocabulary and pronunciation), most likely as it would be taught to non-native speakers of the language.

There have been three grammars written on the language Quechua.

A “grammar” here refers to a written text that details the phonology, morphology, semantics, and syntax of the language.

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16 • PA RT 2 Answer Key

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Our innate capacity for the grammar of a language is quite amazing.

“Grammar” here refers to the set of linguistic principles or rules, a linguist’s scientific description of the phonological, morphological, semantic, and syntactic rules of a language.

1.7 Is That Ungrammatical? Which of the following sentences are ungrammatical in terms of your descriptive grammar and which are ungrammatical in terms of prescriptive grammar? Briefly explain why you analyzed each sentence the way you did.

a. Rosie a beautiful pony is. b. Maurice and me are going to the movies tonight. c. John put the book. d. All the tulips are coming up in the garden. e. The all tulips are coming up in the garden. f. Purple big pillows were on her bed. g. I don’t have no idea. h. Who did you talk to? i. I saw a cat climb up tree. j. I have drank six glasses of water in a row.

The ones that are ungrammatical in any dialect are marked with an asterisk, *. The others may be acceptable in some dialects, though they violate some prescriptive rules of usage or formal style (given in parentheses):

a. *Rosie a beautiful pony is. b. Maurice and me are going to the movies tonight (avoid objective pronoun me

in subject position) c. *John put the book. d. All the tulips are coming up in the garden (probably fine for all speakers, though

more formal all of the tulips) e. *The all tulips are coming up in the garden. f. *Purple big pillows were on her bed. g. Everyone should know their own address (singular everyone as antecedent for

plural their) h. Who did you talk to? (sentence ends with a preposition to) i. I saw a cat climb up tree. [ungrammatical unless tree is understood as a proper

noun.] j. I have drank six glasses of water in a (past participle drank versus drunk)

1.8 Correct According to Who or Whom? All of us can probably remember when someone corrected our language, and many of us can also probably think of examples where we have corrected someone else’s language. Sometimes this cor- rection can lead to modification; we adopt the “new” form in order to be more socially acceptable. What is a rule of grammar that you have learned is the correct or proper way to say something but that you do not always (or ever) use in speaking? For example, you may have learned that It’s me

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is incorrect, and the correct form is It is I; however, you may use me anyway, and I sounds odd to you. Have you modified your speech to say It is I? Who corrected you? How would you respond to someone who tells you that your way of speaking is wrong? Write a short paragraph on the language authorities in your life and what modifications you’ve made (or not made).

Answers will vary.

1.9 Language in Different Places The following sentences are grammatical in some variety of English but perhaps not in yours. Do you recognize each as English? Why or why not?

a. He is joking only. (Indian English) b. Those cats were just a-playing. (Appalachian [American] English) c. They might could make a deal. (Southeastern American English) d. Ought she to walk the dog soon? (some British English varieties) e. They have made a good life for theirselves. (various varieties) f. This car needs washed. (various varieties) g. We’ve already boughten some bread. (various varieties) h. The child has learnt the alphabet song. (some British English varieties) i. She done told you. (various varieties) j. They be late. (African American English) k. We happy. (various varieties)

Answers will vary.

1.10 Language in Different Times Below are some examples of varieties of English that are no longer spoken but are the ancestors of Present-Day English. Do you recognize each variety as English? Why or why not? Which sentences are “older” than the others? Try to put them in order, and explain why you ordered them the way you did. (An answer key is at the end of this “Review, Practice, and Explore” section.)

a. Untill you had gave me an account of what you had Cutt . . . b. That I ne knew therwith thy nycetee ‘That I knew not thereby your foolishness’ c. Hiericho seo burh wæs mid weallum ymbtrymed & fæste belocen ‘Jericho the city was with walls surrounded and firmly locked’ d. Cecile answerede, “O nyce creature!” ‘Cecile answered, O foolish creature!’ e. Thou sydest no word syn thou spak to me ‘You said no word since you spoke to me’ f. I have thoughts of what you Said to me Concerning them fish. g. I wonder you had not wrote to me. h. For ðes folces tocyme, and hi ne dorston ut faran ne in faran ‘Against the people’s arrival, and they no dared out go nor in go’

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18 • PA RT 2 Answer Key

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Answers:

Old English (from the OE Heptateuch): c, h

Middle English (from Chaucer’s Second Nun’s Tale): b, d, e

Early Modern English: a, f, g

1.11 Sign Language versus Body Language Find at least four examples of arbitrary signs in American Sign Language or another sign language of your choice. Also find a few examples of nonarbitrary signs. What are some grammatical features of the sign language you are researching? How do your examples illustrate the difference between sign language and body language?

Answers will vary depending on students’ knowledge of ASL signs and their origins. Some signs may make them less arbitrary than others (the sign for “boy,” for example, indicating the brim of a cap, and certain classifiers, such as the handshapes for “vehicle” “flat things”). This provides a good opportunity to discuss the complex notion of what “arbitrary” means.

1.12 Linguistic Competence and Linguistic Performance Record 2 to 5 minutes of casual conversation among friends or family members. (You must by law have their permission to do so. However, try to make the recording as unobtrusive as possible—you don’t want their speech to be stilted or formal as a result of the taping. So tell them you’re taping them but then try to get them to forget about it.) Now transcribe the tape, writing down everything that was said, including ‘ums’ and ‘ahs’, false starts, and other features. (Please leave out names and other iden- tifying characteristics.) You will likely find that the speaker very rarely uses complete sentences. What does this simple exercise tell you about the distinction between competence and performance?

Answers will vary.

1.13 Language Myths and Stereotypes Learning more about language allows us to recognize misperceptions about language when we hear them. While some “language myths” are rather benign, some can be very discriminatory. Based on what you’ve learned in this chapter, choose four of the following language myths (none of the state- ments below is true) and explain why they are misperceptions. Why do you think such mispercep- tions persist? Try to explain.

a. Some languages have no grammar. b. French is much more romantic than German. c. English descended from Latin. d. Aborigines speak a primitive language. e. Teenagers are ruining the English language. f. Children are taught language by their parents. g. We’d speak better English if schools would teach more grammar. h. Some kids learn language better than others. i. People who use double negatives are just lazy.

Answers will vary.

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Review, Practice, and Explore – Chapter 2 • 19

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Review, Practice, and Explore – Chapter 2

2.1 Children’s Rules Children often produce forms that they don’t hear in adult speech—forms that nevertheless follow a systematic rule. In the following examples of children’s language, what systematic rule is evident here? How do these data support the human capacity for language? Do children learn by imitation?

a. I buyed a fire dog for a grillion dollars. b. Hey, Horton heared a Who. c. My teacher holded the baby rabbits and we patted them. d. Daddy, I stealed some of the people out of the boat. e. Once upon a time, a alligator was eating a dinosaur and the dinosaur was eating the alliga-

tor and the dinosaur was eaten by the alligator and the alligator goed kerplunk.

Answers:

Use of past tense -ed (heared, holded etc.) illustrates that children acquire rules that they then overgeneralize until they learn exceptions. These examples illustrate the same process as noted in the wugs experiment. Unique vocabulary such as grillion shows that children do not learn language by imitation.

What do the following examples of conversations with children tell us about how children acquire language, and how do they provide evidence for our linguistic “hardwiring”?

Child: I taked a cookie.

Adult: Oh, you mean you took a cookie.

Child: Yes, that’s right, I taked it.

Adult: Adam, say what I say: Where can I put them?

Child: Where I can put them?

Answer: This conversation illustrates that young children are fairly impervious to correction and do not learn through imitation. That child language does not conform to adult speech provides evidence that language is (unconsciously) acquired rather than (consciously) learned.

2.2 Two-Year-Olds Have No Words Even though children seem limited in the number of words they can string together in the early stages of acquisition, their utterances can express a range of complex meanings. For example, nega- tive utterances at this stage can express denial, rejection, or non-existence. Study the following sets of negative utterances of children in the early multiword stage. What kind of negation is being ex- pressed in each set? (Adapted from Foss and Hakes 1978.)

a. Allgone juice, no hot, no more light anymore play (non-existence) b. No dirty soap, no meat, no go outside (rejection) c. No morning (it was afternoon), no daddy hungry, no truck (denial)

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20 • PA Rt 2 Answer Key

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2.3 Adult Speech to Children Here are some examples of interactions between adults and children. What kinds of correction or reinforcement do the adult offer the child? What does the adult not correct? Do you think these in- teractions might help or hinder language acquisition? Why?

Child: [picking up toys]. Adult: thanks for picking up your toys!

Adult offers linguistic input through positive reinforcement, initiates conversation

Child: Sally goed to the store. Adult: No, Sally went to work.

Adult corrects verb form, and explicitly corrects child (commenting on the falsity of her statement)

Child: Doggy gone. Adult: Yes, Rover went for a walk with your sister.

Adult corrects child (Doggy/Rover, gone/went) implicitly through restatement

Child: I want a cookie. Adult: You want a cookie? Well, here you go!

Adult reinforces child’s statement through model dialogue

Child: Him ride bike. Adult: Yes, he’s riding a bike.

Adult corrects (him/he, ride/is riding) implicitly by reinforcing the truth value of the sentence

Do you think these interactions might help or hinder language acquisition? Why?

Answers will vary, but observe that adults in these examples are concerned mainly with communication rather than with grammatical structure, which they do not always attempt to correct.

2.4 How Would They Say It? Here are some examples of issues that arise for speakers learning English as a second language. Based on the information given about each language, try to come up with what the learner might say. (Adapted from Haussamen 2003.)

a. In Vietnamese, there is no article before the word for a profession (student, teacher, doctor, etc.). What is a sentence a Vietnamese speaker learning English might say?

b. In Korean, pronouns aren’t marked for gender, so you might hear a Korean speaker learn- ing English use it in places where native English speakers might not. What is a possible sentence the Korean speaker might utter?

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c. In Japanese, pronouns don’t have to match the noun they refer to, so a singular pronoun can refer to a plural noun and vice versa. What kind of sentence might a Japanese speaker learning English utter?

d. In Cantonese, Japanese, and Korean, there are no plural forms of nouns (plurality is marked in other ways). What sentence might a speaker of one of these languages who is learning English produce?

Answers will vary. Samples are given here. (Thanks to Diane Majors.)

a. Vietnamese: I am student./ He is teacher./ They went to doctor. b. Korean: Serena will come with us; he can leave at 5. (male pronoun for female

referent). c. Japanese: Dogs eat meat and he can bite too. (singular pronoun for plural referent) d. Cantonese, Japanese, and Korean: Three girl came to Eva’s house. I saw many

student. (no plural marking on nouns)

2.5 Acquiring or Teaching a Second Language Explore one of the following questions about second language acquisition in more detail in a short research paper.

• What are some of the leading theories about how we acquire a second language, and how do these theories differ from one another?

• What are some of the theories about how to teach a second “foreign” language (now more frequently called world language) in school?

• Investigate English as a Second Language (ESL), teaching English as a Second Language (tESL), and teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (tESOL). What are some of the theories about how to teach English language in a multilingual classroom?

• How does the U.S. system differ from the Canadian or British systems? How are heritage languages (the speakers’ first language, or L1) treated in such systems?

Answers will vary.

2.6 Bilingual Education Bilingualism is a fascinating linguistic phenomenon, a behavior that is of interest not only to lin- guists but also to educators. Bilingual education is both much studied and controversial. Many states and organizations want to limit bilingual education, and other organizations and states promote it. Do some research on the pros and cons of bilingual education. What are the arguments in favor of it, and what methods and approaches seem to be most effective? Where has bilingual education been argued to be ineffective, and why?

Answers will vary.

2.7 Creole Grammar Some tourist guidebooks describe pidgins and creoles as baby talk, broken English, improper, or grammarless. But as we’ve seen, creole languages have systematic rules and are fully developed

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linguistic systems. Below is a set of data that illustrates the rule of plural formation in Nicaraguan Creole English (from Honda and O’Neil 2008).

Nicaraguan Creole English Standard English

a. the boat-dem de in the river. the boats are in the river. b. Ronald send to me two turtledove. Ronald sent me two turtledoves. c. Is many dog in Bluefields? Are there many dogs in Bluefields? d. these dog-dem in the street. these dogs are in the street. e. He want seven case of beer. He wants seven cases of beer. f. He did see the case of beer-dem. He saw the cases of beer.

the word dem is borrowed from the English word them; however, it has a different meaning and use in Nicaraguan Creole English. When do you use -dem in Creole?

Is the following sentence grammatical in this language?

g. Di man-dem a plaant kann. the men are planting corn.

Answers: The suffix -dem is used as a plural marker on nouns with definite determiners (these, the) but not on nouns introduced by (indefinite) quantifiers (many) or numerals (two, seven). Di man-dem a plaant kann (di = the) is grammatical in Nicaraguan Creole English, because -dem is attached to a noun preceded by a definite determiner (di man- dem = the men).

2.8 Linguistic Savants the Linguistic Society of America maintains an archive of language-related short videos at the University of Georgia. At the website http://www.uga.edu/lsava/Smith/Smith.htm are several clips about Christopher taken from the movie Het Talenwonder. Watch the clips and write a one-to-two- paragraph response. Consider what Christopher’s language ability tells us about the following:

• the human capacity for language • our language “intelligence” and its relation to other cognitive abilities • Universal Grammar

Answers will vary but students may observe: Christopher appears to be able to learn languages very quickly without explicit instruction, which provides striking evidence for the human capacity for language, even in people whose other cognitive abilities are severely impaired (he cannot find his way home, for example, and fails the logical “hidden keys” test that Smith administers). That Christopher could infer the rules of a language such as Berber (one of which is that pronominal subjects need not be pronounced), to which he had only limited exposure (data not including null subjects), provides evidence that our language ability involves the capacity to extract grammatical rules from limited data (the poverty of the stimulus argument). That Christopher failed to learn a “logical” language that did not conform to principles of Universal Grammar suggests again that while other cognitive abilities may be impaired (those responsible for logical reasoning, for example) such abilities are separate from Universal Grammar, the ability to produce and understand language.

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2.9 Genie Says Here are some examples of the speech of Genie, the child who was not exposed to language until almost age 13. Her speech has been described as agrammatic. What kinds of word order errors does Genie make, and does her speech resemble aphasic speech in any way? Does it resemble any of the stages of acquisition we’ve discussed in the chapter? Explain. (Data from Curtiss 1977: 31.)

Adult: Where are the graham crackers?

Genie: I where is graham cracker.

(or)

I where is graham cracker on top shelf.

Genie’s way of forming questions:

Where is tomorrow Mrs L?

Where is stop spitting?

Where is may I have ten pennies?

When is stop spitting?

Other examples of Genie’s language:

Man motorcycle have.

Genie full stomach.

Genie bad cold live father house.

Want Curtiss play piano.

Open door key.

Answers may vary.

Genie’s Question Formation:

Though Genie seems to be able to distinguish questions from statements, her syntax (I where) seems unique. Children do not produce such constructions (producing instead Where kitty?). Genie seems in this case to mark questions with I where or where is (and this marking was the result of researcher’s attempts to get Genie to produce a “normal” WH-question). That she produces when is suggests that her rule for forming questions might be something like “place (any) question word + is in sentence initial position.” Interestingly, Genie produces an inversion in Where is may I have ten pennies? which suggests that she can, in some cases, invert subject and auxiliary verb in questions, but not systematically. These data also show that Genie produces sentences she is not hearing from adults, and thus is not imitating, but learning/acquiring language in her own way.

Other examples:

These examples show a range of syntactic differences, and the lack of function words (such as prepositions, determiners), inflectional morphology (possessive -s), and missing content words (verbs, subjects) make them somewhat difficult to interpret, but Genie’s