Motor control and learning 5th edition a behavioral emphasis pdf

motor control and learning 5th edition a behavioral emphasis pdf

Motor Learning and Performance

From Principles to Application

Fifth Edition

Richard A. Schmidt

Timothy D. Lee

Human Kinetics

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Schmidt, Richard A., 1941- author.

Motor learning and performance : from principles to application / Richard A. Schmidt, Timothy D. Lee. -- Fifth edition.

p. ; cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

I. Lee, Timothy Donald, 1955- author. II. Title.

[DNLM: 1. Learning. 2. Motor Activity. 3. Kinesthesis. 4. Psychomotor Performance. BF 295]

BF295

152.3'34--dc23

2013014793

ISBN-10: 1-4504-4361-3 (print)

ISBN-13: 978-1-4504-4361-6 (print)

Copyright © 2014 by Richard A. Schmidt and Timothy D. Lee

Copyright © 2008, 2004, 2000 by Richard A. Schmidt and Craig A. Wrisberg

Copyright © 1991 by Richard A. Schmidt

All rights reserved. Except for use in a review, the reproduction or utilization of this work in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including xerography, photocopying, and recording, and in any information storage and retrieval system, is forbidden without the written permission of the publisher.

Permission notices for material reprinted in this book from other sources can be found on page xvii.

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Check Out the Web Study Guide! You will notice a reference throughout this version of Motor Learning and Performance, Fifth Edition to a web study guide. This resource is available to supplement your e-book.

The web study guide offers interactive activities to reinforce key concepts and principles-to-application exercises that allow you to apply concepts to real-world scenarios.

Follow these steps to purchase access to the web study guide:

1. Visit http://tinyurl.com/BuySchmidt5EWebStudyGuide. 2. Click the Add to Cart button and complete the purchase process. 3. After you have successfully completed your purchase, visit the book’s

website at www.HumanKinetics.com/MotorLearningAndPerformance. 4. Click the fifth edition link next to the corresponding fifth edition book

cover. 5. Click the Sign In link on the left or top of the page and enter the e-mail

address and password that you used during the purchase process. Once you sign in, your online product will appear in the Ancillary Items box. Click on the title of the web study guide to access it.

6. Once purchased, a link to your product will permanently appear in the menu on the left. All you need to do to access your web study guide on subsequent visits is sign in to www.HumanKinetics.com/MotorLearningAndPerformance and follow the link!

Click the Need Help? button on the textbook’s website if you need assistance along the way.

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http://www.HumanKinetics.com/MotorLearningAndPerformance
http://www.HumanKinetics.com/MotorLearningAndPerformance
Dedication Jack A. Adams (1922-2010) was a giant in motor learning research. His passing marks a sad personal loss for us as well as a huge professional loss to motor learning research across the world. This book is dedicated to Jack’s memory in appreciation for all he taught us.

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Contents Dedication

Preface

Student and Instructor Resources

Acknowledgments

Credits

Chapter 1: Introduction to Motor Learning and Performance Why Study Motor Skills? The Science of Motor Learning and Performance Defining Skills Components of Skills Classifying Skills Understanding Performance and Learning Summary

Part I: Principles of Human Skilled Performance

Chapter 2: Processing Information and Making Decisions The Information-Processing Approach Reaction Time and Decision Making Memory Systems Summary

Chapter 3: Attention and Performance What Is Attention? Limitations in Stimulus Identification Limitations in Response Selection Limitations in Movement Programming Decision Making Under Stress Summary

Chapter 4: Sensory Contributions to Skilled Performance

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Sources of Sensory Information Processing Sensory Information Principles of Visual Control Audition and Motor Control Summary

Chapter 5: Motor Programs Motor Program Theory Evidence for Motor Programs Motor Programs and the Conceptual Model Problems in Motor Program Theory: The Novelty and Storage Problems Generalized Motor Program Theory Summary

Chapter 6: Principles of Speed, Accuracy, and Coordination Speed–Accuracy Trade-Offs Sources of Error in Rapid Movements Exceptions to the Speed–Accuracy Trade-Off Analyzing a Rapid Movement: Baseball Batting Accuracy in Coordinated Actions Summary

Chapter 7: Individual Differences The Study of Individual Differences Abilities Versus Skills Is There a General Motor Ability? Abilities and the Production of Skills Prediction and Selection Based on Ability Summary

Part II: Principles of Skill Learning

Chapter 8: Introduction to Motor Learning Motor Learning Defined How Is Motor Learning Measured? Distinguishing Learning From Performance Transfer of Learning Summary

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Chapter 9: Skill Acquisition, Retention, and Transfer Skill Acquisition Skill Retention Skill Transfer Summary

Chapter 10: Organizing and Scheduling Practice Off-Task Practice Considerations Organizing Practice and Rest Variable Versus Constant Practice Blocked Versus Random Practice Summary

Chapter 11: Augmented Feedback Feedback Classifications Functions of Augmented Feedback How Much Feedback to Give When to Give Feedback Summary

Glossary

References

About the Authors

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Preface Most of us feel tremendous excitement, pleasure, and perhaps envy when we watch a close race, match, or performance, focusing on the complex, well- controlled skills evidenced by the players or musicians. In these situations, we marvel at those who must succeed in executing their skill “on the spot”—at how the person with high-level skills is able to excel, sometimes under extreme “pressure” to do so.

This book was written for people who appreciate high-level skilled activity and for those who would like to learn more about how such incredible performances occur. Thus, readers in fields related directly to kinesiology and physical education (such as teaching and coaching) will benefit from the knowledge provided here. But the material extends far beyond these fields and should be relevant for those who study rehabilitation in physical and occupational therapy, as well as for instructors and facilitators of many other areas in which motor skills play an important role, such as music, ergonomics, and the military. The text is intended for beginners in the study of skill and requires little knowledge of physiology, psychology, or statistical methodologies.

The level of analysis of the text focuses on motor behavior—the overt, observable production of skilled movements. Of course, there are many scientific areas or fields of study involved in the understanding of this overt skilled behavior. Any skill is the outcome of processes studied in many different fields, such as neurology, anatomy, biomechanics, biochemistry, and social and experimental psychology; and this text could have focused on any number of these fundamental fields. But the focus of the text is broader than the fundamental fields that support it. The focus is behavioral, with the major emphasis on humans performing skills of various kinds. To be sure, we will talk about these other levels of analysis from time to time throughout the book in an attempt to explain what processes or events occur to support these high-level skills. Therefore this text should be appropriate for courses in elementary motor learning and motor performance in a relatively wide group of scientific areas.

Throughout the text, we construct a conceptual model of human performance. The term “model” is used in a variety of ways in many

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branches of science, and models are found frequently. A model typically consists of a system of parts that are familiar to us; when assembled in a certain way, these parts mimic certain aspects of the system we are trying to understand. One example is the pump-and-pipe model of our circulatory system, in which the heart is represented by a pump and the arteries and veins are pipes of various diameters and lengths. One could actually construct the model (although some models are purely conceptual); such a model could be used in classroom demonstrations or “experiments” on the effects of blood pressure on capillaries of the “hand.”

Our first goal in writing this text was to build a strong, general, conceptual understanding (an overview) of skills. We believe that instructors, coaches, therapists, and trainers, as well as others dealing with the learning or teaching of skills, will profit greatly from such a high-level conceptual understanding of skilled behavior. In striving toward this goal, we have adopted (assumed) the idea that skills can be understood, for the most part, through the use of concepts concerning information and its processing. We set about to build a conceptual model that would capture (or explain) many of the intricacies of skilled motor performance. We begin this process by considering the human as a very simple input–output system; then gradually, as we introduce new topics in the text, we expand the model by adding these new concepts. Gradually, by building on knowledge and concepts presented in earlier parts of the text, we add increasing complexity to the conceptual model. Simply presenting the finished conceptual model would make it very difficult for students to understand, and we hope that the systematic process of constructing the model, assembled with parts as they are presented in the text, forms a logical basis for increasing the model’s complexity. This construction process should make the final version of the model maximally understandable.

Our second goal was to organize the book in the best way to aid student understanding based on our many years of teaching experience. The text is divided into two parts. After the introduction to the study of motor skills in chapter 1, part I, examines how the motor system works by investigating the major principles of human performance and progressively developing a conceptual model of human actions. The focus is mainly on human performance as based on an information-processing perspective; but motor learning cannot be ignored, so it is mentioned briefly in various places. Chapter 2 discusses the nature of information processing, decision making, and movement planning. Chapter 3 considers the concepts of attention and

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memory. Chapter 4 concerns the information received from various sensory sources that is relevant to movement. Chapter 5 examines the processes underlying the production of movement, with particular attention to the role of motor programs. Chapter 6 considers the basic principles of performance that form the “building blocks” of skilled performance—analogous to the fundamental laws of physics. Finally, in chapter 7, the concern shifts to the differences in movement abilities among people and how these differences allow the prediction of success in new situations; differences among components in the conceptual model help in understanding these differences among people. On completion of part I, the student should have a reasonably coherent view of the conceptual and functional properties of the motor system. These principles seem appropriate for maximizing the performance of already learned skills. Part II of the text uses the conceptual model to impart an understanding of human motor learning processes. Much of this discussion uses the terms and concepts introduced in part I. This method works well in our own teaching, probably because motor learning is usually inferred from changes in motor behavior; therefore, it is easy to discuss these changes in terms of the behavioral principles from part I. In this second part, chapter 8 treats some methodological problems unique to the study of learning, such as how and when to measure performance, which also have application to measuring performance in analogous teaching situations. Chapter 9 considers broad issues of learning, retention, and transfer, such as the important role of practice. Chapter 10 concerns the issue of how and when to practice, dealing with the many factors that instructors can control directly to make practice more effective. Finally, chapter 11 deals with the critical topic of feedback, examining what kinds of movement information students need for effective learning, when it should be given, and so on. By the end of the text, readers will have a progressive accumulation of knowledge that, in our experience, provides a consistent view of how skills are performed and learned.

Many real-world examples of motor performance and learning principles are discussed in the main body of the text. In addition, we’ve included Focus on Application sections set off from the main textual materials. Strategically located directly after pertinent discussions of principles, these sections indicate applications to real-world teaching, coaching, or therapy. We wanted to write a text that could be used by performers, teachers, coaches, physical therapists, and other instructors in various fields to enhance human performance in real-world settings. To meet this goal, we have worked to focus the text on the topics most relevant to practical

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application.

As a third goal, we wanted a presentation style that would be simple, straightforward, and highly readable for those without extensive backgrounds in the motor performance area. As a result, the main content does not stress the research and data that contribute to our knowledge of motor skill acquisition and performance. Important points are occasionally illustrated by data from a critical experiment, but the emphasis is on an integrated conceptual knowledge of how the motor system works and how it learns. However, for those who desire a tighter link to the basic data, we have included sections called Focus on Research, which are set off from the main text and describe the important experiments and concepts in detail.

Finally, we demanded that the principles discussed should be faithful to the empirical data and thought in the study area. From decades in doing basic research in motor learning and motor performance, we have developed what we believe to be defensible, coherent, personal viewpoints (conceptual models, if you will) about how skills are performed and learned, and our aim was to present this model to the reader to facilitate understanding. Our viewpoints are based on a large literature of theoretical ideas and empirical data, together with much thought about competing ideas and apparently contradictory research findings. We have tried to write from this perspective as we would tell a story. Every part of the story can be defended empirically, or it would not have been included. Our goal has been to write “the truth,” at least as we currently understand it and as it can be understood with the current level of knowledge. We have included a brief section at the end of each chapter describing additional readings that provide competing viewpoints and additional scientific justifications.

Students will find a range of learning aids within each chapter, including chapter-opening outlines, objectives, and lists of key terms, as well as an end-chapter summary of the activities in the accompanying web study guide and “Check Your Understanding” and “Apply Your Knowledge” questions. Instructors using this text in their courses will find a wealth of updated ancillary materials at www.HumanKinetics.com/MotorLearningAndPerformance, including a presentation package and image bank, instructor guide, and test package.

This fifth edition of Motor Learning and Performance extends the approach used in the previous four editions. As with the previous editions, we have tried to integrate the latest new findings together with the research

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http://http://www.HumanKinetics.com/MotorLearningAndPerformance
and findings that have remained relevant for longer periods of time. But this edition could also be considered quite different as well. In many ways, this fifth edition returns to the approach adopted in the first edition, of providing a theoretical and conceptual basis for motor performance and learning that could be applied as broadly as possible. Since motor learning and performance are probably the most widespread activities that humans from all walks of life experience on a daily basis, our goal was to touch on as many of these applications as possible. The generality and limitations of these principles represent a core of human existence, and we hope that our treatment of them in this book resonates well with each person who reads it.

Richard A. Schmidt

Human Performance Research

Marina del Rey, California

Timothy D. Lee

Department of Kinesiology

McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario

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Student and Instructor Resources Student Resources

Students, visit the free web study guide, available at www.HumanKinetics.com/MotorLearningAndPerformance. The web study guide has been fully revised for the fifth edition to offer a more focused and interactive set of activities to aid learning. The activities in this study guide will help you to assess and build your understanding of concepts from each chapter of the text as you study.

In each chapter of the web study guide, you will be presented with a series of two to four interactive activities that test your understanding of important concepts. These include matching, multiple-choice, and diagram-based activities. For each chapter, you will be also be presented with a principles-to-application exercise that prompts you to take your knowledge beyond the classroom by using principles of motor control and learning to analyze an activity. There is no single right answer for the principles-to- application problems, but it is important to provide evidence and reasoning to support your ideas. Each principles-to-application exercise includes sample student answers and critiques of those answers to guide you as you develop your analysis. By completing the exercises included in this study guide, you will build your knowledge of important concepts from the textbook and learn to apply that knowledge to real-world situations.

Instructor Resources

The instructor guide, test package, chapter quizzes, presentation package, and image bank are free to course adopters and are accessed at www.HumanKinetics.com/MotorLearningAndPerformance.

Instructor Guide

The instructor guide includes chapter summary notes for preparing lectures and ideas for presenting topics and engaging students in class discussions, as well as practical laboratory activities.

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http://http://www.HumanKinetics.com/MotorLearningAndPerformance
http://http://www.HumanKinetics.com/MotorLearningAndPerformance
Test Package

The test package includes more than 230 true-or-false, multiple-choice, fill- in-the-blank, and short-answer questions that can be used to create exams. The test package is available for download in Respondus and LMS formats as well as in Rich Text Format (.rtf) for use with word processing software.

Chapter Quizzes

New for the fifth edition, these ready-to-use 10-question quizzes help assess students’ comprehension of the most important concepts in each chapter. Chapter quizzes can be imported into learning management systems or be used in RTF format by instructors who prefer to offer a written quiz.

Presentation Package

The presentation package includes more than 230 PowerPoint text slides that highlight material from the text for use in lectures and class discussions. The slides can be used directly in PowerPoint or can be printed to make transparencies or handouts for distribution to students. Instructors can easily add, modify, and rearrange the order of the slides as well as search for images based on key words.

Image Bank

The image bank, included with the presentation package, includes most of the figures, content photos, and tables from the text, sorted by chapter, which can be used to develop a customized presentation.

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Acknowledgments This edition of Motor Learning and Performance owes a debt of gratitude to many people. It was Rainer Martens who first conceptualized the idea, and his encouragement led to the publication of the first edition (Schmidt, 1991). Sincere thanks go to Craig Wrisberg, who coauthored the next three editions (Schmidt & Wrisberg, 2000, 2004, 2008). Over the years the authors have worked with many wonderful editors at Human Kinetics, who made the sometimes tedious process much more enjoyable, for which we are very grateful. For this edition we would especially like to thank Myles Schrag and Kate Maurer for their efforts in seeing this project through to completion. We also thank Liz Sanli for her hard work on the book’s ancillaries and Jasmine Caveness, Marilyn Lomeli, and Dianne Hopkins for their contributions to the task of copyediting and several other efforts. And lastly, we thank our wives, Gwen Gordon and Laurie Wishart, for their understanding and support of the work that went into not only producing this book, but all of our various endeavors.

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Credits Figures

Figure 2.6 Reprinted, by permission, from R.A. Schmidt and T.D. Lee, 2011, Motor control and learning: A behavioral emphasis, 5th ed. (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics). 65; Data from Merkel 1885.

Figure 2.7 Reprinted, by permission, from R.A. Schmidt and T.D. Lee, 2011, Motor control and learning: A behavioral emphasis, 5th ed. (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics). 65; Data from Merkel 1885.

Figure 2.8 Reprinted, by permission, from R.A. Schmidt and T.D. Lee, 2011, Motor control and learning: A behavioral emphasis, 5th ed. (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics). 70.

Figure 2.9 Reprinted, by permission, from J.A. Adams and S. Dijkstra, 1966, “Short-term memory for motor responses,” Journal of Experimental Psychology 71: 317.

Figure 3.3 Reprinted from D.J. Simons and C.F. Chabis, 1999, “Gorillas in our midst: Sustained inattentional blindness for dynamic events,” Perception 28: 1059-1074. By permission of D.J. Simons and C.F. Chabis.

Figure 3.5 Part a reprinted, by permission, from R.A. Schmidt and T.D. Lee, 2011, Motor control and learning: A behavioral emphasis, 5th ed. (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics), 108; part b reprinted, by permission, from R.A. Schmidt and T.D. Lee, 2011, Motor control and learning: A behavioral emphasis, 5th ed. (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics), 110; Data from Davis 1959.

Figure 3.7 Reprinted from M.I. Posner and S.W. Keele, 1969, Attentional demands of movement. In Proceedings of the 16th Congress of applied physiology (Amsterdam, Amsterdam: Swets and Zeitlinger). By permission of M.I. Posner.

Figure 3.8 Reprinted, by permission, from R.A. Schmidt and T.D. Lee,

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2011, Motor control and learning: A behavioral emphasis, 5th edition. (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics). Data from Weinberg and Ragan 1978.

Figure 4.7 Reprinted, by permission, from D.N. Lee and E. Aronson, 1974, “Visual proprioceptive control of standing in human infants,” Perception & Psychophysics 15: 529-532.

Figure 4.11 Reprinted, by permission, from T.J. Ayres, R.A. Schmidt et al., 1995, Visibility and judgment in car-truck night accidents. In Safety engineering and risk analysis--1995, edited by D.W. Pratt (New York: The American Society of Mechanical Engineers), 43-50.

Figure 5.3 Reprinted with permission from Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, Vol.24, 22-32, Copyright 1953 by the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, 1900 Association Drive, Reston, VA 20191.

Figure 5.4 Reprinted, by permission, from R.A. Schmidt and T.D. Lee, 2011, Motor control and learning: A behavioral emphasis, 5th edition. (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics), 183.

Figure 5.5 Part a reprinted, by permission, from R.A. Schmidt and T.D. Lee, 2011, Motor control and learning: A behavioral emphasis, 5th edition. (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics), 195; part b reprinted, by permission, from R.A. Schmidt and T.D. Lee, 2011, Motor control and learning: A behavioral emphasis, 5th edition. (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics), 195; Data from Slater-Hammel 1960.

Figure 5.6 Reprinted from W.J. Wadman, 1979, “Control of fast goal- directed arm movements,” Journal of Human Movement Studies 5: 10. By permission of W.J. Wadman.

Figure 5.8 Adapted from T.R. Armstrong, 1970, Training for the production of memorized movement patterns: Technical report no. 26 (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan, Human Performance Center), 35. By permission of the Department of Psychology, University of Michigan.

Figure 5.9a and b Reprinted, by permission, from R.A. Schmidt and T.D. Lee, 2011, Motor control and learning: A behavioral emphasis, 5th edition. (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics), 212.

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Figure 5.10a and b Reprinted, by permission, from D.C. Shapiro et al., 1981, “Evidence for generalized motor programs using gait-pattern analysis,” Journal of Motor Behavior 13: 38.

Figure 5.11 Adapted, by permission, from J.M. Hollerbach, 1978, A study of human motor control through analysis and synthesis of handwriting. Doctoral dissertation, (Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology).

Figure 5.12 Reprinted from M.H. Raibert, 1977, Motor control and learning by the state-space model: Technical report no. A1-TR-439 (Cambridge, MA: Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology), 50. By permission of M.H. Raibert.

Figure 6.1 Adapted from Categories of human learning, A.W. Melton (Ed.), P.M. Fitts, Perceptual-motor skills learning, categories of human learning pg. 258.

Figure 6.2 Reprinted, by permission, from R.A. Schmidt and T.D. Lee, 2011, Motor control and learning: A behavioral emphasis, 5th ed. (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics), 226. Data from Fitts 1954.

Figure 6.3a and b Adapted from P.M. Fitts, 1954, “The information capacity of the human motor system in controlling the amplitude of movement,” Journal of Experimental Psychology 47: 381-391.

Figure 6.4 Reprinted, by permission, from R.A. Schmidt et al., 1979, “Motor-output variability: A theory for the accuracy of rapid motor acts,” Psychological Review 86: 425. Copyright © 1979 by the American Psychological Association.

Figure 6.5 Reprinted, by permission, from R.A. Schmidt et al., 1979, “Motor-output variability: A theory for the accuracy of rapid motor acts,” Psychological Review 86: 425. Copyright © 1979 by the American Psychological Association.

Figure 6.8 Reprinted, by permission, from R.A. Schmidt and D.E. Sherwood, 1982, “An inverted-U relation between spatial error and force requirements in rapid limb movements: Further evidence for the impulse- variability model,” Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 8: 165. Copyright © 1982 by the American

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Psychological Association.

Figure 6.9 Reprinted, by permission, from R.A. Schmidt and T.D. Lee, 2011, Motor control and learning: A behavioral emphasis, 5th ed. (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics), 238.

Figure 6.12 Reprinted, by permission, from P.A. Bender, 1987, Extended practice and patterns of bimanual interference. Unpublished doctoral dissertation (Los Angeles, CA: University of Southern California).

Figure 6.13a and b Reprinted, by permission, from T.D. Lee et al., 2008, “Do expert golfers really keep their heads still while putting?” Annual Review of Golf Coaching 2: 135-143.

Figure 6.14 Reprinted from Physics Letters A, Vol.118, J.A.S. Kelso, J.P. Scholz, and G. Schöner, “Nonequilibrium phase transitions in coordinated biological motion: Critical fluctuations,” pg. 281, copyright 1986, with kind permission of Elsevier.

Table 7.2 by permission, from J.N. Drowatzky and F.C. Zuccato, 1967, “Interrelationships between selected measures of static and dynamic balance,” Research Quarterly 38: 509-510.

Figure 7.4 Reprinted, by permission, from E.A. Fleishman and W.E. Hempel, 1955, “The relation between abilities and improvement with practice in a visual discrimination task,” Journal of Experimental Psychology 49: 301-312. Copyright © 1955 by the American Psychological Association.

Figure 8.2 Reprinted, by permission, from J.A. Adams, 1952, “Warm up decrement in performance on the pursuit-rotor,” American Journal of Psychology 65(3): 404-414.

Figure 8.3 Reprinted, by permission, from C.J. Winstein and R.A. Schmidt, 1990, “Reduced frequency of knowledge of results enhances motor skill learning,” Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition 16: 677-691. Copyright © 1990 by the American Psychological Association.

Figure 8.4 Adapted, by permission, from H.P. Bahrick, P.M. Fitts, and G.E. Briggs, 1957, “Learning curves—facts or artifacts?” Psychological