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The Struggle for Democracy 2016 Presidential Election Edition

Edward S. Greenberg

University of Colorado, Boulder

Benjamin I. Page

Northwestern University

with assistance by

David Doherty

Loyola University Chicago

Scott L. Minkoff

SUNY New Paltz

Josh M. Ryan

Utah State University

330 Hudson Street, New York, NY 10013

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Greenberg, Edward S., -author. | Page, Benjamin I.

Title: The struggle for democracy/Edward S. Greenberg, Benjamin I. Page. Description: Twelfth editon. | Hoboken, NJ : Pearson Education in Hobokoen, [2017] | Includes bibliographical references and index.

Identifiers: LCCN 2016017148 | ISBN 9780134571706 | ISBN 0134571703

Subjects: LCSH: United States—Politics and government—Textbooks. | Democracy—United States.

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Classification: LCC JK276 .G74 2017 | DDC 320.473—dc23

LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016017148

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Student Edition

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https://lccn.loc.gov/2016017148
Brief Contents 1. To the Student xiii

2. To the Instructor xv

1. Part I Introduction: Main Themes

1. 1 Democracy and American Politics 1

2. Part II Structure

1. 2 The Constitution 17

2. 3 Federalism: States and Nation 44

3. 4 The Structural Foundations of American Government and Politics 73

3. Part III Political Linkage

1. 5 Public Opinion 101

2. 6 The News Media 135

3. 7 Interest Groups and Business Power 161

4. 8 Social Movements 193

5. 9 Political Parties 219

6. 10 Voting, Campaigns, and Elections 250

4. Part IV Government and Governing

1. 11 Congress 286

2. 12 The Presidency 323

3. 13 The Executive Branch 353

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4. 14 The Courts 382

5. Part V What Government Does

1. 15 Civil Liberties: The Struggle for Freedom 416

2. 16 Civil Rights: The Struggle for Political Equality 447

3. 17 Domestic Policies 475

4. 18 Foreign and National Defense Policies 512

1. Appendix 545

2. Glossary 574

3. Endnotes 585

4. Photo Credits 619

5. Index 621

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Contents 1. To the Student xiii

2. To the Instructor xv

1. Part I Introduction: Main Themes

1. 1 Democracy and American Politics 1

1. The Struggle for Democracy: Robert Moses and the Struggle of African Americans for Voting Rights 2

1. What Is Democracy? 2

1. The Origins of Democracy 3

2. Direct Versus Representative Democracy 5

3. The Benchmarks of Representative Democracy 5

4. Objections to Representative Democracy 10

2. How Do Government and Politics Work? 12

1. Identifying the Factors That Influence Government and Politics 12

2. Connecting the Factors That Influence Government and Politics: An Application 14

3. Understanding Government and Politics Holistically 15

2. Part II Structure

1. 2 The Constitution 17

1. The Struggle for Democracy: Does the “Advice and Consent” of the Senate Matter? 18

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1. The American Revolution and the Declaration of Independence 19

1. Key Ideas in the Declaration of Independence 20

2. Key Omissions in the Declaration of Independence 22

2. The Articles of Confederation: Our First Constitution 22

1. Provisions of the Articles 23

2. Shortcomings of the Articles 23

3. Factors Leading to the Constitutional Convention 24

1. What Worried American Notables and Why 24

4. The Constitutional Convention and a New Framework for Government 28

1. Who Were the Framers? 28

2. Consensus and Conflict at the Constitutional Convention 29

3. What the Framers Created at the Constitutional Convention 32

5. The Struggle to Ratify the Constitution 37

6. The Changing Constitution, Democracy, and American Politics 38

1. Changing the Constitution Through Formal Amendment 39

2. Changing the Constitution Through Judicial Review 39

3. Changing the Constitution Through Political Practices 40

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7. Using the Democracy Standard: The Constitution: How Democratic? 41

2. 3 Federalism: States and Nation 44

1. The Struggle for Democracy: Health Care For All? What Role Should Federalism Play? 45

1. Federalism as a System of Government 46

1. Federalism Defined 47

2. Comparing American Federalism 48

2. Federalism in the Constitution 48

1. Federal, State, and Concurrent Powers 48

2. The Roles of States in the National Government 50

3. Relations Among the States 51

3. The Evolution of American Federalism 52

1. The Ascendant Power of the National Government 53

2. Federalism Before the Civil War 54

3. Expansion of National Power Following the Civil War 57

4. Expansion of National Power in the Twentieth Century 57

5. The Devolution and the Rethinking of Federal Power 59

6. The Reassertion of Federal Power After 2000 61

7. Recent Pushback Against National Power 62

4. Fiscal Federalism 63

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1. Origin and Growth of Federal Grants 63

2. Types of Federal Grants 64

3. Federal Grants: Money and Control 65

5. Strong States Versus A Strong National Government 67

1. Strong States: Diversity of Needs 68

2. Strong National Government: The Importance of National Standards 68

3. Strong States: Closeness to the People 68

4. Strong National Government: Low Visibility of State Officials 68

5. Strong States: Innovation and Experimentation 68

6. Strong National Government: Spillover Effects and Competition 69

6. Using the Democracy Standard: American Federalism: How Democratic? 70

3. 4 The Structural Foundations of American Government and Politics 73

1. The Struggle for Democracy: The Walmartization of American Manufacturing: Where Will All the Good Jobs Go? 74

1. America’s Population 76

1. America’s Population Is Growing 76

2. America’s Population Is Becoming More Diverse 76

3. America’s Population Is Moving West and South 80

4. America’s Population Is Growing Older 81

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5. America’s Population Is Becoming Economically More Unequal 82

2. America’s Economy 87

1. Main Tendencies of Capitalism 87

2. Globalization, Technological Change, and Hypercompetition 88

3. America’s Political Culture 93

1. Individualistic 93

2. Distrustful of Government 94

3. Believers in Democracy and Freedom 96

4. Populist 96

5. Religious 97

4. Using The Democracy Standard: American Society, Economy, and Political Culture: How Democratic? 99

3. Part III Political Linkage

1. 5 Public Opinion 101

1. The Struggle for Democracy: Vietnam: A Matter of Opinion? 102

1. Measuring Public Opinion 103

1. Public Opinion Polls 104

2. Challenges of Political Polling 104

2. Political Socialization: Learning Political Beliefs and Attitudes 107

3. How and Why People’s Political Attitudes Differ 109

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1. Party Identification 109

2. Race and Ethnicity 110

3. Social Class 114

4. Geography 115

5. Education 115

6. Gender 116

7. Age 117

8. Religion 119

4. The Contours of American Public Opinion: Are the People Fit to Rule? 120

1. The People’s Knowledge About Politics 121

2. The People’s Attitudes About the Political System 123

3. The People’s Liberalism and Conservatism 126

4. The People’s Policy Preferences 126

5. The People’s “Fitness to Rule” Revisited 130

5. Using the Democracy Standard: Public Opinion: Does It Determine What Government Does? 131

2. 6 The News Media 135

1. The Struggle for Democracy: Big Stories Without Legs 136

1. How News Organizations Operate 137

1. The Functions of the News Media in a Democracy 137

2. News Media Organizations 138

3. Profit Motives of the News Media 140

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4. News-Gathering and Production Operations 142

5. Online News Media 148

2. Bias in the News 152

1. Ideological Bias 152

2. Nonideological Bias 154

3. Effects of the News Media on Politics 155

1. Agenda Setting 155

2. Priming 156

3. Framing 156

4. Fueling Cynicism 156

5. Fragmenting Comprehension 157

4. Using The Democracy Standard: The News Media: Do They Help or Hinder Democracy 158

3. 7 Interest Groups and Business Power 161

1. The Struggle for Democracy: Disaster in the Gulf 162

1. Interest Groups in a Democratic Society: Contrasting Viewpoints 164

1. The Evils-of-Faction Argument 164

2. The Pluralist Argument 164

2. The Universe of Interest Groups 166

1. Private Interest Groups 166

2. Public Interest Groups 169

3. Interest Group Formation and Proliferation 170

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1. The Constitution 170

2. Diverse Interests 171

3. A More Active Government 171

4. Disturbances 172

4. What Interest Groups Do 173

1. The Inside Game 173

2. The Outside Game 177

5. Interest Groups, Corporate Power, and Inequality in American Politics 179

1. Representational Inequality 181

2. Resource Inequality 181

3. Access Inequality 183

4. The Privileged Position of Corporations 184

6. Curing the Mischief of Factions 188

7. Using the Democracy Standard: Interest Groups: Do They Help or Hinder American Democracy? 190

4. 8 Social Movements 193

1. The Struggle for Democracy: Women Win the Right to Vote: Why Did It Take So Long 194

1. What Are Social Movements? 195

2. Major Social Movements in the United States 197

1. The Abolitionist Movement 197

2. The Populist Movement 198

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3. The Women’s Suffrage Movement 198

4. The Labor Movement 198

5. The Civil Rights Movement 198

6. Contemporary Antiwar Movements 198

7. The Women’s Movement 201

8. The Environmental Movement 201

9. The Gay and Lesbian Movements 201

10. The Religious Conservative Movement 201

11. The Anti-Globalization Movement 202

12. The Tea Party Movement 202

13. The Occupy Wall Street Movement 203

14. The “Black Lives Matter” Movement 204

3. The Role of Social Movements in a Democracy 205

1. Encouraging Participation 205

2. Overcoming Political Inequality 206

3. Creating New Majorities 206

4. Overcoming Constitutional Inertia 206

4. Factors That Encourage the Formation of Social Movements 207

1. Real or Perceived Distress 207

2. Availability of Resources for Mobilization 208

3. A Supportive Environment 208

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4. A Sense of Efficacy Among Participants 209

5. A Spark to Set Off the Flames 210

5. Tactics of Social Movements 210

6. Why Do Some Social Movements Succeed and Others Fail? 211

1. Low-Impact Social Movements 212

2. Repressed Social Movements 212

3. Partially Successful Social Movements 213

4. Successful Social Movements 214

7. Using the Democracy Standard: Social Movements: Do Social Movements Make America More or Less Democratic? 216

5. 9 Political Parties 219

1. The Struggle for Democracy: The 2016 Election and the Fracturing of the Republican Party 220

1. Political Parties in Democratic Systems 222

2. The American Two-Party System 223

1. The Rules of the Game 223

2. Minor Parties in American Politics 225

3. The American Two-Party System Since the Great Depression 227

1. The New Deal Party Era 228

2. The Dealignment Era 229

3. The Polarization Era 231

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4. The Three Functions of Today’s Political Parties 232

1. Parties as Ideological Organizations 233

2. Parties as Electoral Organizations 237

3. Parties as Governing Organizations 241

5. Using the Democracy Standard: Political Parties: How Do Our Two Major Political Parties Affect Democracy? 247

6. 10 Voting, Campaigns, and Elections 250

1. The Struggle for Democracy: An Historic End to a Contentious Campaign 251

1. Elections and Democracy 253

1. The Prospective (or Responsible Party) Voting Model 253

2. The Electoral Competition Voting Model 253

3. The Retrospective (or Reward and Punishment) Voting Model 255

4. Imperfect Electoral Democracy 255

5. Which Party Model Works Best? 256

2. The Unique Nature of American Elections 257

1. Elections Are Numerous and Frequent 257

2. Election Procedure and Vote-Counting Inconsistencies 257

3. “First-Past-the-Post” Wins 258

3. Voting in the United States 258

1. Expansion of the Franchise 258

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2. Direct Partisan Elections 259

3. Barriers to Voting and Low Voter Turnout 260

4. Reform Proposals and New Struggles over Voting 262

4. Who Votes? 263

1. Income and Education 263

2. Race and Ethnicity 264

3. Age 265

4. Gender 266

5. Does It Matter Who Votes? 266

5. The Presidential Campaign 266

1. Preparing to Run 267

2. The Presidential Primary System 269

3. The General Election Campaign 271

4. Money in General Elections 273

6. Election Outcomes 279

1. How Voters Decide 279

2. The Electoral College 280

7. Using The Democracy Standard: Voting, Campaigns, and Elections: Do Voting, Campaigns, and Elections Make Government Leaders Listen to the People? 283

4. Part IV Government and Governing

1. 11 Congress 286

1. The Struggle for Democracy: A Dysfunctional Congress?

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287

1. Constitutional Foundations of Congress 288

1. Enumerated and Implied Powers of Congress 288

2. Constraints on Congress 288

3. Basis for Representation in Congress 289

4. Is Congress Capable of Solving Big Problems? 290

2. Representation and Democracy in Congress 291

1. Two Styles of Representation 291

2. Member Demographics 292

3. Representation in the House: Reapportionment and Redistricting 294

4. Representation in the Senate 298

5. How Representative Is Congress? A Look Back at the Arguments 299

3. Congressional Elections 299

1. The Congressional Election Process 300

2. Who Runs for Congress? 300

3. Money and Congressional Elections 300

4. The Incumbency Factor 302

5. Do Congressional Elections Ensure Representation? 303

4. The Congressional Legislative Process 304

1. Introducing a Bill 306

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2. Referral to Committee 306

3. The Rules Committee 307

4. Floor Action on a Bill 307

5. Resolving Bicameral Differences 310

6. Presidential Action on a Bill 311

7. Party and Leader Influences on the Passage Process 311

5. Voting in Congress 313

1. Procedural and Substantive Votes 314

2. Parties and Party-Line Voting in Congress 314

6. Congressional Oversight of the Executive Branch 316

1. Nominee Confirmations 316

2. Hearings and Investigations 316

3. Impeachment 318

7. Using the Democracy Standard: Congress: Is Congress Out of Touch with the American People? 319

2. 12 The Presidency 323

1. The Struggle For Democracy: President Obama Uses His Unitary Powers 324

1. The Expanding Presidency 325

1. The Framers’ Conception of the Presidency 326

2. The Dormant Presidency 327

3. The Twentieth Century Transformation 328

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4. How Important Are Individual Presidents? 330

2. The Powers and Roles of the President 331

1. Chief of State 332

2. Domestic Policy Leader 332

3. Chief Executive 333

4. Foreign Policy and Military Leader 335

5. Party Leader 339

3. The President’s Support System 339

1. The White House Staff 339

2. The Executive Office of the President 340

3. The Vice Presidency 341

4. The Cabinet 342

4. The President and Congress: Perpetual Tug-of-War 342

1. Conflict by Constitutional Design 343

2. What Makes a President Successful with Congress? 344

5. The President and the People: An Evolving Relationship 346

1. Getting Closer to the People 346

2. Leading Public Opinion 347

3. Responding to the Public 347

4. Presidential Popularity 348

6. Using the Democracy Standard: The Presidency: Presidents

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and the American People 350

3. 13 The Executive Branch 353

1. The Struggle for Democracy: Is the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau an Effective Regulatory Agency or More Bureaucratic Red Tape? 354

1. How the Executive Branch Is Organized 355

1. Cabinet-Level Departments 356

2. Independent Regulatory Commissions 358

3. Independent Executive Agencies 358

4. Other Federal Bureaucracies 360

2. What Do Bureaucracies and Bureaucrats Do? 360

1. Executing Programs and Policies 360

2. Exercising Discretion 361

3. Regulating 361

4. Adjudicating 362

5. Discretion and Democracy 363

3. Who Are the Bureaucrats? 363

1. The Merit System 364

2. Political Appointees 365

3. How Different Are Civil Servants from Other Americans? 366

4. Political and Governmental Influences on Bureaucratic Behavior 366

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1. The President and the Bureaucracy 367

2. Congress and the Bureaucracy 369

3. The Courts and the Bureaucracy 370

4. The Public and the Press 371

5. Interest Groups 371

5. The American Bureaucracy: Controversies and Challenges 372

1. Hostile Political Culture 373

2. Incoherent Organization 374

3. Divided Control 374

6. Reforming the Federal Bureaucracy 374

1. Scaling Back Its Size 375

2. Becoming More Businesslike 377

3. Protecting Against Bureaucratic Abuses of Power 378

4. Increasing Presidential Control 378

7. Using the Democracy Standard: The Executive Branch: Does the Bureaucracy Advance or Hinder Democracy? 379

4. 14 The Courts 382

1. The Struggle for Democracy: The Battle for the Courts 383

1. The Foundations of Judicial Power 385

1. Constitutional Design 385

2. Judicial Review 385

2. The Federal Court System: Jurisdiction and Organization

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388

1. The Jurisdiction of the Federal Court 389

2. The Organization of the Federal Court System 389

3. Appointment to the Federal Bench 393

1. Who Are the Appointees? 393

2. The Appointment Process 395

4. The Supreme Court in Action 398

1. The Norms of Operation 398

2. Control of the Agenda 398

3. Deciding Cases 399

4. Outside Influences on Supreme Court Decisions 402

5. The Supreme Court as a National Policy Maker 405

1. Structural Change and Constitutional Interpretation 405

2. The Debate over Judicial Activism 409

6. Using the Democracy Standard: The Courts: Does the Supreme Court Enhance American Democracy? 413

5. Part V What Government Does

1. 15 Civil Liberties: The Struggle for Freedom 416

1. The Struggle for Democracy: Digital Surveillance and the War on Terror 417

1. Civil Liberties in the Constitution 418

1. Explicit Protections in the Constitution 418

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2. Incorporation of the Bill of Rights 420

2. First Amendment Freedoms 421

1. Freedom of Speech 423

2. Freedom of the Press 426

3. Religious Freedom 428

3. Rights of the Accused 432

1. Unreasonable Searches and Seizures 433

2. Right to Counsel and Protections Against Self- Incrimination 434

3. Capital Punishment 436

4. Terrorism and the Rights of the Accused 439

4. Right to Privacy 441

1. Private Decisions 442

2. Private Communications 443

5. Using the Democracy Standard: Civil Liberties: So, Has the State of American Freedom Improved? 444

2. 16 Civil Rights: The Struggle for Political Equality 447

1. The Struggle for Democracy: Civil Rights, African Americans, and the Police 448

1. The Status of Civil Rights Before 1900 449

1. An Initial Absence of Civil Rights in the Constitution 449

2. Civil Rights After Ratification of the Civil War Amendments 450

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2. The Contemporary Status of Civil Rights for Racial and Ethnic Minorities 453

1. The End of Government-Sponsored Segregation and Discrimination 453

2. The Beginning of Government-Sponsored Remedies to Right Past Wrongs 455

3. The Contemporary Status of Civil Rights for Women 462

1. Intermediate Scrutiny 463

2. Abortion Rights 464

3. Sexual Harassment and Hostile Environments 465

4. American Women by Comparison 466

4. Broadening the Civil Rights Umbrella 467

1. The Elderly and People with Disabilities 467

2. Gays and Lesbians 468

5. Using the Democracy Standard: Civil Rights: Is Equal Citizenship a Reality in the United States? 472

3. 17 Domestic Policies 475

1. The Struggle for Democracy: The 2008 Economic Crisis and the Federal Government’s Response 476

1. Why Does the Federal Government Do So Much? 478

1. Managing the Economy 478

2. Providing a Safety Net 478

2. Economic Policy 479

1. The Goals of Economic Policy 479

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2. The Tools of Economic Policy 482

3. The Federal Budget 485

1. The Budgeting Process 485

2. Federal Spending 486

3. Federal Revenues 488

4. Budget Deficits and the National Debt 489

4. Regulation 492

1. The Role of Regulation 492

2. The Recent History of Regulation 492

5. Federal Safety Net Programs 494

1. Types of Federal Safety Net Programs 494

2. Social Insurance Programs 495

3. Means-Tested Anti-Poverty Programs 498

4. Poverty in the United States 501

6. Health Care Policy 503

1. Key Components of the ACA 503

2. Challenges to the ACA 504

7. The American Safety Net in Context 505

1. Factors That Have Shaped the American Safety Net 506

8. Using The Democracy Standard: Domestic Policies: Do Americans Get the Economic Policies and Safety Net Programs They Want from Government? 508

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4. 18 Foreign and National Defense Policies 512

1. The Struggle for Democracy: The Syrian Nightmare 513

1. Foreign and National Security Policies and Democracy 514

2. Dimensions of America’s Superpower Status 516

1. American Superpower: Structural Foundations 516

3. American Superpower: Strategic Alternatives 524

1. What Goals for American Power? 524

2. How to Use American Power? Competing Viewpoints 525

4. Problems of the Post–Cold War World 526

1. Security Issues 526

2. Economic and Social Issues 534

5. Who Makes Foreign and National Defense Policies? 536

1. The President and the Executive Branch 537

2. Congress 540

6. Using The Democracy Standard: Foreign and National Defense Policies: What Role Do the People Play in Foreign and Defense Policy Making? 542

1. Appendix 545

2. Glossary 574

3. Endnotes 585

4. Photo Credits 619

5. Index 621

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To the Student Why study American government and politics, and why read this textbook to do it? Here’s why: Only by understanding how our complex political system operates and how government works can you play a role in deciding what government does. Only by understanding the obstacles that stand in your way as you enter the political fray, as well as the abundant opportunities you have to advance your ideas and values in the political process, can you play an effective role.

You can learn this best, we believe, by studying what political scientists have discovered about American politics and government. Political science is the systematic study of the role that people and groups play in determining what government does; how government goes about implementing its policy decisions; and what social, economic, and political consequences flow from government actions. The best political science research is testable, evidence-based, and peer-reviewed—as free as possible from ideological and partisan bias as it can be.

The Struggle for Democracy not only introduces you to that research but also gives you tools to decode the American political system, analyze its pieces, consider its linkages, and identify opportunities to make a difference. A simple but powerful framework will guide you in discovering how government, politics, and the larger society are intertwined and how government policies are a product of the interactions of actors and institutions across these domains.

Our hope and expectation is that The Struggle for Democracy will enable your success in your introduction to American government and politics course. But we are interested in more than your classroom experiences. We believe that knowing how politics and government work and how closely they conform to our democratic values will also enable a lifetime of productive choices. Put all naïveté aside, however. Making a mark on public policies is never easy. Like-minded individuals need to do more than vote. Those who gain the most from government policies have, after all, substantial resources to make certain that government treats them well.

But you have resources to make changes, too. Beyond voting,

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opportunities for affecting change may come from your involvement in political campaigns, from using social media to persuade others of your views or to organize meetings and demonstrations, from participating in social movements, from contributing to groups and politicians who share your views, and from many more such avenues. So, much like waging war, making your voice heard requires that you know the “lay of the land,” including the weapons you have at your disposal (we would call them political tools) and the weapons of those arrayed against you. But, much like peacemaking, you need to know how and when compromises can be reached that serve the interests of all parties.

Lest all of the above seems too daunting, we also have tried to make this book enjoyable, accessible, and fun. If your experience in reading The Struggle for Democracy comes close to the pleasure we had in writing it, we have come as near as possible to achieving our goal.

Meet Your Author EDWARD S. GREENBERG is Professor Emeritus of Political Science and a Research Professor of Behavioral Science at the University of Colorado, Boulder. Ed’s research and teaching interests include American government and politics, domestic and global political economy, and democratic theory and practice, with a special emphasis on workplace issues. His multi-year longitudinal panel study, funded by the NIH, examining the impact of technological change and the globalization of production on Boeing managers and employees, is reported in his book Turbulence: Boeing and the State of American Workers and Managers (Yale University Press, 2010, co-authored with Leon Grunberg, Sarah Moore, and Pat Sikora). He is currently doing research on the global competition between Boeing and Airbus and its impact on people who work in these firms.

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To the Instructor Ben Page and I decided to write this book because, as instructors in introductory American government courses, we could not find a book that provided students with usable tools for critically analyzing our political system and making judgments about how well our government works. The Struggle for Democracy does not simply present facts about government and politics—it also provides several analytical and normative frameworks for putting the flood of facts we ask our students to absorb into a more comprehensible form. By doing so, I believe we have made it easier and more satisfying for instructors to teach the introductory course.

Our goal all along was to create a textbook that treats students as adults, engages their intellectual and emotional attention, and encourages them to be active learners. Every element in this text is designed to promote the kind of critical thinking skills scholars and instructors believe students need to become the engaged, active, and informed citizens that are so vital to any democracy. Over the next several sections, I show the elements we created to meet these objectives.

Features

Approach The Struggle for Democracy provides several analytical and normative frameworks for putting the flood of facts teachers ask their students to absorb into a more comprehensible form. Although all topics that are common and expected in the introductory American government and politics course are covered in this textbook, the two main focal points—an analytical framework for understanding how politics and government work and the normative question “How democratic are we?” (addressed in concluding remarks at the end of each chapter under the “Using the Democracy Standard” headline)—allow for a fresh look at traditional topics.

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This book pays great attention to structural factors—which include the American economy, social and demographic change in the United States, technological innovations and change, the American political culture, and changes in the global system—and examines how they affect politics, government, and public policy. These factors are introduced in Chapter 4 —a chapter unique among introductory texts—and they are brought to bear on a wide range of issues in subsequent chapters.

The Struggle for Democracy attends very carefully to issues of democratic political theory. This follows from a critical thinking objective, which asks students to assess the progress of, and prospects for, democracy in the United States and from a desire to present American history as the history of the struggle for democracy. For instance, Struggle examines how the evolution of the party system has improved democracy in some respects in the United States, but hurt it in others.

Struggle also includes more historical perspective because it provides the necessary context for thinking comprehensively and critically about contemporary political debates. It shows, for example, how the expansion of civil rights in the United States is tied to important historical events and trends.

Comparisons of developments, practices, and institutions in the United States with those in other nations add another dimension to our understanding. We can better comprehend how our system of social welfare works, for example, when we see how other rich democratic countries deal with the problems of poverty, unemployment, and old age.

Coverage In an effort to build a ground-up understanding of American politics and the policy outcomes it does (and does not) produce, the chapters in Struggle mirror the structure of our analytical pyramid framework. Part 1 includes an introduction to the textbook, its themes, and the critical thinking tools used throughout the book. Part 2 covers the structural foundations of American government and politics, addressing subjects such as the U.S. economy and political culture and its place in the international system; the constitutional framework of the American political system; and the development of federalism. Part 3 focuses on

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political linkage institutions such as parties, elections, public opinion, social movements, and interest groups that convey the wants, needs, and demands of individuals and groups to public officials. Part 4 concentrates on the central institutions of the national government, including the presidency, Congress, and the Supreme Court. Part 5 describes the kinds of policies the national government produces and analyzes how effective government is at solving pressing social and economic problems. The analytical framework used in this book also means that the subjects of civil liberties and civil rights are not treated in conjunction with the Constitution in Part 2, which is the case with many introductory texts, but in Part 5, on public policy. This is because we believe that the real-world status of civil liberties and civil rights, while partly determined by specific provisions of the Constitution, is better understood as the outcome of the interaction of structural, political, and governmental factors. For example, the status of civil rights for gays, lesbians, and transgendered people depends not only on constitutional provisions but also on the state of public opinion, degrees of support from elected political leaders, and the decisions of the Supreme Court.

Pedagogy The Struggle for Democracy offers unique features that help students better understand, interpret, and critically evaluate American politics and government.

Chapter-opening stories provide useful frames of reference for defining why the principal topic of each chapter matters to the citizens of our American democracy.

A unique visual tool that maps out the many influences in the American political process and how they shape political decisions and policies, the Applying the Framework model makes clear that government, politics, and society are deeply intertwined in recognizable patterns. The framework simplifies complex associations, builds on the “deep structures” that underlay American politics and government—the economy, society, political culture, and the constitutional rules—and encourages holistic comprehension of American politics.

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More than one hundred figures and tables strengthen the narrative and help students extract meaning and insights from data that drive political decision making and government action.

Timelines appear throughout this book to help students develop a sense of historical context and to clarify the chronology of a particular period. Timeline topics include federalism milestones and a history of the civil rights movement.

Every chapter includes a marginal glossary of key terms to support students’ understanding of new and important concepts at first encounter. For easy reference, key terms from the marginal glossary are repeated at the end of each chapter and in the end-of-book glossary.

Every chapter includes a Using the Democracy Standard section to help students consolidate their thinking about the American political system as a whole by using a normative democracy “yardstick” that asks students to assess the degree to which the United States has become more or less democratic.

Review the Chapter sections organized around chapter learning objectives is included at the end of each chapter to help students better understand and retain information and to think critically about the material.

New to This Edition Key updates to The Struggle for Democracy include:

Substantial coverage of the contentious 2016 presidential nomination contests in both parties and the consequential 2016 national elections, with special attention to the partisan aspects of the election in Chapter 9, the voting and campaign aspects in Chapter 10, the consequences for Congress in Chapter 11, and the impact on the presidency in Chapter 12.

Coverage throughout, but especially in Chapters 3, 10, 14, 15, 16, and 17, on important rulings by the Supreme Court on same-sex marriage,

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voting rights, immigration, affirmative action, election financing, the scope of the commerce clause, and the Affordable Care Act.

Consideration, especially in Chapter 12, “The Presidency,” and Chapter 18, “Foreign Policy and National Defense,” on the new challenges posed by the rise of ISIS in Syria and Iraq; nuclear weapons programs in North Korea, Pakistan, and especially Iran; China’s emergence as a competing world power; and Russia’s attempt to reassert its power in Ukraine, in other countries formerly a part of the Soviet Union, and in Syria and the greater Middle East.

Increased attention to the growing partisan bitterness in Washington and across much of the nation that affects how government addresses or fails to address virtually every major problem facing the nation whether it be energy, illegal immigration, climate change, or the shrinking middle class (Chapters 5, 9, 10, 11, and 17).

Questions of whether and to what degree income and wealth inequality has increased, and if it has, with what political and public policy consequences were thoroughly considered during this revision. We also look closely at globalization and technological change and their impact on Americans, with extensive research and analysis of particular note evident in Chapters 4 and 18.

The ways in which social, economic and technological trends shape government action are also considered, including legislation to regulate the financial industry, executive orders that increase the number of Americans who are eligible to be paid time-and-a-half for overtime work and increasing gas mileage requirements for cars and trucks, and prosecution of government employees who leak confidential government information to social media sites (Chapters 4, 6, 15, 17, and 18).

Photos in this edition were selected not only to capture major events from the last few years but to illustrate the relevancy of politics in our daily lives. They show political actors and processes as well as people affected by politics, creating a visual narrative that enhances rather than repeats the text. Each includes critical thinking questions that allow readers to engage with the material more intensely.

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The data in all of the figures and tables have been updated throughout with the intention of helping users think critically not only about political decisions in retrospect but also about pending government action.

Revel™

Educational Technology Designed for the Way Today’s Students Read, Think, and Learn When students are engaged deeply, they learn more effectively and perform better in their courses. This simple fact inspired the creation of Revel: an immersive learning experience designed for the way today’s students read, think, and learn. Built in collaboration with educators and students nationwide, Revel is the newest, fully digital way to deliver respected Pearson content.

Revel enlivens course content with media interactives and assessments—- integrated directly within the authors’ narrative—that provide opportunities for students to read about and practice course material in tandem. This immersive educational technology boosts student engagement, which leads to better understanding of concepts and improved performance throughout the course.

Some of the particularly exciting highlights of this Revel edition include the following:

Chapter-opening Current Events Bulletins feature author-written articles that put breaking news and current events into the context of American government. Examples include the 2016 elections in context, the strained relationship between the U.S. and Russia, and how Democratic turnout in the 2016 election helps to explain Trump’s victory.

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Captivating videos bring to life chapter content and key moments in American government. ABC news footage provides examples from both current and historical events. Examples of footage include FDR

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visiting the newly completed Boulder Dam (Hoover Dam), an NRA lobbyist’s proposition to put guns in schools one week after the Sandy Hook tragedy, and President Obama’s struggle to make a case for air strikes in Syria. In addition, each chapter concludes with an author- narrated video subtitled “Why It Matters,” helping students to put chapter content in a real-world context. For example, Chapter 16, “Civil Rights: The Struggle for Political Equality,” concludes with a discussion of the real-life implications of affirmative action in college admission and on campus—a topic immediately relevant to today’s undergraduate students.

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Interactive maps, figures, and tables featuring innovative Social Explorer technology allow for inputting the latest data, toggling to illustrate movement over time, and clicking on hot spots with pop-ups of images and captions. Examples include Figure 12.2: Trends in Presidential Job Approval, 1946–2016 (line graph); Figure 9.2: Presidential Elections, 1960 and 2012 (map); and Figure 11.2: Women and Minorities in the U.S. Congress (bar chart).

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Interactive simulations in every chapter (beginning with Chapter 2)

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allow students to explore critical issues and challenges that the country’s Founders faced and that elected officials, bureaucrats, and political activists still face today. Students apply key chapter concepts in realistic situations. For example, in Chapter 3, students have the opportunity to imagine themselves as federal judges; in Chapter 8, they lead a social movement; and in Chapter 15, they are police officers.

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Interactive Conclusion and Review summaries using video, learning objectives, image galleries, and flashcards featuring key terms and definitions allow students to review chapter content.

Assessments tied to primary chapter sections, as well as full chapter

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exams, allow instructors and students to track progress and get immediate feedback.

Integrated Writing Opportunities To help students reason and write more clearly, each chapter offers two varieties of writing prompts:

Journal prompts in nearly every section across the narrative ask students to consider critical issues that are first presented in a relevant photograph and associated photo caption. These questions are designed to reinforce one of the material’s primary goals: to equip students to engage critically with American government and thereby ensure a healthy, thriving democracy.

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Shared writing prompts, following each chapter’s Conclusion and Review section, encourage students to consider how to address the challenges described in the chapter in an essay format. For example, in Chapter 3, students must argue for or against the proposition that the federal government should not provide funds to support large infrastructure projects, such as the construction and expansion of interstate highways. Through these shared writing prompts, instructors and students can address multiple sides of an issue by sharing their own views and responding to each other’s viewpoints.

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Learn more about Revel Visit at http://www.pearsonhighered.com/revel/.

Supplements Make more time for your students with instructor resources that offer effective learning assessments and classroom engagement. Pearson’s partnership with educators does not end with the delivery of course materials; Pearson is there with you on the first day of class and beyond. A dedicated team of local Pearson representatives will work with you to not only choose course materials but also integrate them into your class and assess their effectiveness. Our goal is your goal—to improve instruction with each semester.

Pearson is pleased to offer the following resources to qualified adopters of

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http://www.pearsonhighered.com/revel/
The Struggle for Democracy. Several of these supplements are available to instantly download on the Instructor Resource Center (IRC); please visit the IRC www.pearsonhighered.com/irc to register for access.

Test Bank Evaluate learning at every level. Reviewed for clarity and accuracy, the Test Bank measures this book’s learning objectives with multiple choice, true/false, fill-in-the-blank, short answer, and essay questions. You can easily customize the assessment to work in any major learning management system and to match what is covered in your course. Word, BlackBoard, and WebCT versions available on the IRC and Respondus versions available upon request from www.respondus.com.

Pearson MyTest This powerful assessment generation program includes all of the questions in the Test Bank. Quizzes and exams can be easily authored and saved online and then printed for classroom use, giving you ultimate flexibility to manage assessments anytime and anywhere. To learn more, visit, www.pearsonhighered.com/mytest.

Instructor’s Manual Create a comprehensive roadmap for teaching classroom, online, or hybrid courses. Designed for new and experienced instructors, the Instructor’s Manual includes a sample syllabus, lecture and discussion suggestions, activities for in or out of class, and essays on teaching American Government. Available on the IRC.

PowerPoint Presentation with Classroom Response System (CRS)

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http://www.pearsonhighered.com/irc
http://www.respondus.com
http://www.pearsonhighered.com/mytest
Make lectures more enriching for students. The PowerPoint Presentation includes a full lecture script, discussion questions, photos and figures from the book, and links to MyPoliSciLab multimedia. With integrated clicker questions, get immediate feedback on what your students are learning during a lecture. Available on the IRC.

Acknowledgments Heartfelt thanks and gratitude go to Ben Page, friend and long-time collaborator, who co-authored many editions of this book, though not this one. For over a year after I first broached the idea about our doing a textbook together, we hashed out whether it was possible to write a textbook that would be consistent with our standards as teachers and scholars, offer a perspective on American government and politics that was unique in the discipline, and do well in the marketplace. Once we concluded that it was possible to produce a textbook that hit these benchmarks and that we passionately wanted to make happen, we spent more than two years writing what became the First Edition of The Struggle for Democracy. When Ben and I started this process, we were only acquaintances. Over the years, in the process of collaborating on the publication of several editions of this textbook, we became and remain very good friends. Though Ben has not been an active co-author on this edition of Struggle, his brilliant insights, analytical approach, and elegant writing are visible on virtually every page, and it is why his name sits next to mine on the cover and the title page. Ben Page, of course, is one of the most brilliant, cited, visible, and admired political scientists in the world, and hardly needs additional praise from me. But, I will say that I feel extraordinarily lucky to have worked with him for a good part of my academic career.

This edition of Struggle has been refreshed by and has benefited from the work of three extremely talented and energetic young political scientists, all former teaching assistants of mine in the large introductory course on American government and politics at the University of Colorado, Boulder, and all now launched on their own academic careers as teachers and scholars. David Doherty of Loyola University Chicago, Josh Ryan of Utah State University, and Scott Minkoff of SUNY New Paltz, took on a substantial portion of the burden of producing this new edition of Struggle, each taking responsibility for updating three chapters and each responsible

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for creating or modernizing chapter features that make this book such an exciting tool for student learning. I am grateful to each of them and hope and trust we will work together on future editions.

I also want to thank the many students, teaching assistants, and faculty at the University of Colorado and other universities, colleges, and two-year institutions who have used this book over the years as a learning and teaching tool and who have let me know what worked and what didn’t work in previous editions. I appreciate their insight and candor.

My thanks also go to my editor at Pearson Higher Education, Jeff Marshall, who has been a champion of this book and my principal guide into the brave new world of textbooks in the digital age. To Jeff and to all of his very smart and very capable colleagues at Pearson, I express my very special appreciation. Judy O’Neill, our developmental editor on the previous edition of this book and for part of the time on this edition, heroically kept David, Josh, Scott, and me on track, offered compelling suggestions for content updates, helped with everything from photo selection to the design of line art, and acted as liaison with the many people involved in the complex process of getting this book out the door and into the hands of teachers and students. I also want to thank Karen Moore who took over as development editor part way through the project and performed magnificently. My thanks also go to Kristin Jobe and her team at Integra; Debbie Coniglio, Allison Collins, Jennifer Jacobson, and Beth Jacobson at Ohlinger Publishing Services; the magnificent team at Social Explorer; and Tara Cook at Metrodigi. The shrewd and judicious contributions of these individuals to the production of Struggle are apparent on every printed page and on every digital screen.

We also wish to thank the many professors who gave their time to provide invaluable input during the following conferences and Pearson events:

APSA 2015: Brian Califano, Missouri State University; David A. Caputo, Pace University; Lori Cox Han, Chapman University; Joshua Dyck, University of Massachusetts, Lowell; Maurice Eisenstein, Purdue University Calumet; Bryan Gervais, UTSA; Ben Gonzalez, Highline College; Mel Hailey, Abilene Christian University; Kerstin Hamann, University of Central Florida; Meredith Heiser, Foothill College; Erika Herrera, Lone Star College; Judith Hurtado-Ortiz, Peralta; Gabe Jolivet, Ashford University; Ryan Krog, George Washington University; Jessica Lavariega Monforti, Pace University; Liz Lebron, LSU; Andrew Levin,

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Harper College; Stephen Meinhold, UNC-W; Keesha Middlemass, Trinity University; Samantha Mosier, Missouri State University; Jason Myers, CSU Stanislaus; Todd Myers, Grossmont Community College; Sharon Navarro, Univeristy of Texas at San Antonio; John Payne, Ivy Tech Community College; Anne C. Pluta, Rowan; Dan Ponder, Drury University; David Ramsey, UWF; Jason Robles, Colorado State University; John David Rausch, Jr., West Texas A&M University; Jon Ross, Aurora College; Erich Saphir, Pima College; Justin Vaughn, Boise State University; Peter Wielhouwer, Western Michigan University; Patrick Wohlfarth, University of Maryland, College Park; Chris Wolfe, Dallas County Community College; Youngtae Shin, University of Central Oklahoma

APSA 2016: Cathy Andrews, Austin Community College; Sara Angevine, Whittier College; Benjamin Arah, Bowie State University; Yan Bai, Grand Rapids Community College; Michael Bailey, Georgetown University; Karen L. Baird, Purchase College, SUNY; Richard Bilsker, College of Southern Maryland; Russell Brooker, Alverno College; Christopher M. Brown, Georgia Southern University; Jonathan Buckstead, Austin Community College; Camille Burge, Villanova University; Isaac M. Castellano, Boise State University; Stefanie Chambers, Trinity College; Anne Marie Choup, University of Alabama, Huntsville; Nick Clark, Susquehanna University; Mary Anne Clarke, RI College; Carlos Cunha, Dowling College; John Diehl, Bucks County Community College; Joseph DiSarro, Washington and Jefferson University; Margaret Dwyer, Milwaukee School of Engineering; Laurel Elder, Hardwick College; Melinda Frederick, Prince George’s Community College; Amanda Friesen, IUPUI; Jason Giersch, UNC, Charlotte; Mauro Gilli, ETH; Margaret Gray, Adelphi University; Mark Grzegorzewski, Joint Special Operations University; John Hanley, Duquesne University; Jacqueline Holland, Lorain County Community College; Jack Hunt, University of Southern Maine; Clinton Jenkins, George Washington University; Nadia Jilani-Hyler, Augusta University; Christopher N. Lawrence, Middle Georgia State University; Daniel Lewis, Siena College; Joel Lieske, Cleveland State; Nancy Lind, Illinois State University; Matt Lindstrom, College of St. Benedict / St. John’s University; Eric D. Loepp, UW- Whitewater; Kevin Lorentz, Wayne State University; Gregory Love, University of Mississippi; Abbie Luoma, Saint Leo University; Linda K. Mancillas, Georgia Gwinnett College; Buba Misawa, Washington and Jefferson College; Martha Musgrove, Tarrant County College – South

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Campus; Steven Nawara, Lewis University; Tatishe Nteta, University of Massachusetts, Amherst; Dr. Mjahid Nyahuma, Community College of Philadelphia; Matthew Platt, Morehouse College; Marcus Pohlmann, Rhodes College; Adriane M. Raff Corwin, Bergen & Brookdale Community Colleges; Lauren Ratliff, The Ohio State University; Dr. Keith Reeves, Swarthmore College; Ted Ritter, Virginia Union University; Joseph W. Roberts, Roger Williams University; Amanda Rosen, Webster University; Scot Schraufnagel, Northern Illinois University; John Seymour, El Paso Community College; Ginger Silvera, Cal State, Dominguez Hills; Kyla Stepp, Central Michigan University; Ryane Straus, College of Saint Rose; Maryam Stevenson, Troy University; Tressa Tabares, American River College; Bernard Tamas, Valdosta State University; Lee Trepanier, Saginaw Valley State University; Kevin Wallsten, California State University, Long Beach; Richard Waterman, University of Kentucky; Joe Weinberg, University of Southern Mississippi; Jonathan Whatron, Southern Connecticut State University; Elizabeth G. Williams, PhD, Santa Fe College

2016 WebEx meetings for Revel: Maria Albo, University of North Georgia; Hendel Cerphy, Palm Beach State College; Karl Clark, Coastal Bend College; Amy Colon, SUNY Sullivan; Lishan Desta, Collin College; Agber Dimah, Chicago State University; Dr. Barbara Warner, Arkansas State University; Kathleen Ferraiolo, James Madison University; Terri Susan Fine, University of Central Florida; Maria Gonzalez, Miami Dade College; Joe Gaziano, Lewis University; Dion George, Atlanta Metropolitan State College; Colin Glennon, East Tennessee State University; Mike Green, Southern New Hampshire University; Jan Hardt, University of Central Oklahoma; Kathryn Hendricks, MCC – Longview; Julie Hershenberg, Collin College; Jeneen Hobby, Cleveland State University; Andy Howard, Rio Hondo College; Nikki Isemann, Southeast Community College; Nicole Kalaf-Hughes, Bowling Green State University; Frederick M. Kalisz, Bridgewater State University; Lance Kelley, NWTC; Eric Loepp, University of Wisconsin, Whitewater; Benjamin Melusky, Franklin and Marshall College; David Monda, Mt. San Jacinto College; Laura Pellegrini, LBCC; Dave Price,Santa Fe College; Jennifer Sacco, Quinnipiac University; Larry W. Smith, Amarillo College; J. Joel Tovanche, Tarrant County College

Spring 2016 WebEx Meetings: Cathy Andrews, Austin Community College; Yan Bai, Grand Rapids Community College; Richard Bilsker,

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College of Southern Maryland; Jonathan Buckstead, Austin Community College; Adriane M. Raff Corwin, Bergen & Brookdale Community Colleges; Carlos Cunha, Dowling College; Margaret Dwyer, Milwaukee School of Engineering; Jacqueline Holland, Lorain County Community College; Nadia Jilani-Hyler, Augusta University; Nancy Lind, Illinois State University; Eric D. Loepp, UW-Whitewater; Abbie Luoma, Saint Leo University; Martha Musgrove, Tarrant County College – South College; Steven Nawara, Lewis University; Maryam Stevenson, Troy University; Lee Trepanier, Saginaw Valley State University; Elizabeth G. Williams, PhD., Santa Fe College

2016 Texas WebEx Meetings: Ralph Angeles, Lone Star College; Delina Barrera, University of Texas Pan American; Jennifer Boggs, Angelo State University; Bryan Calvin, Tarrant County College Northwest; William Carroll, Sam Houston State University; Anita Chadha, University of Houston-Downtown; Jennifer Danley-Scott, Texas Woman’s University; Bianca Easterly, Lamar University; Reynaldo Flores, Richland College; Katie Fogle Deering, North Central Texas University; Sylvia Gonzalez- Gorman, Texas Tech; Peyton Gooch, Stephen F. Austin; Donald Gooch, Stephen F. Austin; Cheri Hobbs, Blinn College; Cynthia Hunter- Summerlin, Tarrant County College Trinity River; Joe Ialenti, North Central Texas College; Dominique Lewis, Blinn College; Eric Lundin, Lonestar College; Sharon Manna, North Lake College; Holly Mulholland, San Jacinto College Central; Hillel Ofek, University of Texas at Austin; Lisa Palton, San Jacinto Community College; William Parent, San Jacinto College Central; Cecil Pool, El Centro College; Jennifer Ross, Brookhaven College DCCCD; Lane Seever, Austin Community College; Max Seymour, West Texas A&M University; Les Stanaland, North Central Texas College; Dustin Tarver, Blinn College; James Tate, Richland College; Blake Tritico, Sam Houston State University; Karen Webb, Texas Woman’s University

May 2016 Hoboken / Boston Focus Groups: Flannery Amdahl, Hunter College; Thomas Arndt, Rowan University; Ben Christ, Harrisburg Area Community College; Mary Anne Clarke, RI College; Ken Cosgrove, Suffolk University; Melissa Gaeke, Marist College; Todd M. Galante, Rutgers University-Newark; Jack Hunt, University of Southern Maine; Ed Johnson, Brookdale Community College; Frederick M. Kalisz, Jr., Bridgewater State University; M. Victoria Perez-Rios, John Jay College of Criminal Justice, CUNY; Francois Pierre-Louis, Queens College, CUNY;

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John Seymour, El Paso Community College; Ursula C. Tafe, University of Massachusetts Boston; Anh Tran, Baruch College; John Trujillo, Borough of Manhattan Community College; Aaron Zack, John Jay College

We are also grateful to the Test Bank Advisory Board members who provided feedback used to improve our assessment questions:

Vilma Balmaceda, Nyack College; Mark A. Cichock, University of Texas at Arlington; Maria de la Luz Valverde, Austin Community College; Matt Guardino, Providence College; Lisa Longo Johnston, Centenary College; Hyung Lae Park, El Paso Community College; Gregory Young, Finger Lakes Community College.

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Part I Introduction: Main Themes

Chapter 1 Democracy and American Politics

At Long Last, the Right to Vote The 1965 Voting Rights Act allowed African Americans in the Deep South to vote for the first time without fear. In this photo from the period, African Americans wait to enter the Haywood

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County Courthouse to register to vote, unimpeded by the brutalities and humiliations of Jim Crow. Passage of the act, an example of the struggle for democracy at work in American politics, put an end to a long history of refusing to protect the voting rights of minorities.

Do measures such as voter ID requirements for voting, recently implemented in a number of states, and which mostly affect the youngest and oldest voters, rural people, and racial and ethnic minorities, suggest that the struggle for democracy must continue? Or does it mean that our democracy has matured and we no longer need worry about access to the voting booth?

Description

Chapter Outline and Learning Objectives

1. What is Democracy?

1. 1.1 Explain democracy as the standard by which American government and politics can be evaluated.

2. How do Government and Politics Work?

1. 1.2 Construct an analytical framework for examining how government and politics work.

The Struggle for Democracy Robert Moses and the Struggle of African Americans for Voting Rights

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Although the right to vote is fundamental to democracy, African Americans in the South were not able to vote in any numbers until after 1965, despite passage of the Fifteenth Amendment in 1870, which prohibited discrimination in voting on the basis of race, color, or previous condition of servitude.

In Mississippi in the early 1960s, only 5 percent of African Americans were registered to vote, and none held elective office. In Walthall County, not a single African American was registered, although roughly three thousand were eligible.1 A combination of exclusionary voting registration rules, economic pressures, hard and stubborn racial discrimination, and violence kept them from the polls.

When the Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) launched its Voter Education Project in 1961 with the aim of ending black political powerlessness in the Deep South, its first step was to create “freedom schools” in the segregated counties of Mississippi, Alabama, and Georgia. The first freedom school was founded in McComb, Mississippi, by a remarkable young man named Robert Parris Moses. Shrugging off repeated threats to his life, vicious assaults, arrests, fines, and public recriminations, Moses taught African American citizens about their rights under the law and sent them in droves to county registrars’ offices.

Despite the voter registration efforts of Moses and other SNCC volunteers, African Americans in the Deep South would have to wait four more years —for the passage of the 1965 Voting Rights Act—to exercise their constitutional right to elect representatives to govern in their names.2 The Voter Education Project, a key building block of a powerful and growing civil rights movement, along with many moral and political acts of defiance, did eventually force federal action to support the citizenship rights of African Americans in the South. Robert Moses and many other African Americans were willing to risk all they had, including their lives, to gain full and equal citizenship in the United States. They would, most assuredly, have been gratified by the election of Barack Obama in 2008 as the nation’s forty-fourth president.

The struggle for democracy is happening in many countries today, where people fight against all odds for the right to govern themselves and to control their own destinies.3 In the United States, democracy, although honored and celebrated, remains an unfinished project. The continuing struggle to expand and perfect democracy is a major feature of American

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history and a defining characteristic of our politics today. It is also a central theme of this book.

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What is Democracy? 1. 1.1 Explain democracy as the standard by which American

government and politics can be evaluated.

Why should there not be a patient confidence in the ultimate justice of the people? Is there any better, or equal, hope in the world?

—Abraham Lincoln, First Inaugural Address

Anarchist

One who believes that people are natural cooperators capable of creating free and decent societies without the need for government.

Anarchists believe that people can live in harmony without any form of authority; however, most people believe that when living together in groups and communities, there is a need for an entity of some sort to provide law and order; to protect against external aggressors; and to provide essential public goods such as roads, waste disposal, education, and clean water. It is safe to say that most people do not want to live in places where there is effectively no government at all, as in Somalia, or where there is a failed state, as in Haiti and Syria. If government is both necessary and inevitable, certain questions are unavoidable: Who is to govern? How are those who govern encouraged to serve the best interests of society? How can governments be induced to make policies and laws that citizens consider legitimate and worth obeying? How can citizens ensure that those who govern both carry out laws and policies the people want and do so effectively? In short, what is the best form of government? For most Americans, the answer is clear: democracy.

Democracy’s central idea is that ordinary people want to rule themselves and are capable of doing so.4 This idea has proved enormously popular, not only with Americans, but with people all over the world.5 To be sure, some people would give top priority to other things besides self- government as a requirement for good society, including such things as safety and security or the need to have religious law and values determine what government does. Nevertheless, the appealing notion that ordinary

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people can and should rule themselves has spread to all corners of the globe, and the number of people living in democratic societies has increased significantly over the past two decades,6 even given recent setbacks in Turkey, Egypt, and Russia, where autocratic governments have reemerged.7

It is no wonder that a form of government based on the notion that people are capable of ruling themselves enjoys widespread popularity, especially compared with government by the few (by the Communist Party in China and in Cuba) or by a single person (by dictator Kim Jong-un in North Korea). Some political thinkers argue that democracy is the form of government that best protects human rights because it is the only one based on a recognition of the intrinsic worth and equality of human beings. Others believe that democracy is the form of government most likely to produce rational policies because it can count on the pooled knowledge and expertise of a society’s entire population: a political version, if you will, of the wisdom of crowds, something like the wiki phenomenon.8 Still others claim that democracies are more stable and long-lasting because their leaders, elected by and answerable to voters, enjoy a strong sense of legitimacy among citizens. Many others suggest that democracy is the form of government most conducive to economic growth and material well-being, a claim with substantial scholarly support.9 (In the years ahead, the relative economic growth of India, a democracy, and China, a one-party-state, will be a real-world test of this proposition.) Still others believe that democracy is the form of government under which human beings, because they are free, are best able to develop their natural capacities and talents.10 There are many compelling reasons, then, why so many people have preferred democracy.

Americans have supported the idea of self-government and have helped make the nation more democratic over the course of its history.11 Nevertheless, democracy in America remains an aspiration rather than a finished product. The goal behind this bookis to help you think carefully about the quality and progress of democracy in the United States. We want to help you reach your own judgments about the degree to which politics and government in the United States make the country more or less democratic. You can then draw your own conclusions about which political practices and institutions in the United States encourage and sustain popular self-rule and which ones discourage and undermine it. To help you do this, we must be clear about the meaning of democracy.

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The Origins of Democracy Many of our ideas about democracy originated with the ancient Greeks. The Greek roots of the word democracy are demos, meaning “the people,” and kratein, meaning “to rule.” Greek philosophers and rulers, however, were not uniformly friendly to the idea that the many could and should rule themselves. Most believed that governing required the greatest sophistication, intelligence, character, and training—certainly not the province of ordinary people. Aristotle expressed this view in his classic work Politics, in which he observed that democracy “is a government in the hands of men of low birth, no property, and vulgar employments.”

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Democracy and Economic Growth Some scholars assert that fully functioning democracies are a prerequisite to economic growth, a claim that is supported by fast-growing India—symbolized in the top photo by the - skyscraper boom in Mumbai’s business district—but belied by the Chinese example in the bottom photo. China, whose economic growth is without precedent—note the gleaming high- speed train and visually captivating skyline in Shanghai—is anything but a democracy ruled as it is by the Central Committee

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of the Communist Party.

Can you think of other examples that address the question of the relationship between economic growth in a society and its form of government? Were Britain, France, Germany, and Japan democracies when they were in their most dynamic periods of economic activity? Or, do you believe that the relationship is the other way around, that economic growth makes it more likely that a society will become more democratic as its middle classes insist that they have a greater say in society’s affairs? If so, will China become more democratic in the long run?

Description

Instead, the Greeks preferred rule either by a select few (by an aristocracy, in which a hereditary nobility rules, or by a clerical elite, as in Iran today) or by an enlightened one, somewhat akin to the philosopher-king described by Plato in his Republic or as in England in the time of Elizabeth I. Democracy, then, is “rule by the people” or, to put it as the Greeks did, self-government by the many, as opposed to oligarchy (rule by the few) or monarchy (rule by the one). The idea that ordinary people might rule themselves represents an important departure from most historical beliefs.12 In practice, throughout human history, most governments have been quite undemocratic.

democracy

A system of government in which the people rule; rule by the many as opposed to rule by one, or rule by the few.

oligarchy

Rule by the few, where a minority holds power over a majority, as in an aristocracy or a clerical establishment.

monarchy

Rule by the one, such as where power rests in the hands of a king or queen.

Inherent in the idea of self-rule by ordinary people is an understanding that

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government must serve all its people and that ultimately none but the people themselves can be relied on to know, and hence to act in accordance with, their own values and interests.13 In this sense, democracy is more a set of utopian ideas than a description of real societies. Athens of the fifth century bce is usually cited as the purest form of democracy that ever existed. There, all public policies were decided in periodic assemblies of Athenian citizens, though women, slaves, and immigrants were excluded from participation.14 Nevertheless, the existence of a society where “a substantial number of free, adult males were entitled as citizens to participate freely in governing”15 proved to be a powerful example of what was possible for those who believed that rule by the people was the best form of government. A handful of other cases of popular rule kept the democratic idea alive across the centuries. Beginning in the fifth century bce, for example, India enjoyed long periods marked by spirited and broadly inclusive public debate and discourse on public issues. In the Roman Republic, male citizens elected the consuls, the chief magistrates of the powerful city-state. In the Middle Ages, some European cities were governed directly by the people (at least by men who owned property) rather than by nobles, church, or crown. During the Renaissance, periods of popular control of government (again, limited to male property holders) occurred in the city-states of Venice, Florence, and Milan.

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Rule by the Few Although the elected president of Iran is influential in determining what the Iranian government does, real power in the country is exercised by an unelected clergy and the Revolutionary Guards, the country’s leading security force with considerable influence in the political sphere. The mullahs (or clerics), the ideological custodians of all Iranian institutions and debates, listen to presidential addresses for any slackening in ideological commitment.

Is a system that is responsive, in theory, to the many but run, in reality, by the few likely to retain legitimacy over the long term? How might the people of Iran move their system to one where the majority rules rather than the few?

Description

Direct Versus Representative Democracy To the ancient Greeks, democracy meant direct democracy, rule by the common people exercised directly in open assemblies. They believed that democracy implied face-to-face deliberation and decision making about the public business. Direct democracy requires, however, that all citizens be able to meet together regularly to debate and decide the issues of the day. Such a thing was possible in fifth century bce Athens, which was small enough to allow all male citizens to gather in one place. Men had time to meet and to deliberate because women provided household labor and slaves accounted for most production.

direct democracy

A form of political decision making in which policies are decided by the people themselves, rather than by their representatives, acting either in small face-to-face assemblies or through the electoral

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process as in initiatives and referenda in the American states.

Because direct (participatory) democracy is possible only in small communities where citizens with abundant leisure time can meet on a face- to-face basis, it is an unworkable arrangement for a large and widely dispersed society such as the United States.16 Democracy in large societies must take the representative form, since millions of citizens cannot meet in open assembly. Representative democracy is a system in which the people select others, called representatives, to act on their behalf.

representative democracy

Indirect democracy, in which the people rule through elected representatives; see liberal democracy.

The Benchmarks of Representative Democracy Democracy is rule by the many. What does this mean in a large society where representatives of the people make government policies? How can we know that the many are in charge when they are not themselves making decisions in public assemblies, as the ancient Athenians did? What features must exist in representative systems to ensure that those who govern do so on behalf of and in the interest of the people? This involves more than the existence of elections.17

Three additional benchmarks are necessary to clarify our understanding of representative democracy in large societies: popular sovereignty, political equality, and political liberty, with the latter two being necessary for the first (that is to say, for popular sovereignty to work, political equality and political liberty must exist). A society in which all three flourish, we argue, is a healthy representative democracy. A society in which any of the three is absent or impaired falls short of the representative democratic ideal.