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ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE FIFTEENTH EDITION

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ABOUT THE COVER PHOTO

In 2005, nature journalist Richard Louv hypothesized that many people, especially children, have experienced nature-deficit disorder, a series of problems resulting from their spending increasingly less time in the natural world. Many children and young adults spend most of their free time indoors watching TV and using smart phones, computers, and other electronic devices. Evidence indicates that such isolation from nature could be contributing to stress, anxiety, depression, irritability, difficulty in dealing with change, and excessive body weight. In the United States, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, about 33% of all children and 69% of all adults over age 20 are overweight or obese. Also, the indoor air in U.S. homes and buildings is typically 2 to 5 times more polluted than outdoor air, according to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, which could be contributing to the increasing incidence of certain lung ailments.

Nature-deficit disorder is partly an effect of urbanization. More than half of the world’s people now live in urban areas, many of which do not have enough parks and recreational areas to make it easy for people to get out. Cities also have higher crime rates than do rural areas, and the continuous news cycle along with social networking keep people hyper-informed about crime and other threats. Thus, many people are afraid to venture out.

Research indicates that children and adults can gain many benefits by playing and exploring outdoors, hiking, jogging, snorkeling (see cover photo), fishing, gardening, and bird-watching. Such activities can foster better health, reduce stress, improve mental abilities, and stimulate imagination and creativity. Experiencing nature can also provide a sense of wonder and connection to life on Earth, which keeps us alive and supports our economies.

Environmental scientists have identified this increasing isolation from nature as one of the five major causes of the environmental problems we face. Without an understanding of our utter dependence on nature for food, shelter, clean air, clean water, and many other natural resources and services, we become more likely to degrade our environment. With such an understanding, we will be more likely to reverse such degradation and to contribute positively to the environment and thus to our own well-being.

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ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE FIFTeeNTh EdITION

G. Tyler Miller

Scott E. Spoolman

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Environmental Science, Fifteenth Edition G. Tyler Miller, Scott E. Spoolman

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WCN: 02-200-202

Detailed Contents vi

Preface for Instructors xiv

Note to Students xxiii

hUMANS ANd SUSTAINABILITY: AN OVERVIEW

1 Environmental Problems, Their Causes, and Sustainability 2

ECOLOGY ANd SUSTAINABILITY

2 Science, Matter, Energy, and Systems 24 3 Ecosystems: What Are They and how do They Work? 40 4 Biodiversity and Evolution 62 5 Species Interactions, Ecological Succession, and Population

Control 82

6 The human Population and Urbanization 100 7 Climate and Biodiversity 128

SUSTAINING BIOdIVERSITY

8 Sustaining Biodiversity: Saving Species and Ecosystem Services 160

9 Sustaining Biodiversity: Saving Ecosystems and Ecosystem Services 184

SUSTAINING RESOURCES ANd ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY

10 Food Production and the Environment 214 11 Water Resources and Water Pollution 248 12 Geology and Nonrenewable Mineral Resources 288 13 Energy Resources 312 14 Environmental hazards and human health 358 15 Air Pollution, Climate Change, and Ozone depletion 386 16 Solid and hazardous Waste 428

SUSTAINING hUMAN SOCIETIES

17 Environmental Economics, Politics, and Worldviews 452 Supplements S1

Glossary G1

Index I1

BRIEF CONTENTS

M ic

ha el

N ic

ho ls

/N at

io na

l G eo

gr ap

hi c

Cr ea

tiv e

v

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contents

vi

Preface for Instructors xiv

Note to Students xxiii

HUMANS AND SUSTAINABILITY: AN OVERVIEW

1 Environmental Problems, Their Causes, and Sustainability 2 Key Questions 2

CORE CASE STUDY The Greening of American Campuses 4

1.1 What Are Some Principles of Sustainability? 5

1.2 How Are Our Ecological Footprints Affecting the Earth? 10

1.3 Why Do We Have Environmental Problems? 13

individuals matter Juan Martinez—Working to Reconnect People with Nature 17

1.4 What Is an Environmentally Sustainable Society? 20

TYINg IT ALL TOgETHER 21

Chapter Review 21

Critical Thinking 22

Doing Environmental Science 23

Global Environment Watch Exercise 23

Ecological Footprint Analysis 23

ECOLOgY AND SUSTAINABILITY

2 Science, Matter, Energy, and Systems 24 Key Questions 24

CORE CASE STUDY How Do Scientists Learn about Nature? Experimenting with a Forest 26

2.1 What Do Scientists Do? 27

individuals matter Jane Goodall: Chimpanzee Researcher and Protector 28

2.2 What Is Matter and What Happens When It Undergoes Change? 29

2.3 What Is Energy and What Happens When It Undergoes Change? 33

2.4 What Are Systems and How Do They Respond to Change? 36

TYINg IT ALL TOgETHER 37

Chapter Review 38

Critical Thinking 38

Doing Environmental Science 39

Global Environment Watch Exercise 39

Data Analysis 39

3 Ecosystems: What Are They and how do They Work? 40 Key Questions 40

CORE CASE STUDY Tropical Rain Forests Are Disappearing 42

3.1 How Does the Earth’s Life-Support System Work? 43

3.2 What Are the Major Components of an Ecosystem? 44

SCIENCE FOCUS Many of the World’s Most Important Organisms Are Invisible to Us 46

3.3 What Happens to Energy in an Ecosystem? 48

3.4 What Happens to Matter in an Ecosystem? 50

SCIENCE FOCUS Water’s Unique Properties 51

individuals matter Thomas E. Lovejoy—Forest Researcher and Biodiversity Educator 57

3.5 How Do Scientists Study Ecosystems? 57

SCIENCE FOCUS Testing Planetary Boundaries: From Holocene to Anthropocene 58

TYINg IT ALL TOgETHER 59

Chapter Review 60

Critical Thinking 60

Dudarev Mikhail/Shutterstock.com JENS SCHLUETER/AFP/Getty Images

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Table of Contents vii

Doing Environmental Science 61

Global Environment Watch Exercise 61

Data Analysis 61

4 Biodiversity and Evolution 62 Key Questions 62

CORE CASE STUDY Why Are Amphibians Vanishing? 64

4.1 What Is Biodiversity and Why Is It Important? 65

SCIENCE FOCUS Insects Play a Vital Role in Our World 66

individuals matter Edward O. Wilson: A Champion of Biodiversity 67

4.2 What Roles Do Species Play in Ecosystems? 68

CASE STUdY The American Alligator—A Keystone Species That Almost Went Extinct 69

SCIENCE FOCUS Scientists Are Searching for the Causes of Amphibian Declines 70

CASE STUdY Why Should We Protect Sharks? 71

4.3 How Does the Earth’s Life Change Over Time? 72

4.4 What Factors Affect Biodiversity? 74

SCIENCE FOCUS Geological Processes Affect Biodiversity 76

TYINg IT ALL TOgETHER 78

Chapter Review 79

Critical Thinking 79

Doing Environmental Science 80

Global Environment Watch Exercise 80

Data Analysis 81

5 Species Interactions, Ecological Succession, and Population Control 82 Key Questions 82

CORE CASE STUDY The Southern Sea Otter: A Species in Recovery 84

5.1 How Do Species Interact? 85

SCIENCE FOCUS Threats to Kelp Forests 86

5.2 How Do Communities and Ecosystems Respond to Changing Environmental Conditions? 89

5.3 What Limits the Growth of Populations? 91

SCIENCE FOCUS Why Do California’s Southern Sea Otters Face An Uncertain Future? 95

TYINg IT ALL TOgETHER 97

Chapter Review 97

Critical Thinking 98

Doing Environmental Science 98

Global Environment Watch Exercise 99

Data Analysis 99

6 The human Population and Urbanization 100 Key Questions 100

CORE CASE STUDY Portland, Oregon: On a Quest for Urban Sustainability 102

6.1 How Many People Can the Earth Support? 103

SCIENCE FOCUS How Long Can the Human Population Keep Growing? 104

6.2 What Factors Influence the Size of the Human Population? 104

CASE STUdY The U.S. Population— Third Largest and Growing 105

6.3 How Does a Population’s Age Structure Affect Its Growth or Decline? 108

CASE STUdY The American Baby Boom 109

6.4 What Are Some Ways to Slow Human Population Growth? 110

CASE STUdY Slowing Population Growth in India 112

CASE STUdY Slowing Population Growth in China 113

Darlyne A. Murawski/National Geographic Creative Robert King/Shutterstock.com

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viii Table of Contents

6.5 What Are the Major Urban Resource and Environmental Problems? 114

CASE STUdY Urbanization in the United States 115

CASE STUdY Mexico City 119

6.6 How Does Transportation Affect Urban Environmental Impacts? 119

6.7 How Can Cities Become More Sustainable and Livable? 122

CASE STUdY The Eco-City Concept in Curitiba, Brazil 123

TYINg IT ALL TOgETHER 124

Chapter Review 125

Critical Thinking 126

Doing Environmental Science 126

Global Environment Watch Exercise 127

Data Analysis 127

7 Climate and Biodiversity 128 Key Questions 128

CORE CASE STUDY Why Should We Care about Coral Reefs? 130

7.1 What Factors Influence Climate? 131

7.2 What Are the World’s Major Terrestrial Ecosystems and How Are Human Activities Affecting Them? 135

SCIENCE FOCUS Staying Alive in the Desert 139

7.3 What Are the Major Types of Marine Aquatic Systems and How Are Human Activities Affecting Them? 146

CASE STUdY Revisiting Coral Reefs— Amazing Centers of Biodiversity 147

7.4 What Are the Major Types of Freshwater Systems and How Are Human Activities Affecting Them? 152

individuals matter Alexandra Cousteau: Environmental Storyteller and National Geographic Emerging Explorer 156

TYINg IT ALL TOgETHER 157

Chapter Review 157

Critical Thinking 158

Doing Environmental Science 159

Global Environment Watch Exercise 159

Data Analysis 159

SUSTAININg BIODIVERSITY

8 Sustaining Biodiversity: Saving Species and Ecosystem Services 160 Key Questions 160

CORE CASE STUDY Where Have All the Honeybees Gone? 162

8.1 What Role Do Humans Play in the Loss of Species and Ecosystem Services? 163

SCIENCE FOCUS Estimating Extinction Rates 164

8.2 Why Should We Try to Sustain Wild Species and the Ecosystem Services They Provide? 165

8.3 How Do Humans Accelerate Species Extinction and Degradation of Ecosystem Services? 167

SCIENCE FOCUS Honeybee Losses: A Search for Causes 172

CASE STUdY A Disturbing Message from the Birds 175

individuals matter Çağan Hakkı Şekercioğlu: Protector of Birds and National Geographic Emerging Explorer 176

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Table of Contents ix

8.4 How Can We Sustain Wild Species and the Ecosystem Services They Provide? 176

CASE STUdY The U.S. Endangered Species Act 177

TYINg IT ALL TOgETHER 181

Chapter Review 181

Critical Thinking 182

Doing Environmental Science 183

Global Environment Watch Exercise 183

Data Analysis 183

9 Sustaining Biodiversity: Saving Ecosystems and Ecosystem Services 184 Key Questions 184

CORE CASE STUDY Costa Rica— A Global Conservation Leader 186

9.1 What Are the Major Threats to Forest Ecosystems? 187

SCIENCE FOCUS Putting a Price Tag on Nature’s Ecosystem Services 188

CASE STUdY Many Cleared Forests in the United States Have Grown Back 190

9.2 How Should We Manage and Sustain Forests? 193

9.3 How Should We Manage and Sustain Grasslands? 196

9.4 How Should We Manage and Sustain Parks and Nature Reserves? 197

CASE STUdY Stresses on U.S. Public Parks 197

SCIENCE FOCUS Reintroducing the Gray Wolf to Yellowstone National Park 198

CASE STUdY Identifying and Protecting Biodiversity in Costa Rica 199

9.5 What Is the Ecosystem Approach to Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services? 201

CASE STUdY Ecological Restoration of a Tropical Dry Forest in Costa Rica 203

9.6 How Can We Help to Sustain Aquatic Biodiversity? 204

SCIENCE FOCUS Ocean Acidification: The Other CO2 Problem 206

individuals matter Sylvia Earle—Advocate for the Oceans 209

TYINg IT ALL TOgETHER 210

Chapter Review 211

Critical Thinking 212

Doing Environmental Science 212

Global Environment Watch Exercise 212

Ecological Footprint Analysis 213

SUSTAININg RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY

10 Food Production and the Environment 214 Key Questions 214

CORE CASE STUDY Growing Power—An Urban Food Oasis 216

10.1 What Is Food Security and Why Is It Difficult To Attain? 217

10.2 How Is Food Produced? 218

CASE STUdY Industrialized Food Production in the United States 220

10.3 What Environmental Problems Arise from Industrialized Food Production? 223

SCIENCE FOCUS Soil Is the Foundation of Life on Land 226

10.4 How Can We Protect Crops from Pests More Sustainably? 231

CASE STUdY Ecological Surprises: The Law of Unintended Consequences 233

10.5 How Can We Improve Food Security? 236

individuals matter Jennifer Burney: Environmental Scientist and National Geographic Emerging Explorer 237

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x Table of Contents

10.6 How Can We Produce Food More Sustainably? 238

CASE STUdY Soil Erosion in the United States 238

SCIENCE FOCUS Perennial Polyculture and the Land Institute 243

TYINg IT ALL TOgETHER 244

Chapter Review 245

Critical Thinking 246

Doing Environmental Science 246

Global Environment Watch Exercise 246

Ecological Footprint Analysis 247

11 Water Resources and Water Pollution 248 Key Questions 248

CORE CASE STUDY The Colorado River Story 250

11.1 Will We Have Enough Usable Water? 251

CASE STUdY Freshwater Resources in the United States 253

11.2 How Can We Increase Freshwater Supplies? 255

CASE STUdY Aquifer Depletion in the United States 256

CASE STUdY How Dams Can Kill an Estuary 259

CASE STUdY The Aral Sea Disaster: A Glaring Example of Unintended Consequences 261

11.3 How Can We Use Freshwater More Sustainably? 262

individuals matter Sandra Postel: National Geographic Fellow and Freshwater Conservationist 268

11.4 How Can We Deal with Water Pollution? 268

CASE STUdY Is Bottled Water a Good Option? 275

SCIENCE FOCUS The Gulf of Mexico’s Annual Dead Zone 278

SCIENCE FOCUS Treating Sewage by Working with Nature 282

TYINg IT ALL TOgETHER 284

Chapter Review 285

Critical Thinking 286

Doing Environmental Science 287

Global Environment Watch Exercise 287

Ecological Footprint Analysis 287

12 Geology and Nonrenewable Mineral Resources 288 Key Questions 288

CORE CASE STUDY The Crucial Importance of Rare Earth Metals 290

12.1 What Are the Earth’s Major Geological Processes and What Are Mineral Resources? 291

12.2 How Long Might Supplies of Nonrenewable Mineral Resources Last? 293

CASE STUdY Global and U.S. Rare Earth Supplies 294

12.3 What Are the Environmental Effects of Using Nonrenewable Mineral Resources? 296

CASE STUdY The Real Cost of Gold 299

SCIENCE FOCUS The Nanotechnology Revolution 300

12.4 How Can We Use Mineral Resources More Sustainably? 301

SCIENCE FOCUS Graphene: A Revolutionary Material 302

individuals matter Yu-Guo Guo: Designer of Nanotechnology Batteries and National Geographic Emerging Explorer 303

Dick Ercken/Shutterstock.com Joel Sartore/National Geographic Creative

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Table of Contents xi

12.5 What Are the Earth’s Major Geological Hazards? 304

TYINg IT ALL TOgETHER 309

Chapter Review 310

Critical Thinking 310

Doing Environmental Science 311

Global Environment Watch Exercise 311

Data Analysis 311

13 Energy Resources 312 Key Questions 312

CORE CASE STUDY The Astounding Potential for Wind Power in the United States 314

13.1 What Is Net Energy and Why Is It Important? 315

13.2 What Are the Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Fossil Fuels? 316

SCIENCE FOCUS Removing Tightly Held Oil and Natural Gas by Drilling Sideways and Fracking 318

CASE STUdY Oil Production and Consumption in the United States 319

CASE STUdY Natural Gas Production and Fracking in the United States 322

13.3 What Are the Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Nuclear Power? 327

CASE STUdY The Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant Accident in Japan 331

13.4 Why Is Energy Efficiency an Important Energy Resource? 332

SCIENCE FOCUS The Search for Better Batteries 336

13.5 What Are the Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Renewable Energy Resources? 340

individuals matter Andrés Ruzo—Geothermal Energy Sleuth and National Geographic Young Explorer 351

13.6 How Can We Make the Transition to a More Sustainable Energy Future? 352

TYINg IT ALL TOgETHER 354

Chapter Review 354

Critical Thinking 356

Doing Environmental Science 356

Global Environment Watch Exercise 357

Ecological Footprint Analysis 357

14 Environmental hazards and human health 358 Key Questions 358

CORE CASE STUDY Mercury’s Toxic Effects 360

14.1 What Major Health Hazards Do We Face? 361

14.2 What Types of Biological Hazards Do We Face? 361

SCIENCE FOCUS Genetic Resistance To Antibiotics Is Increasing 362

CASE STUdY The Global Threat from Tuberculosis 362

individuals matter Hayat Sindi: Science Entrepreneur and National Geographic Emerging Explorer 365

CASE STUdY The Global HIV/AIDS Epidemic 365

CASE STUdY Malaria—The Spread of a Deadly Parasite 366

14.3 What Types of Chemical Hazards Do We Face? 369

SCIENCE FOCUS The Controversy Over BPA 370

14.4 How Can We Evaluate Chemical Hazards? 372

CASE STUdY Pollution Prevention Pays 376

Jim West/Age Fotostock Vincenzo Lombardo/Getty Images

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xii Table of Contents

14.5 How Do We Perceive Risks and How Can We Avoid the Worst of Them? 377

CASE STUdY Cigarettes and E-Cigarettes 379

TYINg IT ALL TOgETHER 382

Chapter Review 382

Critical Thinking 383

Doing Environmental Science 384

Global Environment Watch Exercise 385

Data Analysis 385

15 Air Pollution, Climate Change, and Ozone depletion 386 Key Questions 386

CORE CASE STUDY Melting Ice in Greenland 388

15.1 What Is the Nature of the Atmosphere? 389

15.2 What Are the Major Air Pollution Problems? 389

15.3 How Should We Deal with Air Pollution? 399

15.4 How Might the Earth’s Climate Change in the Future? 402

SCIENCE FOCUS Using Models to Project Future Changes in Atmospheric Temperatures 408

15.5 What Are Some Possible Effects of a Warmer Atmosphere? 410