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CHILD DEVELOPMENT

Thirteenth Edition

JOHN W. SANTROCK University of Texas at Dallas

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Published by McGraw-Hill, an imprint of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020. Copyright © 2011, 2009, 2007, 2004, 2001, 1996, 1992, 1989, 1987, 1982. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning.

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

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ISBN: 978-0-07-353208-0 MHID: 0-07-353208-8

Vice President Editorial: Michael Ryan Publisher: Mike Sugarman Senior Sponsoring Editor: Allison McNamara Executive Marketing Manager: Julia Flohr Marketing Manager: Yasuko Okada Director of Development: Dawn Groundwater Senior Developmental Editor: Cara Labell Senior Project Manager: Holly Irish Production Service: Aaron Downey, Matrix Productions Manuscript Editor: Janet Tilden Design Manager: Laurie Entringer Text Designer: Pam Verros Cover Designer: Laurie Entringer Art Manager: Robin Mouat Buyer II: Tandra Jorgensen Composition: 9.5/12 Meridien Roman by Aptara®, Inc. Printing: 45# Pub Matte, Quad/Graphics, Dubuque, IA

Credits: The credits section for this book begins on page 573 and is considered an extension of the copyright page.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Santrock, John W. Child development : an introduction / John Santrock. — 13th ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-07-353208-0 (hardback) 1. Child development. 2. Child psychology. I. Title. RJ131.S264 2010 618.92—dc22 2010036055

The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a Web site does not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill, and McGraw-Hill does not guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at these sites.

www.mhhe.com

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www.mhhe.com
With special appreciation to my wife, Mary Jo; my children, Tracy and Jennifer;

and my grandchildren, Jordan, Alex, and Luke

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about the author John W. Santrock

John Santrock received his Ph.D. from the University of Minnesota in 1973.

He taught at the University of Charleston and the University of Georgia

before joining the program in Psychology and Human Development at the

University of Texas at Dallas, where he currently teaches a number of under-

graduate courses.

John has been a member of the edi torial boards of

Child Development and Developmental Psychology. His research

on father custody is widely cited and used in expert wit-

ness testimony to promote fl exibility and alternative con-

siderations in custody disputes. John also has authored

these exceptional McGraw-Hill texts: Psychology (7th edi-

tion), Children (11th edition), Adolescence (13th edition),

Life-Span Development (13th edition), and Educational

Psychology (5th edition).

For many years John was involved in tennis as a

player, a teaching professional, and a coach of profes-

sional tennis players. He has been married for more than

35 years to his wife, Mary Jo, who is a Realtor. He has

two daughters—Tracy, who also is a Realtor, and Jennifer, who is a medical

sales specialist He has one granddaughter, Jordan, age 19, and two grandsons,

Alex, age 6, and Luke, age 4. In the last decade, John also has spent time

painting expressionist art.

John Santrock (center) teaching an undergraduate psychology course.

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SECTION 1 THE NATURE OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT 2 1 Introduction 4

SECTION 2 BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES, PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT, AND PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT 48 2 Biological Beginnings 50 3 Prenatal Development and Birth 76 4 Physical Development and Health 105 5 Motor, Sensory, and Perceptual Development 141

SECTION 3 COGNITION AND LANGUAGE 168 6 Cognitive Developmental Approaches 170 7 Information Processing 199 8 Intelligence 233 9 Language Development 258

SECTION 4 SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT 286 10 Emotional Development 288 11 The Self and Identity 322 12 Gender 344 13 Moral Development 364

SECTION 5 SOCIAL CONTEXTS OF DEVELOPMENT 392 14 Families 394 15 Peers 426 16 Schools and Achievement 452 17 Culture and Diversity 483

brief contents

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contents

C H A P T E R 1

Introduction 4 Child Development—Yesterday and Today 6

Historical Views of Childhood 6

The Modern Study of Child Development 7

Caring for Children 8 Improving the Lives of Children 8

CONNECTING WITH CAREERS Luis Vargas, Clinical Child Psychologist 9

Resilience, Social Policy, and Children’s

Development 11

CONNECTING WITH DIVERSITY Gender, Families, and Children’s Development 12

Developmental Processes, Periods, and Issues 14 Biological, Cognitive, and Socioemotional

Processes 15

Periods of Development 16

Issues in Development 17

The Science of Child Development 20 The Importance of Research 20

Theories of Child Development 20

CARING CONNECTIONS Strategies for Parenting, Educating, and Interacting with Children Based on Erikson’s Theory 23

Research Methods for Collecting Data 30

Research Designs 33

CONNECTING THROUGH RESEARCH Where Is Child Development Research Published? 37

Challenges in Child Development

Research 38

CONNECTING WITH CAREERS Pam Reid, Educational and Developmental Psychologist 39

Reach Your Learning Goals 41

Appendix Careers in Child Development 44

S E C T I O N 1 THE NATURE OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT 2

C H A P T E R 2

Biological Beginnings 50 IMAGES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT The Stories

of the Jim and Jim Twins 51

The Evolutionary Perspective 52 Natural Selection and Adaptive

Behavior 52

Evolutionary Psychology 53

Genetic Foundations of Development 54 The Collaborative Gene 55

Genes and Chromosomes 56

Genetic Principles 58

Chromosomal and Gene-Linked

Abnormalities 59

CONNECTING WITH CAREERS Holly Ishmael, Genetic Counselor 62

Reproductive Challenges and Choices 63 Prenatal Diagnostic Tests 63

Infertility and Reproductive Technology 64

Adoption 65

CONNECTING THROUGH RESEARCH Do Children Conceived Through In Vitro Fertilization Show Signifi cantly Diff erent Outcomes in Adolescence? 65

CONNECTING WITH DIVERSITY The Increased Diversity of Adopted Children and Adoptive Parents 66

CARING CONNECTIONS Parenting Adopted Children 67

S E C T I O N 2 BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES, PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT, AND PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT 48

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Heredity and Environment Interaction: The Nature-Nurture Debate 68

Behavior Genetics 69

Heredity-Environment Correlations 69

Shared and Nonshared Environmental

Experiences 70

The Epigenetic View and Gene 3 Environment

(G 3 E) Interaction 71

Conclusions About Heredity-Environment

Interaction 72

Reach Your Learning Goals 73

C H A P T E R 3

Prenatal Development and Birth 76

IMAGES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT The Story of Mr. Littles 77

Prenatal Development 78 The Course of Prenatal Development 78

Teratology and Hazards to Prenatal

Development 82

Prenatal Care 89

Normal Prenatal Development 90

Birth 90 The Birth Process 91

CONNECTING WITH CAREERS Linda Pugh, Perinatal Nurse 93

CARING CONNECTIONS From Waterbirth to Music Therapy 93

Assessing the Newborn 94

Preterm and Low Birth Weight Infants 96

CONNECTING WITH DIVERSITY Cross-Cultural Variations in the Incidence and Causes of Low Birth Weight 97

CONNECTING THROUGH RESEARCH How Does Massage Therapy Aff ect the Mood and Behavior of Babies? 98

The Postpartum Period 99 Physical Adjustments 100

Emotional and Psychological

Adjustments 100

CONNECTING WITH CAREERS Diane Sanford, Clinical Psychologist and Postpartum Expert 101

Bonding 102

Reach Your Learning Goals 103

C H A P T E R 4

Physical Development and Health 105

IMAGES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT The Story of Angie and Her Weight 106

Body Growth and Change 107 Patterns of Growth 107

Infancy and Childhood 108

Adolescence 109

The Brain 113 Brain Physiology 114

Infancy 115

Childhood 118

Adolescence 119

Sleep 120 Infancy 120

Childhood 123

Adolescence 123

Health 124 Illness and Injuries Among

Children 125

Nutrition and Eating Behavior 127

CONNECTING WITH DIVERSITY The Stories of Latonya and Ramona: Breast and Bottle Feeding in Africa 130

CARING CONNECTIONS Improving the Nutrition of Infants and Young Children Living in Low-Income Families 132

CONNECTING WITH CAREERS T. Berry Brazelton, Pediatrician 133

CONNECTING WITH CAREERS Barbara Deloin, Pediatric Nurse 135

Exercise 135

CONNECTING THROUGH RESEARCH Are Preschool Children Getting Enough Physical Activity? 137

Reach Your Learning Goals 138

C H A P T E R 5

Motor, Sensory, and Perceptual Development 141

IMAGES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT The Stories of Stevie Wonder and Andrea Bocelli 142

Motor Development 143 The Dynamic Systems View 143

Refl exes 144

Gross Motor Skills 146

CONNECTING WITH DIVERSITY Cultural Variations in Guiding Infants’ Motor Development 149

CARING CONNECTIONS Parents, Coaches, and Children’s Sports 151

Fine Motor Skills 152

Sensory and Perceptual Development 153 What Are Sensation and Perception? 154

The Ecological View 154

CONNECTING THROUGH RESEARCH How Can We Study Newborns’ Perception? 155

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Visual Perception 157

Other Senses 160

Intermodal Perception 162

Nature, Nurture, and Perceptual

Development 163

Perceptual-Motor Coupling 164

Reach Your Learning Goals 165

C H A P T E R 6

Cognitive Developmental Approaches 170

IMAGES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT The Stories of Laurent, Lucienne, and Jacqueline 171

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development 172 Processes of Development 172

Sensorimotor Stage 173

CONNECTING THROUGH RESEARCH How Do Researchers Determine Infants’ Understanding of Object Permanence and Causality? 177

Preoperational Stage 180

Concrete Operational Stage 183

Formal Operational Stage 185

Applying and Evaluating Piaget’s Theory 187 Piaget and Education 187

Evaluating Piaget’s Theory 188

Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development 190 The Zone of Proximal Development 190

Scaffolding 191

Language and Thought 191

CONNECTING WITH DIVERSITY Guided Participation and Cultural Contexts 192

Teaching Strategies 192

CONNECTING WITH CAREERS Donene Polson, Elementary School Teacher 193

CARING CONNECTION Tools of the Mind 194 Evaluating Vygotsky’s Theory 195

Reach Your Learning Goals 196

C H A P T E R 7

Information Processing 199 IMAGES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT The Story of

Laura Bickford 200

The Information-Processing Approach 201 The Information-Processing Approach to

Development 201

Cognitive Resources: Capacity and Speed of

Processing Information 201

Mechanisms of Change 202

Comparisons with Piaget’s

Theory 203

Attention 204 What Is Attention? 204

Infancy 204

Childhood 206

Adolescence 207

Memory 208 What Is Memory? 208

Infancy 210

CONNECTING WITH DIVERSITY Culture and Children’s Memory 211

Childhood 212

Adolescence 215

Thinking 216 What Is Thinking? 216

Infancy 216

Childhood 218

CONNECTING WITH CAREERS Helen Schwe, Developmental Psychologist and Toy Designer 219

CARING CONNECTIONS Helping Children Learn Strategies 222

Adolescence 223

Metacognition 224 What Is Metacognition? 225

The Child’s Theory of Mind 225

CONNECTING THROUGH RESEARCH How Does Theory of Mind Diff er in Children with Autism? 227

Metacognition in Childhood 227

Metacognition in Adolescence 228

Reach Your Learning Goals 229

C H A P T E R 8

Intelligence 233 IMAGES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT The Story of

Shiff y Landa 234

The Concept of Intelligence 235 What Is Intelligence? 235

Intelligence Tests 236

Theories of Multiple Intelligences 237

The Neuroscience of Intelligence 240

The Infl uence of Heredity and

Environment 241

CONNECTING THROUGH RESEARCH The Abecedarian Project 243

S E C T I O N 3 COGNITION AND LANGUAGE 168

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Group Comparisons 243

CONNECTING WITH DIVERSITY Larry P.: Intelligent, But Not on Intelligence Tests 245

The Development of Intelligence 246 Tests of Infant Intelligence 246

CONNECTING WITH CAREERS Toosje Thyssen Van Beveren, Infant Assessment Specialist 247

Stability and Change in Intelligence Through

Adolescence 248

The Extremes of Intelligence and Creativity 249 Mental Retardation 249

Giftedness 250

CONNECTING WITH CAREERS Sterling Jones, Supervisor of Gifted and Talented Education 252

Creativity 252

CARING CONNECTIONS Guiding Children’s Creativity 253

Reach Your Learning Goals 255

C H A P T E R 9

Language Development 258 IMAGES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT The Story of

Helen Keller 259

What Is Language? 260 Defi ning Language 260

Language’s Rule Systems 260

How Language Develops 263 Infancy 263

Early Childhood 266

CONNECTING WITH CAREERS Sharla Peltier, Speech Pathologist 267

CONNECTING THROUGH RESEARCH How Does Family Environment Aff ect Young Children’s Language Development? 269

Middle and Late Childhood 270

CONNECTING WITH CAREERS Salvador Tamayo, Bilingual Education Teacher 275

Adolescence 275

CONNECTING WITH DIVERSITY Bilingual Education 276

Biological and Environmental Infl uences 277 Biological Infl uences 277

Environmental Infl uences 278

An Interactionist View of Language 280

CARING CONNECTIONS How Parents Can Facilitate Infants’ and Toddlers’ Language Development 281

Language and Cognition 282

Reach Your Learning Goals 284

C H A P T E R 10

Emotional Development 288 IMAGES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT The Story of

Tom’s Fathering 289

Exploring Emotion 290 What Are Emotions? 290

A Functionalist View of Emotions 291

Emotional Competence 291

Development of Emotion 292 Infancy 292

Early Childhood 296

Middle and Late Childhood 297

Temperament 299 Describing and Classifying Temperament 300

Biological Foundations and Experience 302

Goodness of Fit and Parenting 304

CARING CONNECTIONS Parenting and the Child’s Temperament 305

Social Orientation/Understanding, Attachment, and Child Care 306

Social Orientation/Understanding 306

Attachment 308

Fathers and Mothers as Caregivers 312

Child Care 314

CONNECTING WITH DIVERSITY Child-Care Policies Around the World 315

CONNECTING WITH CAREERS Wanda Mitchell, Child-Care Director 316

CONNECTING THROUGH RESEARCH How Does the Quality and Quantity of Child Care Aff ect Children? 317

Reach Your Learning Goals 319

C H A P T E R 11

The Self and Identity 322 Self-Understanding and Understanding Others 324

Self-Understanding 324

Understanding Others 327

Self-Esteem and Self-Concept 329 What Are Self-Esteem and Self-Concept? 329

Assessment 330

S E C T I O N 4 SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT 286

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Developmental Changes 331

CONNECTING THROUGH RESEARCH How Do Adolescents Rate Their Self-Images Across Five Diff erent Area s? 332

Variations in Self-Esteem 332

CARING CONNECTIONS Increasing Children’s Self-Esteem 333

Identity 334 What Is Identity? 334

Erikson’s View 335

Developmental Changes 336

Social Contexts 338

CONNECTING WITH CAREERS Armando Ronquillo, High School Counselor 340

CONNECTING WITH DIVERSITY The Contexts of Ethnic Identity Development 341

Reach Your Learning Goals 342

C H A P T E R 12

Gender 344 IMAGES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT The Story

of Jerry Maguire: Gender, Emotion, and Caring 345

What Is Gender? 346

Infl uences on Gender Development 347 Biological Infl uences 347

Social Infl uences 348

Cognitive Infl uences 350

CONNECTING THROUGH RESEARCH How Do Young Children Use Gender Schemas to Make Judgments About Occupations? 351

Gender Stereotypes, Similarities, and Diff erences 352

Gender Stereotyping 352

Gender Similarities and Differences 353

CARING CONNECTIONS Guiding Children’s Gender Development 358

Gender-Role Classifi cation 359 What Is Gender-Role Classifi cation? 359

Masculinity in Childhood and

Adolescence 359

Gender-Role Transcendence 360

Gender in Context 360

CONNECTING WITH DIVERSITY Gender Roles Across Cultures 361

Reach Your Learning Goals 362

C H A P T E R 13

Moral Development 364 IMAGES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT The Story of

Jewel Cash, Teen Dynamo 365

Domains of Moral Development 366 What Is Moral Development? 366

Moral Thought 366

CONNECTING WITH DIVERSITY Moral Reasoning in the United States and India 371

Moral Behavior 372

Moral Feeling 373

Moral Personality 375

Contexts of Moral Development 377 Parenting 377

Schools 378

CARING CONNECTIONS Parenting Recommendations for Raising a Moral Child 379

Prosocial and Antisocial Behavior 382 Prosocial Behavior 382

Antisocial Behavior 383

CONNECTING WITH CAREERS Rodney Hammond, Health Psychologist 386

CONNECTING THROUGH RESEARCH Can Intervention in Childhood Reduce Delinquency in Adolescence? 387

Religious and Spiritual Development 387 Childhood 388

Adolescence 388

Reach Your Learning Goals 390

C H A P T E R 14

Families 394 IMAGES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT The Story of

a Mother with Multiple Sclerosis 395

Family Processes 396 Interactions in the Family System 396

Cognition and Emotion in Family

Processes 397

Multiple Developmental Trajectories 398

Domain-Specifi c Socialization 399

Sociocultural and Historical Changes 399

Parenting 401 Adapting Parenting to Developmental Changes

in Children 401

CONNECTING WITH CAREERS Janis Keyser, Parent Educator 403

Parents as Managers of Children’s Lives 403

Parenting Styles and Discipline 404

S E C T I O N 5 SOCIAL CONTEXTS OF DEVELOPMENT 392

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CONNECTING THROUGH RESEARCH Do Marital Confl ict and Individual Hostility Predict the Use of Physical Punishment in Parenting? 407

CONNECTING WITH CAREERS Darla Botkin, Marriage and Family Therapist 408

Parent-Adolescent Relationships 410

Intergenerational Relationships 412

Siblings 413 Sibling Relationships 413

Birth Order 414

The Changing Family in a Changing Social World 415

Working Parents 415

Children in Divorced Families 416

CARING CONNECTIONS Communicating with Children About Divorce 418

Stepfamilies 418

Gay and Lesbian Parents 419

Cultural, Ethnic, and Socioeconomic Variations

in Families 420

CONNECTING WITH DIVERSITY Acculturation and Ethnic Minority Parenting 422

Reach Your Learning Goals 423

C H A P T E R 15

Peers 426 IMAGES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT The Stories

of Young Adolescent Girls’ Friends and Relational Worlds 427

Peer Relations 428 Exploring Peer Relations 428

The Developmental Course of Peer Relations in

Childhood 429

CONNECTING WITH DIVERSITY Cross-Cultural Comparisons of Peer Relations 430

The Distinct but Coordinated Worlds of Parent-

Child and Peer Relations 431

Social Cognition and Emotion 432

Peer Statuses 433

Bullying 435

CONNECTING THROUGH RESEARCH What Are the Perspective Taking and Moral Motivation of Bullies, Bully-Victims, Victims, and Prosocial Children? 436

Play 437 Play’s Functions 437

Types of Play 438

Friendship 440 Friendship’s Functions 440

Similarity and Intimacy 442

CARING CONNECTIONS Making Friends 443 Gender and Friendship 443

Mixed-Age Friendship 444

Peer Relations in Adolescence 445 Peer Pressure and Conformity 445

Cliques and Crowds 445

Dating and Romantic Relationships 446

Reach Your Learning Goals 449

C H A P T E R 16

Schools and Achievement 452

IMAGES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT The Story of Reggio Emilia’s Children 453

Exploring Children’s Schooling 454 Contemporary Approaches to Student Learning

and Assessment 454

Early Childhood Education 456

CONNECTING WITH CAREERS Yolanda Garcia, Director of Children’s Services/Head Start 459

Elementary School 460

Educating Adolescents 460

CONNECTING WITH DIVERSITY Early Childhood Education in Japan and Developing Countries 461

CARING CONNECTIONS “I Have a Dream” 464 Socioeconomic Status and Ethnicity 465

CONNECTING WITH CAREERS James Comer, Child Psychiatrist 467

Children with Disabilities 468 The Scope of Disabilities 468

Educational Issues 471

Achievement 472 Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation 472

Cognitive Processes 474

Self-Effi cacy 476

Ethnicity and Culture 478

CONNECTING THROUGH RESEARCH How Do Diff erent Cultures Compare in Their Attitudes and Behaviors Regarding Learning Math and Math Instruction? 479

Reach Your Learning Goals 480

C H A P T E R 17

Culture and Diversity 483 IMAGES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT The Stories

of Sonya’s and Michael’s Cultural Confl icts 484

Culture and Children’s Development 485 The Relevance of Culture to the Study of

Children 485

Cross-Cultural Comparisons 486

Socioeconomic Status and Poverty 488 What Is Socioeconomic Status? 488

Socioeconomic Variations in Families,

Neighborhoods, and Schools 489

Poverty 489

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CONNECTING THROUGH RESEARCH What Risks Are Experienced by Children Living in Poverty? 492

CARING CONNECTIONS The Quantum Opportunities Program 493

Ethnicity 494 Immigration 494

CONNECTING WITH CAREERS Carola Suárez- Orozco, Immigration Studies Researcher and Professor 495

Ethnicity and Socioeconomic Status 495

Differences and Diversity 496

Prejudice and Discrimination 497

CONNECTING WITH DIVERSITY The United States and Canada: Nations with Many Cultures 498

Technology 499 Media Use 500

Television and Electronic Media 500

Computers and the Internet 503

Reach Your Learning Goals 506

Glossary 509 References 519 Credits 573 Name Index 577 Subject Index 594

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expert consultants

Kirby Deater-Deckard Kirby Deater- Deckard is a leading expert on biological founda- tions of development, heredity-environment interaction, and parenting. He currently is a pro- fessor and the director of graduate programs in psychology at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. Earlier he was a professor at the

University of Oregon. Dr. Deater-Deckard obtained his Ph.D. from the University of Virginia. His research focuses on the development of individual differences in childhood and adolescence, with empha- sis on gene-environment processes and parenting. He has written papers and book chapters in the areas of developmental psychology and psychopathology, co-edited Gene-Environment Processes in Social Behaviors and Relationships and Immigrant Families , and authored Parenting Stress . Dr. Deater-Deckhard is currently on the editorial boards of a number of research journals, including Infant and Child Development, Journal of Family Psychology, and Parenting: Science and Practice. He also currently is the recipient of an NICHD grant to study maternal self-regulation and harsh parenting.

“ The narrative is comprehensive with respect to evolutionary and genetic perspectives. The perspective is balanced, with fair presentation and treatment of the key areas. Inclusion of G 3 E, G 3 G , and epigenetic perspectives is cutting edge and important. . . . The language and use of examples is pitched just right and is highly accurate without sacrifi cing simplicity. A wide range of undergraduates will be able to understand this chapter [Chapter 2, “Biological Beginnings”], including those who are biology phobic .” — Kirby Deater-Deckhard, Virginia Tech

Tiff any Field Tiffany Field is one of the world’s leading experts on prenatal develop- ment, birth, and infant development. She cur- rently is director of the Touch Research Institute (which she founded in 1992) in the Department of Pediatrics at the University of Miami School of Medicine. Dr. Field obtained her Ph.D. from the

University of Massachusetts, Amherst. She has been awarded the Boyd McCandless Distinguished Young Scientist Award from the American Psychological Association, an NIMH Research Scientist Development Award, and an NIH Senior Research Scientist Award (1991–present). Dr. Field has served as an associate editor of Infant Mental Health Journal and on the editorial boards for Child Development, Developmental Psychology, and a number of other lead- ing research journals. She has published over 400 journal articles and more than 20 books, including The Amazing Infant (2005) and Massage Therapy (2005). Her pioneering research on massage ther- apy is now widely practiced in NICU units to enhance the growth

and development of preterm infants. Earlier in her career she founded preschool programs at the University of Miami School of Medicine and the University of Miami Coral Gables campus.

“The chapter on prenatal development and birth [Chapter 3] by John Santrock is a nice update to the twelfth edition. I think this is a great chapter .” — Tiffany Field, University of Miami

Scott Johnson Scott Johnson is one of the world’s leading experts on perceptual and cogni- tive development in infancy. He currently is a professor of psychology at UCLA. Dr. Johnson obtained his Ph.D. from Arizona State University and then did postdoctoral work in the Center for Visual Science at the University of Rochester.

His research examines perceptual, cognitive, social, cortical, and motor development, with a focus on visual attention, electro- physiology, and learning mechanisms. Dr. Johnson is currently an associate editor of the journal Cognition and has served on the editorial boards of Infancy, Infant Behavior & Development, Developmental Psychology, British Journal of Developmental Psychology, and Frontiers in Neuroscience . His most recent edited book is Neoconstructivism: The New Science of Cognitive Development (2010, in press). Previous co-edited books include Neurobiology of Infant Vision and Prenatal Development of Postnatal Functions .

“I think the chapter [Chapter 5, “Motor, Sensory, and Perceptual Development”] does an admirable job sorting out a very complex picture. The focus on dynamic systems and ecological theories was just right, in my view. Each theory was described well and at a level consistent with the descriptions of empirical work. I liked how the nature-nurture ques- tion was brought in toward the end to provide additional context .” — Scott Johnson, UCLA

Joan Grusec Joan Grusec is one of the world’s leading experts on family processes and on emo- tional development. She currently is professor of psychology at the University of Toronto. Dr. Grusec obtained her Ph.D. from Stanford University. Her longstanding research interests have focused on the infl uence of parenting on

children’s socialization, determinants of parenting practices, and emotional development. Dr. Grusec has co-edited (with Leon Kuczynski) Parenting and Children’s Internalization of Values and co-edited (with Paul Hastings) Handbook of Socialization . She also co- authored (with Daphne Bugental) the chapter “Socialization Processes” in the most recent edition of Handbook of Child Psychology. In the forthcoming Annual Review of Psychology for 2011 (Vol 62),

Children’s development has become an enormous, complex fi eld, and no single author, or even several authors, can possibly keep up with all of the rapidly changing content in the many different areas of child development. To solve this problem, author John Santrock sought the input of leading experts about content in all age periods of human development. These experts provided detailed evaluations and rec- ommendations in their area(s) of expertise. Their biographies and photographs follow.

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she wrote a chapter titled “Socialization Processes in the Family: Social and Emotional Development.” In addition, she has been an associate editor of Developmental Psychology.

“ What is very evident in this chapter [Chapter 10, “Emotional Development”] is the author’s knowledge of the developmental literature and his awareness of issues and challenges in understanding emotional development. This comes across very clearly. In addition, the writing is engaging and ideas are clearly presented. . . . I do have very great admi- ration for John Santrock’s ability to reduce the complexity of emotional development to a very readable state without oversimplifying the issues, as well as enforcing for students that all assertions must be based on good research evidence .” — Joan Grusec, University of Toronto

Velma LaPoint Velma LaPoint is a leading expert on diversity and children’s development. She currently is professor of child development in the Department of Human Development and Psychoeducational Studies, School of Education, at Howard University in Washington, DC. Dr. LaPoint teaches undergraduate and grad-

uate students courses on diverse youth, youth placed at risk, youth and consumer culture, and social policies infl uencing youth and family development. Her research focuses on (a) school reform, academic achievement, and college/career readiness with a focus on science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) careers among diverse African American public school students; (b) parenting strategies and child academic achieve- ment/social competence among diverse African American fami- lies; and (c) a culturally responsive weight management intervention project for African American female college fresh- man students. Dr. LaPoint has authored/co-authored journal ar- ticles, book chapters, and other reports in New Directions in Evaluation , Journal of Black Psychology , Encyclopedia of Cross Cultural School Psychology , Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, and National Association of Secondary School Principals . She has provided commentary on youth development issues to venues such as The New York Times , Washington Post, Boston Globe , and Christian Science Monitor .

“ Dr. Santrock’s exciting updated textbook has new information on child development research, policy, practice, and advocacy. Diversity of topics and photographs is represented in areas such as socioeconomic status, ethnicity, race, gender, sexual orientation, religion, and geographical space nationally and globally. The textbook comes ‘alive for students as a learning tool’ in its narratives and photographs. Dr. Santrock’s text has a competitive advantage over many other college textbooks as a learning tool in the ever-changing world of educational media .” — Velma LaPoint, Howard University

Jeff rey Lochman Jeffrey Lochman is a leading expert on perceptual and cognitive de- velopment. He currently is a professor of psychol- ogy at Tulane University in New Orleans and formerly was department chair there. Dr. Lachman received his Ph.D. in child psychology from the Institute of Child Development at University of

Minnesota. His research focuses on perception-action develop- ment and early cognition. He is currently editor of the leading journal, Child Development, has also served on the editorial boards of Developmental Psychology, and has been a member of the National Institutes of Health Motor Function, Speech and

Rehabilitation Study Section. His research has been funded by the National Science Foundation and the National Institutes of Health.

“ This is a well-written overview of motor, sensory, and perceptual devel- opment, which introduces students to key developmental milestones and theoretical perspectives in this fi eld. Strengths of the chapter include the clear exposition of material, its theoretical focus, and the ways in which theory is integrated with fi ndings and practice. . . . I believe students will receive an excellent introduction to contemporary research and theory on motor and perceptual development by reading this chapter [Chapter 5, “Motor, Sensory, and Perceptual Development”].” — Jeffrey Lochman, Tulane University

Celia Brownell Celia Brownell is a leading expert on early socioemotional development. She currently is a professor in the Department of Psychology at the University of Pittsburgh. She obtained her Ph.D. from the Institute of Child Development at the University of Minnesota. Her research explores the early development of coop-

eration, sharing, and empathic responsiveness, with a special in- terest in prosocial behavior among infant peers. Dr. Brownell currently is an associate editor of Infancy , the offi cial journal of the International Society for Infant Studies, and is on the editorial boards of Child Development and Social Development. She co-edited the recent volume of Socioemotional Development in the Toddler Years: Transitions and Transformations . Dr. Brownell has also been one of the investigators on the long-running NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development.

“ These chapters are impressively up to date, refl ecting new looks in each of the areas, from the neuroscience of emotional development, to cultural contexts as contributors to patterns of childrearing and family function- ing, to adolescent romantic relationships and bullying/victimization. The new research is highly relevant to the text material and central to the fi eld of child development. As a researcher-active instructor, I very much appre- ciate the frequent use of concrete research examples to make particular points and to illustrate how developmental science is actually done. The use of research experts is laudable, and choice of experts is excellent—they are all leading fi gures in their respective areas .” — Celia Brownell, University of Pittsburgh

Catherine McBride-Chang Catherine McBride-Chang is a leading expert on language development. She is currently a professor and di- rector of the Developmental Centre at The Chinese University of Hong Kong. She obtained her Ph.D. in developmental psychology from the University of Southern California and was a post-

doctoral fellow in the psychology department at Florida State University. Dr. McBride-Chang’s research especially focuses on lit- eracy development across cultures. She is the author of more than 100 peer-reviewed articles and two books. She also currently is an associate editor of Developmental Psychology and Journal of Research in Reading . A Fellow of the Association for Psychological Science, she serves on the editorial boards of six other education and psy- chology journals.

“ I think you have covered all the bases and have some nice features in this text. It is quite comprehensive and useful.” — Catherine McBride-Chang, Chinese University of Hong Kong

xiv Expert Consultants

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Shelly Hymel Shelley Hymel is a leading ex- pert on socioemotional development and peer re- lations. She currently is a professor in the Faculty of Education at the University of British Columbia. Among her many current activities are being a member of the management committee of the Human Early Learning Partnership (an interdisci-

plinary research unit aimed at optimizing children’s development through early intervention), serving as one of the team leaders for PREVNet (a National Centre of Excellence New Initiative focused on promoting relationships and eliminating violence), and being a regional hub director for the Canadian Prevention Science Knowledge Cluster (funded by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada). In collaboration with Dr. S. Swearer, she has established the Bullying Research Network (BRNET), and has co-edited a unique knowledge translation effort—a peer-re- viewed special issue of the online magazine www.education.com. Dr. Hymel has published extensively in the area of socioemotional development and peer relations (both nationally and internation- ally) and works regularly with children and youth experiencing social diffi culties, as well as with schools and school districts that want to address the social aspects of learning.

“ There is much to commend here. I like the structure of the book with clearly stated goals, “research interludes,” and an ongoing consider- ation of applications as well as a focus on culture and diversity. . . . Major areas of inquiry within the research literature are considered and well summarized.” — Shelley Hymel, University of British Columbia

Cynthia Stifter Cynthia Stifter is a leading expert on temperament, self-regulation, and family processes. She currently is a professor of Human Development at the Pennsylvania State University. She obtained her Ph.D. from the University of Maryland. Her research focuses on how the temperament dimensions of approach

and withdrawal in infancy interact with physiology, parental responsivity, and self-regulation to predict behavior problems. Dr. Stifter is currently conducting research relating tempera- ment and parenting to rapid weight gain in infancy and on the role of positive affect in the physical health of young children. She has authored numerous publications on infant, toddler, and preschool development, including the subjects such as the emer- gence of emotion self-regulation, the effect of emotion regula- tion on behavioral control, emotion socialization skills of parents and child care workers, and the psychobiology of temperament. Dr. Stifter is currently an associate editor of Child Development , and has served on a number of other editorial boards and grant review panels.

“I liked the organization of the chapter [Chapter 10, “Emotional Development”]. I felt that John Santrock covered the most salient points in this developmental area and used current research to emphasize the importance of these concepts/points.” — Cynthia Stifter, Pennsylvania State University

Expert Consultants xv

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Making Connections . . . From My Classroom to Child Development to You Having taught two or more undergraduate courses in developmental psychology— child development, adolescence, and life-span development—every year across four decades, I’m always looking for ways to improve my course and Child Development . Just as McGraw-Hill looks to those who teach the child development course for input, each year I ask the students in my undergraduate developmen- tal courses to tell me what they like about the course and the text, and what they think could be improved. What have my students told me lately about my course and text? Students said that highlighting connections among the different aspects of children’s development would help them to better understand the concepts. As I thought about this, it became clear that a connections theme would provide a systematic, integrative approach to the course material. I used this theme to shape my current goals for my course, which, in turn, infl uence the main goals of this text, as follows:

1. Connecting with today’s students To help students learn about child development more effectively

2. Connecting research to what we know about children’s development To provide students with the best and most recent theory and research in the world today about each of the periods of child development

3. Connecting development processes To guide students in making develop- mental connections across different points in child development

4. Connecting development to real life To help students understand ways to apply content about child development to the real world and improve people’s lives, and to motivate students to think deeply about their own personal journey through life and better understand who they were, are, and will be

Connecting with Today’s Students My students often report development courses to be challenging due to the amount of material covered. To help today’s students focus on the key ideas, the Learning Goals System I developed for Child Development provides extensive learning connec- tions throughout the chapters. The learning system connects the chapter-opening outline, learning goals for the chapter, mini–chapter maps that open each main sec- tion of the chapter, Review, Connect, and Refl ect at the end of each main section, and the chapter summary at the end of each chapter.

The learning system keeps the key ideas in front of the student from the begin- ning to the end of the chapter. The main headings of each chapter correspond to the learning goals, which are presented in the chapter-opening spread. Mini–chapter maps that link up with the learning goals are presented at the beginning of each major section in the chapter.

p reface

Biological Foundations and Experience Goodness of Fit and Parenting Describing and Classifying Temperament

Temperament LG3 Characterize variations in temperament and their signifi cance.

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Then, at the end of each main section of a chapter, the learning goal is repeated in Review, Connect, and Refl ect , which prompts students to review the key topics in the section, connect these topics to existing knowledge, and relate what they learned to their own personal journey through life. Reach Your Learning Goals , at the end of the chapter, guides students through the bulleted

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xviii Preface

chapter review, connecting with the chapter outline/learning goals at the begin- ning of the chapter and the Review, Connect, and Refl ect material at the end of major chapter sections.

Connecting Research to What We Know about Children’s Development Over the years, it has been important for me to include the most up-to-date research available. I continue this tradition in this 13 th edition by looking closely at specifi c areas of research, involving experts in related fi elds, and updating research throughout. Connections Through Research , formerly called Research

reach your learning goals

Emotional Development

A Functionalist View of Emotions

• Emotion is feeling, or affect, that occurs when people are engaged in interactions that are important to them, especially those that infl uence their well-being. Emo- tions can be classifi ed as positive or negative. Darwin described the evolutionary basis of emotions, and today psychologists stress that emotions, especially facial expressions of emotions, have a biological foundation. Facial expressions of emo- tion are similar across cultures, but display rules are not culturally universal. Bio- logical evolution endowed humans to be emotional, but culture and relationships with others provide diversity in emotional experiences.

• The functionalist view of emotion emphasizes the importance of contexts and rela- tionships in emotion. For example, when parents induce a positive mood in their child, the child is more likely to follow the parents’ directions. In this view, goals are involved in emotions in a variety of ways, and the goal’s specifi c nature can affect the individual’s experience of a given emotion.

• Saarni argues that becoming emotionally competent involves developing a number of skills such as being aware of one’s emotional states, discerning others’ emotions, adaptively coping with negative emotions, and understanding the role of emotions in relationships.

Exploring Emotion LG1 Discuss basic aspects of emotion.

What Are Emotions?

Emotional Competence

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connecting through research

How Does Theory of Mind Diff er in Children with Autism?

diffi culty in understanding others’ beliefs and emotions not solely due to theory of mind defi cits but to other aspects of cognition such as prob- lems in focusing attention or some general intellectual impairment (Renner, Grofer Klinger, & Klinger, 2006). Some recent theories of autism suggest that weaknesses in executive functioning may be related to the problems experienced by those with autism in performing theory of mind tasks. Other theories have pointed out that typically developing individuals process information by extracting the big picture, whereas those with autism process information in a very detailed, almost obses- sive way. It may be that in autism, a number of different but related defi cits lead to social cognitive defi cits (Rajendran & Mitchell, 2007).

A young boy with autism. What are some characteristics of children who are autistic? What are some defi cits in their theory of mind?

Approximately 1 in 150 children is estimated to have some sort of autism spectrum disorder (National Autism Association, 2010). Autism can usually be diagnosed by the age of 3 years, and some- times earlier. Children with autism show a number of behaviors dif- ferent from children their age, including defi cits in social interaction and communication as well as repetitive behaviors or interests. They often show indifference toward others, in many instances pre- ferring to be alone and showing more interest in objects than peo- ple. It now is accepted that autism is linked to genetic and brain abnormalities (Deeley & Murphy, 2009; Glessner & others, 2009). Children and adults with autism have diffi culty in social inter- actions. These defi cits are generally greater than defi cits in chil- dren the same mental age with mental retardation (Baron-Cohen, 2009, 2011). Researchers have found that children with autism have diffi culty in developing a theory of mind, especially in understand- ing others’ beliefs and emotions (Bertoglio & Hendren, 2009; Peterson & others, 2009). Although children with autism tend to do poorly reasoning in false-belief tasks (Peterson, 2005), they can perform much better on reasoning tasks requiring an understand- ing of physical causality. In relation to theory of mind, however, it is important to consider the effects of individual variations in the abilities of children with autism (Harris, 2006). Children with autism are not a homogeneous group, and some have less severe social and communication problems than oth- ers. Thus, it is not surprising that children who have less severe forms of autism do better than those who have more severe forms of the dis- order on some theory of mind tasks. For example, higher-functioning children with autism show reasonable progress in understanding oth- ers’ desires (Harris, 2006). A further important consideration in thinking about autism and theory of mind is that children with autism might have

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Preface xix

in Child Development , describes a study or program to illustrate how research in child development is conducted and how it infl uences our understanding of the disci- pline. Topics range from “Do Children Conceived Through In Vitro Fertilization Show Signifi cantly Different Outcomes in Adolescence?” (Chapter 2) to “How Can We Study Newborns’ Perception?” (Chapter 5) to “How Does Theory of Mind Differ in Children with Autism?” (Chapter 7).

The tradition of obtaining detailed, extensive input from a number of leading experts in different areas of child development also continues in this edition. Biographies and photographs of the leading experts in the fi eld of child development appear on pages xiii to xv and the chapter-by-chapter highlights of new research content will be described shortly. Finally, the research discussions have been updated in every period and topic. I expended every effort to make this edition of Child Development as contemporary and up-to-date as possible. To that end, there are more than 800 citations from 2009, 2010, and 2011 in the text.

Connecting Development Processes Too often we forget or fail to notice the many connections from one point in child development to another. I have substantially increased these connections made in the text narrative. I also created two new features to help students connect topics across the stages of child development. Developmental Connections , which appears multiple times in each chapter, points readers to where the topic is discussed in a previous, current, or subsequent chapter. This feature highlights links across topics of development and connections among biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes. The key developmental processes are typically discussed in isolation from each other, and so students often fail to see their connections. Included in Developmental Connections is a brief description of the backward or forward con- nection. For example, consider the rapidly increasing interest in the fi eld of devel- opmental cognitive neuroscience that focuses on connections among development, cognitive processes, and the brain. This topic is initially presented in Chapter 1, “Introduction,” and then highlighted again in various chapters, especially Chapter 4, “Physical Development and Health.”

Furthermore, a new Connect question has been added to the section of self- reviews— Review, Connect, and Refl ect —so students can practice making connec- tions among topics. For example, in Chapter 9, students are asked to connect what they learned in Chapter 5 about the effect of culture on motor development to what they just read in Chapter 8 about how different cultures have different con- cepts of intelligence.

Connecting Development to Real Life In addition to helping students make research and developmental connections, Child Development shows the important connections among the concepts discussed and the real world. In recent years, students in my development course have increasingly told me that they want more of this type of information. In this edition, real-life connections are explicitly made in the chapter-opening vignette, Caring Connections , the coverage of diversity, and Connecting With Careers .

Each chapter begins with a story designed to increase students’ interest and motivation to read the chapter. Caring Connections , formerly called Caring for Children , provides applied information about parenting, education, or health and well-being related to topics ranging from “From Waterbirth to Music Therapy” (Chapter 3), to “Parents, Coaches, and Children’s Sports” (Chapter 5), to “Guiding Children’s Creativity” (Chapter 8). As will be seen later in the chapter-by-chapter changes, I created a number of new Caring Connections interludes for this edition, as well as signifi cantly updated and expanded applied topics in many areas of child development.

developmental connection Biological Processes. Can specifi c genes be linked to specifi c environmental experi- ence? Chapter 2, p. 69

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developmental connection Research Methods. How does a correla- tional study diff er from an experimental study? Chapter 1, pp. 34–35

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Connect • In this section you learned that diff erent

cultures have diff erent concepts of intelligence, and in Chapter 5 you learned about culture’s eff ect on motor development. What do these fi ndings have in common?

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xx Preface

Child Development puts a strong emphasis on diversity. For a number of editions, this text has benefi ted from having one or more leading experts on diversity to ensure that it provides students with current, accurate, sensitive information related to diversity in children’s development. The diversity expert for this edition of Child Development is Velma LaPoint, a professor at Howard University.

The Increased Diversity of Adopted Children and Adoptive Parents

A number of changes have characterized adoptive children and adop- tive parents in the last three to four decades (Brodzinsky & Pinderhughes, 2002). In the fi rst half of the 20th century, most U.S. adopted children were healthy, non-Latino White infants who were adopted at birth or soon after; however, in recent decades as abortion became legal and contraception increased, fewer of these infants became available for adoption. Increasingly, U.S. couples adopted a much wider diversity of children—from other countries, from other ethnic groups, children with physical and/or mental problems, and children who had been neglected or abused. Changes also have characterized adoptive parents in the last three to four decades (Brodzinsky & Pindehughes, 2002). In the fi rst half of the 20th century, most adoptive parents were from non-Latino White middle or upper socioeconomic status backgrounds who were married and did not have any type of disability. However, in recent decades, increased diversity has characterized adoptive parents. Many adoption agencies today have no income requirements for adoptive parents and now allow adults from a wide range of backgrounds to adopt children, including single adults, gay male and lesbian adults, and older adults. Many fertile adults adopt children, but many more adoptive indi- viduals are infertile. Based on what you read prior to this interlude, why might an infertile couple or individual decide to adopt rather than un- dergo reproductive technology procedures?