Recitational questioning

CHAPTER 11 ENHANCING LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT IN THE PRIMARY YEARS

In Mrs. C.’s first-grade classroom, the children were seated on the gathering rug with their insect research journals. Each child’s journal reflected his or her individual exploration of insects through various nonfiction trade books from the classroom library. In addition to naming an insect and drawing a picture of it, the children included in their journals where the insect lives, what it eats, and one “amazing fact.” Today, the children 304305were meeting to orally share their journals with their class, taking turns to read and to show their information charts. After each student read his or her information, it was recorded by the teacher on a large summative chart. As the sharing continued, children often asked questions about the illustrations or about the insect studied.

By first grade, most children have developed a basic level of communicative competence. They can participate in conversations and use language to communicate their needs and wishes. At this level, there are increasing expectations that children will participate in the academic community of their school and classroom. In Mrs. C.’s first-grade classroom, described in the opening vignette, children’s language development has been enhanced by opportunities to learn how to communicate both orally and in writing. Through the process of reading books on insects and writing about them in their journals, Mrs. C.’s students have had opportunities to increase their knowledge about language and how to share what they have learned orally and in writing.

FACTORS INFLUENCING THE LANGUAGE ENVIRONMENT IN THE PRIMARY GRADES

In the primary years (grades 1–3), the language environment is influenced by the curriculum of each classroom as well as the way in which it is implemented. In addition, a teacher’s understanding of the importance of talk in the process of learning is also a factor.

Curricula and Standards

The curricula implemented in the primary grades are more formal and more firmly established than the curricula in kindergarten and preschool classrooms. Another strong influence on the curricula found in primary classrooms is the alignment of curricula to state and national standards (see Common Core Standards, 2012, http://www.corestandards.org/the-standards/english-language-art). While such standards exist for all areas of elementary curricula, the area of language arts standards is most relevant to this chapter. Most school districts adopt commercially developed curricula that are standards aligned. All teachers are expected to follow this formal curriculum and to implement lessons targeted to meet standards. While classroom teachers may not have control over the specific commercial curriculum that is selected for implementation, they do control the way the implementation occurs through the manner in which children are engaged in the curricular activities and experiences. The way a curriculum is implemented has a strong influence on the presence of talk in the classroom and the ways in which children become engaged in learning activities.

Implementation of Curricula

Curricula are often implemented in either of two ways: (a) task centered or (b) learner centered. In task-centered implementation, the focus is on adhering to the sequence and scope of learning tasks provided in the curricular materials. Learning activities strictly follow the predetermined sequence and duration. In contrast, learner-centered implementation focuses on children’s individual needs, learning styles, and responses to instruction. Learner-centered implementation strives to fit the curriculum to the needs of the student. Thus, the sequence or duration of activities may vary, depending on a teacher’s perception of her children’s needs and learning styles. This approach recognizes that curricular planning should always reflect an awareness of children’s developmental levels and learning styles rather than simply following a presequenced curriculum (Strickland, 1998).

Critical Role of Talk in the Learning Process

Lindfors (1990) challenged teachers to create “classroom communities” where children’s talk is invited and sustained, allowing children “to connect with others, to understand their world, and to reveal themselves within it” (p. 38). A key component of classroom communities is talk—talk about what is being learned and about responses to the learning process. This awareness of the important role of classroom talk is a relatively recent development. In the past, a quiet classroom was considered the ideal, with students silently working independently on learning tasks. Talk was restricted to formal recitation exercises or oral reading. Researchers and classroom teachers have begun to question whether a quiet, ordered classroom is the best learning environment (Kasten, 1997; Raphael & Hiebert, 1996; Wells & Chang-Wells, 1996). When classroom talk is overly limited or restricted, children lose the opportunity to engage in focused conversations and do not learn how to express their thinking, clarify their misunderstandings, or question others’ perceptions.

Teachers who understand the critical role of talk in the process of learning create classroom environments with a strong foundation for children’s cognitive growth and the development of “higher mental processes that constitute reading and writing” (Raphael & Hiebert, 1996, p. 90). In these classroom environments, learning activities are planned and implemented to focus on enhancing children’s oral and written language development in each of the five areas of language knowledge: phonological, semantic, syntactic, morphemic, and pragmatic.

INTERACTION PATTERNS FOR PRIMARY CLASSROOMS

At the primary level, the main interaction patterns used by teachers to enhance language development include linguistic scaffolding, mediation, and questioning. A teacher’s active listening is an integral part of each of these strategies. Through active listening, teachers become aware of children’s thinking and can maintain and 306307extend their verbal participation. Only through active listening and observation can a teacher develop awareness of students’ needs and learning styles.

Linguistic scaffolding provides a supportive verbal framework that sustains and encourages children’s participation in both social and instructional conversations. Questioning, expansion, and repetition are specific ways in which linguistic scaffolding is created. At the primary level, teachers use linguistic scaffolding to support children’s participation in a whole-class discussion, in small groups, and with individual children.

Mediation is an interaction pattern that teachers use to simplify a learning stimulus or task to facilitate student learning and participation. When reading a book, a teacher may substitute more familiar vocabulary as a way to begin to create connections to the more precise or technical vocabulary of the text. For example, when reading The Magic School Bus: Inside the Human Body (Cole, 1989), a teacher might make the following substitution of words to mediate the text to facilitate children’s comprehension:

Text:

“In the small intestine, food is broken down into molecules tiny enough for the body cells to use.” (p. 10)

Teacher:

In the small intestine, food is broken down into very tiny pieces. These tiny pieces are called molecules. Then the cells in the body can use the food.

Mediation also occurs when teachers engage in “thinking aloud” or “reflecting aloud” (Matthews, 1999, p. 36). For example, in reading The Magic School Bus: Inside the Human Body(Cole, 1989), a teacher might engage in the following “thinking aloud” as he introduces the book to his class:

Teacher:

The title of this book is The Magic School Bus. Hmm, I wonder how a school bus could be magical. Maybe it is going to fly, or maybe it will travel somewhere very special.

When teachers think and reflect aloud, they are verbalizing for their students their own thought processes. When this type of mediation is used in developing or completing a task, such as making applesauce or preparing to plant seeds, teachers make explicit what is happening and why or what worked in the past and what options may exist. In this way, teachers show children how language is used as a tool for learning. This type of verbal mediation is an inherent part of successful instructional interactions.

At the primary level, questioning most frequently takes place in instances in which children are expected to recite what they have learned. In this setting, questioning is used as a way to evaluate or monitor children’s comprehension or learning. Teachers may use questions found in commercial curricula as the format for the expected recitation. While this recitational questioning serves a purpose in monitoring learning, primary teachers need to also use questioning to encourage children to expand their thinking through inquiry and discovery. Through actively listening to children’s responses and comments, teachers can develop follow-up questions that 307308will stimulate higher levels of cognitive processing such as compare–contrast, inference making, problem solving, generalization, and synthesis.

In developing questions to use, primary teachers may find it helpful to consider the question–answer relationship (QAR) (Hostmeyer & Kinsella, 2010; Kinniburgh & Shaw,2009; Raphael, 1986). This refers to the relation between what information the question is asking for and where the answer is found. Some questions will ask for information that is “right there” in the text or in the immediate setting. For example, a teacher might point to the seashells on a table and ask, “Which of these seashells is round, like a ball?” Higher-level questioning uses a QAR in which the answer comes from either making an inference, drawing several pieces of information together, or perhaps from a child’s general world experience outside of the classroom, such as, “What do you think happened to the creature that lived in this seashell?”

The amount of wait time after a question is asked is critical to the type of interaction that occurs and to the content of that interaction. Rowe’s research (1986; as cited in Raphael & Hiebert, 1996) concluded that increasing the wait time from one to three seconds had significant beneficial effects. With three seconds of wait time, the development of ideas showed more continuity. While the volume of questions asked decreased when the wait time was increased, the questions asked became more cognitively complex. With the increased wait time, teachers incorporated more student responses into the instructional dialogue. This provided opportunity for more contingent questioning at higher levels of cognitive processing.

To be effective in encouraging children’s responses during the increased wait time, teachers need to monitor their facial expressions and body language to avoid appearing impatient. Teachers should model thoughtful contemplation of the questions asked as well as thoughtful consideration of children’s responses to questions.

OVERVIEW OF LANGUAGE-RELATED PRIMARY CURRICULAR GOALS

At the primary level, the main emphasis of the curriculum is often on the acquisition of reading, with little attention paid to the other language arts, such as listening, speaking, and writing. When the acquisition of reading is emphasized to the exclusion of other language forms, continued development of children’s total language competencies becomes limited.

Primary curricula need to incorporate learning activities that address listening, speaking, reading, and writing. A balanced language development program will not only address the five aspects of language knowledge (i.e., phonological, semantic, syntactic, morphemic, and pragmatic) but will also focus on each of the areas of competency in using language (i.e., listening, speaking, reading, and writing).

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The primary years are a time when children’s language competencies can be developed in ways that foster effective lifelong communication. Children’s long-term success in school is influenced by their ability to use language for many different purposes and in different settings. Pinnell (1996) encouraged teachers to engage in strategies and activities that promote children’s awareness of, and experiences with, the whole range of language functions.

KEY ROLE OF LISTENING COMPETENCIES

Listening is a key factor in language development. Not only is it an integral part of conversation and instructional dialogue, it is also a necessary competency for understanding direct instruction. Children’s listening competencies provide access to learning, particularly at the primary level, where students spend more time listening during the school day than they did in kindergarten. At the primary level, listening skills are essential because within this setting, children may be expected to listen for over half of their classroom activity time (Wilt, 1950, as cited in Wolvin & Coakley, 1985). Listening competencies are critical in facilitating the other language arts (speaking, writing, and reading) (Nation, Cocksey, Taylor, & Bishop, 2010). Children’s ineffective listening strategies make learning tasks more difficult and often result in frustration.

In primary classrooms, children need to be able to listen effectively in a variety of contexts, including the following:

· • Listening to and comprehending oral instructions or directions in a large-group setting

· • Listening to and comprehending explanations of concepts from teachers or guest speakers

· • Listening to peers in collaborative group work

· • Listening to class discussion

· • Listening when engaged in conversations with one or more others

Primary teachers can enhance children’s listening comprehension by modeling effective listening strategies, such as active listening and sending feedback (Wolvin & Coakley,1985). To be an effective listener, a child needs to (Lundsteen,1990):

· 1. Receive the message

· 2. Focus on the language used

· 3. Discriminate what has been said

· 4. Assign meaning to what has been said

· 5. Monitor the ongoing communication

· 6. Remember what has been said

· 7. Respond to what has been said

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As you encourage your students to be active listeners, you can observe their specific listening competencies. For example, a teacher might find that several children in her classroom need to be encouraged to remember more closely what the speaker has said and to use that knowledge to form their conversational response. Teachers can also explicitly encourage children to be active listeners who consciously focus on the message being spoken and then to give feedback to the speaker about whether they have comprehended the message.

Teachers who constantly repeat oral directions for their students may be doing their students a disservice with this repetition because it may not encourage careful listening. It may be better for a teacher to have another listener–student repeat the directions for other students rather than repeat the directions him- or herself. That way, another child provides a summary of the directions (Lundsteen, 1990).

In summary, to facilitate the development of children’s listening competencies, teachers must first provide a model for effective listening during class discussions and during one-on-one conversations or conferences (Farris, Fuhler, & Walther,2004). In addition, teachers should carefully observe how children take in and comprehend what is heard by noting both verbal and nonverbal responses. Primary students should have opportunities to continue to develop their listening skills because as they progress through elementary and secondary school, the amount of time they are expected to listen is likely to increase, depending on the specific class involved.

PLANNING ACTIVITIES TO ENHANCE PRIMARY-AGE STUDENTS’ LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

Language-enhancing activities at the primary level include both exploratory discovery center activities and teacher-directed activities. Throughout exploratory and teacher-directed activities, children need to be encouraged to use language to learn, to reflect, and to inquire. Asking and answering questions is a critical part of classroom talk because it may stimulate curiosity and motivation to learn. Children need to have opportunities to ask questions and to seek answers to their questions through experiences and through focused classroom conversations. This process of asking questions and seeking out the answers through hypothesizing, collecting data, and analyzing the data is known as inquiry learning .

Inquiry learning is an approach that provides many opportunities to engage in questioning and conversations in the pursuit of new knowledge. Inquiry learning that integrates reading, writing, listening, and speaking into all areas of the primary curriculum can provide not only significant motivation to learn but also critical opportunities to learn how to use oral and written language in the process of gaining knowledge and solving problems. Teachers facilitate this language use through linguistic scaffolding, mediation, and questioning. Inquiry learning can take place through exploratory activities as well as teacher-directed activities.

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In the sections that follow, specific activities will be described that can enhance language development in a variety of settings and can accommodate a range of learning styles through hands-on experiences, collaborative activities, small group and large group activities, and more formal, teacher-directed activities.

EXPLORATORY LEARNING ACTIVITIES

An important part of primary classroom activities is the provision of open-ended, hands-on learning activities (Bredekamp & Copple, 1997; Kostelnik, Soderman, & Whiren, 2010). While these activities resemble the exploratory activities recommended for preschool and kindergarten classrooms, primary-level exploratory activities present opportunities for more focused engagement and more complex interactions with the materials provided.

Exploratory learning activities at the primary level have been described as involving “investigative play” (Wassermann, 1990). These investigative activities are characterized by the following features:

· • Are open-ended

· • Provide opportunity to generate ideas

· • Enhance the development of cross-curricular concepts

· • Encourage children to be active learners

· • Involve cooperative grouping

Classrooms with this focus are described as having a “can-do” perspective, in which children develop self-confidence in their abilities to interact effectively in their environment through successful risk taking and problem solving (Wassermann, 1990). Primary-age children are able to participate in generating the rules or directions for using each center. Posting the rules in each center provides opportunity for children to read and use language to direct their own interactions. It also encourages children to work independently (Sloane, 2002).

Three general areas of exploratory activities appropriate for primary classrooms are a classroom library center, a writing center, and content/concept learning centers, which focus on math/science, social studies/math, or science/social studies content. Other, more focused, centers can be developed; however, the focus of this section will be on these three types of centers. All children in a classroom should have an equal opportunity to engage in each center. Center activities should not be restricted to students who have finished their “seatwork.” Procedures for using each center should be well explained as the teacher introduces the center to the class. Implementation of each center should be consistent and simple enough for children to be independent of teacher assistance. In the descriptions of possible center areas that follow, the emphasis will be on clarifying the potential of the activity to enhance one or more aspects of language knowledge.

Classroom Library Center

The classroom library is the focal point of the primary classroom. The materials provided in the library provide a foundation for the learning that occurs in the classroom. A wide range of genres should be provided: various types of fiction (realistic fiction, fables, fairy tales, mysteries), nonfiction (alphabet books, concept books), and poetry. Trade books and chapter books should also be included, as should copies of books used in the reading curriculum for the classroom.

At the primary level, it is still important for books to have frequent illustrations, because they provide important contextual information about the concepts presented in the books. First graders will use the classroom library more successfully if the teacher has featured some of the books from the center in class read-alouds. As children develop more independent decoding skills, they will enjoy new books without first having them read aloud by the teacher. Books should also be rotated through the classroom library to keep student interest and motivation high. It is also beneficial to introduce new books that will enhance topics of current focus in the curriculum, such as a unit on insects.

The books provided in the library center support the foundation for learning that occurs in the classroom.

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