Road to heaven encounters with chinese hermits pdf

World Religions Report

Some information you may need from me to complete this assignment. I live in Reno, NV and I am Christian. I have attached a copy of the ebook because it is a required reference. The username for the book is amstribalsec and the password is 33RedinS. Let me know if you need anything else.

Select a religion that is not your own and interview a person of that faith. If possible, visit a place of worship and interview a person of that institution. As an alternative, the interview may be conducted by telephone, written communication (e.g., email exchange) or, web/video conference.

Write a 1,050- to 1,400-word informative paper on world religions.

Compare your selected religion with the other religions studied in this class.

What characteristics does your chosen religions share with the others? What makes it unique?
How is religion in general, and your chosen religions specifically, responding to challenges of the modern world?

Include a summary of your interview containing the following elements:

Introduction of the religion, including the history
Date, time and method of interview
Name of the person interviewed
Name, location and review of the site if applicable.
Interview summary
References

Cite at least five references in addition to the textbook.

First Encounter

You are in Asia, visiting someone you met two years ago at a college dance performance. Lin

was an exchange student then, eager to learn about other cultures, and she invited you to visit her

when you could. That time is now. You are staying with her family.

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“I’ll show you one of my favorite places,” Lin says, as you climb into a taxi. She gives the

address to the driver, who knows the place well. You pass along a street bustling with

motorcycles, bicycles, vendors’ wagons, and people jaywalking between cars. After fifteen

perilous minutes, you pull up in front of a building with three wide stairs and high pillars

supporting the roof. The stone columns are carved with writhing dragons. A large metal brazier

is in front of the temple, and from it rises a cloud of incense.

Your friend buys long sticks of incense from a nearby booth and gives some to you.

“Do the same thing I do,” she says.

Lin goes to the brazier, lights the incense, lifts the sticks several times, bows, and places the

sticks into the brazier. Then she helps you do the same. The people around you watch with great

interest. When you are finished, you walk with Lin into the temple.

Just inside the door are two tall, furious-looking golden statues.

“They are guardian gods,” Lin says. “They are keeping out bad people.”

The interior is amazing. It looks like a golden opera theater. At the back of the sanctuary are

several stories of windows with lighted statues inside. More altars are situated against each of the

interior walls. In the center of the room are about a dozen large tables, all loaded with offerings:

oranges, bananas, watermelons, water lilies, chrysanthemums, and much more. “The main god of

this temple is Mazu,” Lin explains. “She was the daughter of a fisherman’s family, and she

helped her father and brothers when they were in danger of drowning. Mazu has been worshiped

for a thousand years. She’s popular in China, Taiwan, Vietnam, and other places. The Daoists

claim her, but so do others, too.”

Lin points out the statues of many other gods, explaining who they are. You stop in front of a

circle, which appears to have two large commas inside.

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“That is the symbol of the Dao, with yin and yang mixing together,” Lin says.

As you walk around, you see a woman throwing what look like two crescents onto the floor.

“She is asking questions,” Lin says, “and the wooden pieces that she is throwing tell her ‘yes’ or

‘no’ or ‘maybe.’”

At last you emerge from the temple and sit together on the stairs in the sunlight. An old lady

comes by, guiding her little grandson who is on a red tricycle. A man close to you is selling

“spirit money”—paper with gold and silver printing—and three women next to him are selling

water lilies from pots, for offering in the temple. Across the street are restaurants, an electronics

store, and a motorcycle-repair shop. The street is noisy. Out here it is just another day.

You wonder, who is Mazu? Who are Daoists? What is the Dao? What are yin and yang? And

why do the Chinese have so many gods?

Basic Elements of Traditional Chinese Beliefs

Confucianism, Daoism (Taoism*), and Buddhism have been collectively called the Three

Doctrines, and together they have had a profound influence on Chinese culture and history.

Buddhism, as we saw in Chapter 4, was an import to China, with roots in Indian belief.

Confucianism and Daoism, on the other hand, sprouted and grew up side by side in the soil of

indigenous Chinese belief (see Figure 6.1). We thus begin our study of these two Chinese

religious systems by considering some of the features of traditional Chinese belief and practice.

Figure 6.1 Daoist and Confucian religious sites.

Early Chinese belief was a blend of several elements. Some of them, such as a belief in spirits,

can be traced back more than three thousand years. The following elements provided a basis for

later developments in Chinese religion and were especially important to the development of

Confucianism and Daoism.

 Spirits Early Chinese belief thought of spirits as active in every aspect of nature and the

human world. Good spirits brought health, wealth, long life, and fertility. Bad spirits

caused accidents and disease. Disturbances of nature, such as droughts and earthquakes,

were punishments from spirits for human failings, but harmony could be restored through

rituals and sacrifice.

* Note: As mentioned earlier, the pinyin system of romanizing Chinese words will be

used in this book, with the older Wade-Giles spellings of important names following their

pinyin versions in parentheses. (Pinyin pronunciation is generally similar to English

usage, except that the pronunciation of c is ts, q is ch, and x is sh.) The pinyin spelling of

all Chinese words is used by the United Nations and is becoming standard in the world of

scholarship and art. The older Wade-Giles spelling of Taoism, Tao, and Tao Te Ching are

still common, but they are now being supplanted by Daoism, Dao, and Daodejing (also

spelled Daode jing, Daode Jing, and Dao De Jing).

 Tian During the Shang dynasty (c. 1500–c. 1100 BCE) the omnipotent power that was

believed to rule the world was called Shang Di (Shang Ti) and was thought of as a

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personal god, capable of being contacted by diviners. Perhaps Shang Di was the memory

of an ancestor, and the veneration of Shang Di was part of the ancient practice of

honoring ancestors. In the Zhou (Chou) dynasty (c. 1100–256 BCE), a new political

regime—the Zhou kings—ignored the Shang belief and began explaining life in terms of

a different conception, Tian (T’ien), which is usually translated as “Heaven.” It appears

that Tian was envisioned both as an impersonal divine force that controls events on earth

and as a cosmic moral principle that determines right and wrong.

 Veneration of ancestors The same cautious reverence that was shown to spirits was also

naturally felt for ancestors. Ancestors at death became spirits who needed to be placated

to ensure their positive influence on living family members. Veneration of ancestors

provided the soil for the growth of Confucianism.

 Seeing patterns in nature China’s long and mighty rivers, high mountain chains, distinct

seasons, and frequent floods, droughts, and earthquakes all influenced the Chinese view

of the natural world. To survive, the Chinese people had to learn that while they could not

often control nature, they could learn to work with it when they understood its underlying

patterns. Some of the patterns were quite easy to discern, such as the progression of the

seasons, the paths of the sun and moon, and the cycle of birth and death. Others were

more subtle, like the motion of waves and the ripple of mountain ranges, as well as the

rhythm of the Dao (which we will discuss shortly) and the alternations of yang and yin.

Daoism may be traced back to this concern for finding—and working within—natural

patterns.

 Yang and yin After about 1000 BCE the Chinese commonly thought that the universe

expressed itself in opposite but complementary principles: light and dark, day and night,

hot and cold, sky and earth, summer and winter. The list was virtually infinite: male and

female, right and left, front and back, up and down, out and in, sound and silence, birth

and death. It even came to include “strong foods,” such as meat and ginger, and “weak

foods,” such as fish and rice. The names for the two complementary principles are yang

and yin.

Yang and yin, symbolized by a circle of light and dark, represent the complementary but

opposing forces of the universe that generate all forms of reality.

 These principles are not the same as good and evil. Yang is not expected to win over the

force of yin, or vice versa; rather, the ideal is a dynamic balance between the forces. In

fact, the emblem of balance is the yin-yang circle, divided into what look like two

intertwined commas. One half is light, representing yang; the other is dark, representing

yin. Inside each division is a small dot of the contrasting color that represents the seed of

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the opposite. The dot suggests that everything contains its opposite and will eventually

become its opposite. Both forces are dynamic and in perfect balance as they change, just

as day and night are in balance as they progress. We can think of yang and yin as

pulsations or waves of energy, like a heartbeat or like breathing in and out.

At the Temple of Heaven, in Beijing, the emperor performed ceremonies to honor Tian

(“Heaven”).

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© Bilderbuch/Design Pics/Corbis

 Divination Divination is a system that is used for looking into the future. It was an

integral part of early Chinese tradition. The oldest technique involved the reading of lines

in bones and tortoise shells. Later, an elaborate practice was developed that involves the

Yijing (I Ching), the Book of Changes. It is an ancient book that interprets life through

an analysis of hexagrams. A hexagram is a figure of six horizontal lines. There are two

kinds of lines: divided (yin) and undivided (yang). A hexagram is made of two

trigrams—figures of three lines each.) A hexagram is “constructed” by tossing sticks or

coins and writing down the results, beginning with the bottom line. Thus sixty-four

different hexagrams are possible. The hexagrams are thought to represent patterns that

can develop in one’s life, and the Yijing gives an interpretation of each hexagram. With

the help of the Yijing, a person can interpret a hexagram as an aid in making decisions

about the future.

This hexagram for “contemplation” is made from two trigrams. The lower trigram means

“earth,” and the upper trigram means “wind.”

We now turn to two great systems of Chinese religious thought, Daoism and Confucianism,

which many consider to be complementary traditions. Daoism is often thought to emphasize the

yin aspects of reality and Confucianism the yang. Together they form a unity of opposites.

Although we’ll discuss these systems separately, one before the other, separate treatment is

something of a fiction. The two systems grew up together and actually, as they developed, helped

generate each other. We must keep this in mind as we study them.

Daoism

Because it incorporated some of the previously mentioned elements and many others from

traditional Chinese belief and practice, Daoism is really like a shopping cart filled with a variety

of items: observations about nature, philosophical insights, guidelines for living, exercises for

health, rituals of protection, and practices for attaining longevity and inner purity. We should

note, however, that Daoism and Chinese folk religion are not exactly the same thing, although

the terms are often used interchangeably, and in some cases the border between the two is not

clear.

Daoism includes ideas and practices from the earliest phases, represented in the Daodejing and

Zhuangzi (Daoist scriptures, which we’ll discuss shortly), as well as innumerable later

developments. It was once common to make a distinction between the earliest phase, which was

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praised for its philosophy, and later ritualistic and religious development, which was less

appreciated. But scholars in recent decades have given great attention to a host of Daoist topics:

liturgy, lineages of masters, religious communities, monasticism, deities, prayers, art, clothing,

and even dance. Scholars see these developments as a part of the organic growth of the early

insights. While continuing to value the ideas espoused in the early documents, scholars today

point out that the “real” Daoism is the entire spectrum of development, from the earliest ideas to

contemporary practices.

The Origins of Daoism

The origins of Daoism, quite appropriately, are mysterious. Its earliest documents contain many

threads—shamanism, appreciation for the hermit’s life, desire for unity with nature, and a

fascination with health, long life, breathing, meditation, and trance. These many threads point to

a multiplicity of possible sources, which seem to have coalesced to produce the movement.

Laozi (Lao Tzu)

Every movement needs a founder, and Daoists trace themselves back to a legendary figure

named Laozi (Lao Tzu), whose name means “old master” or “old child.” Whether Laozi ever

existed is unknown. He may have been a real person, the blending of historical information about

several figures, or a mythic creation.

In the traditional story, Laozi’s birth (c. 600 BCE; Timeline 6.1, p. 212) resulted from a virginal

conception. According to legend, the child was born old—hence the name “old child.” Laozi

became a state archivist, or librarian, in the royal city of Loyang for many years. (Legendary

stories also relate how Confucius came to discuss philosophy with the old man.) Eventually

tiring of his job, Laozi left his post and, carried by an ox, traveled to the far west of China. At the

western border, Laozi was recognized as an esteemed scholar and prohibited from crossing until

he had written down his teachings. The result was the Daodejing, a short book of about five

thousand Chinese characters. After Laozi was finished, he left China, traveling westward. Later

stories about Laozi continued to elaborate his myth. He was said to have taken his teachings to

India, later returned to China, and ascended into the sky. He was soon treated as a deity, the

human incarnation of the Dao. In this capacity he came to be called Lord Lao. Many stories were

told of his apparitions. He continues to be worshiped as divine by many Daoists.

The Daodejing

The Daodejing (Tao Te Ching) is generally seen as one of the world’s greatest books. It is also

the great classic of Daoism, accepted by most Daoists as a central scripture. Its title can be

translated as “the classical book about the Way and its power.” Sometimes the book is also

called the Laozi (Lao Tzu), after its legendary author. Possibly because of its brevity and

succinctness, it has had an enormous influence on Chinese culture.

The book has been linguistically dated to about 350 BCE, but it seems to have circulated in

several earlier forms. In 1972, at the tombs of Mawangdui, archeologists discovered two ancient

copies of the text that differ from the arrangement commonly used. Another shorter ancient

version was found in a tomb at Guodian in 1993. It contains about one-third of the standard text. 1

The version that is commonly known and used is from the third century CE.

In the eighty-one chapters of the Daodejing, we recognize passages that seem to involve early

shamanistic elements, such as reaching trance states and attaining invulnerability (see chapters 1,

16, 50, and 55). The book shows some repetition, has no clear order, and exhibits a deliberate

lack of clarity. In form, each chapter is more poetry than prose. This combination of elements

suggests that the book is not the work of a single author but is rather the assembled work of

many people, gathered over time. It may be a collection of what were once oral proverbs and

sayings.

TimeLine 6.1

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Timeline of significant events in the history of Daoism and Confucianism.

What was the original purpose of the book? One theory holds that its overall purpose was

political, that it was meant as a handbook for rulers; another sees it primarily as a religious

guidebook, meant to lead adherents to spiritual insight; and still another views it as a practical

guide for living in harmony with the universe. It is possible that the Daodejing fulfilled all these

purposes and that its passages can have several meanings at the same time. Part of the genius of

the book is its brevity and use of paradox: its meaning depends on who is interpreting it.

Throughout the Daodejing are references to the Dao. The book speaks of its nature and

operation; it describes the manner in which people will live if they are in harmony with the Dao;

and it gives suggestions for experiencing the Dao. The book also provides images to help

describe all of these things. What, though, is “the Dao”?

The Daodejing begins famously by saying that the Dao is beyond any description. It states that

the Dao that can be spoken of is not the eternal Dao. In other words, we cannot really put into

words exactly what the Dao is—a fact that is ironic because the book itself uses words. Yet the

book goes on to tell us that the Dao is “nameless”; that is, it is not any individual thing that has a

name, such as a door, a tree, a bird, a person. The Dao cannot be named because it has no form.

But the Dao can be experienced and followed by every individual thing that has a name. The

Daodejing says the Dao is the origin of everything and that all individual things are

“manifestations” of the Dao.

Although the Dao is the origin of nature, it is not “God,” because it does not have personality. It

neither cares about human beings nor dislikes them—it only produces them, along with the rest

of nature. Because the Dao makes nature move the way it does, it can be called the way or the

rhythm of nature.

To experience the Dao, we must leave behind our desires for individual things, a concept that

runs counter to everyday concerns—how much something costs, what time it is now, whether

something is big or small. In fact, the Daoist way of seeing things is so odd to some people that

at first it seems like trying to see in the dark, as the end of the first chapter of the Daodejing

describes:

Darkness within darkness.

The gate to all mystery.

The Daoist sees things differently. To illustrate, there is an intriguing example in the twentieth

chapter of the Daodejing: A Daoist is observing a group of people who are in a park, celebrating

a holiday. They all seem happy as they climb up to the top of a terrace where a ceremony will

occur. They appear to know what they are doing and where they are going. Not the Daoist,

though, who feels “formless” and “like the ocean”—adrift. 2 The Daoist is troubled by the

contrast. The others seem happy and sure of themselves, but the Daoist can only watch, and feels

strangely like an outsider. Then the chapter ends with a sudden, extraordinary affirmation. The

Daoist recognizes something intensely personal and difficult but willingly accepts the sense of

separateness from the others and from their conventional way of seeing things. The Daoist

accepts, and concludes,

Laozi, the “father of Daoism,” is here portrayed riding on an ox.

© Burstein Collection/Corbis

I am different.

I am nourished by the great mother.

Thus, the Dao cannot be “known” in the same way that we see a car or hear a sound, for

example. It cannot be perceived directly but rather by intuition. Perhaps it is like the difference

between only hearing musical sounds and recognizing a song.

The Daodejing presents several powerful images wherein the Dao seems most active and visible.

Contemplating them can help us experience the Dao, and by taking on some of the qualities of

these images, we begin to live in harmony with the Dao that inhabits them. Several common

images follow:

 Water Water is gentle, ordinary, and lowly, but strong and necessary. It flows around

every obstacle. Chapter eight of the Daodejing praises it: “The highest good is like

water.” 3 It assists all things “and does not compete with them.”

4

 Woman The female is sensitive, receptive, yet effective and powerful.

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 Child The child is full of energy, wonder, and naturalness.

 Valley The valley is yin, and it is mystery.

 Darkness Darkness can be safe, full of silence and possibility.

Deeper Insights: The Seasons of Life

A famous story illustrates what it means to live in harmony with nature: Upon hearing of the

death of Zhuangzi’s wife, a friend, Huizi (Hui Tzu), goes to offer sympathy. Although he expects

to find Zhuangzi crying and in ritual mourning, Huizi finds Zhuangzi instead singing and

drumming on a bowl. Huizi is shocked—and says so. Responding in a thoughtful way, Zhuangzi

says that at first his wife’s death saddened him terribly, but then he reflected on the whole cycle

of her existence. Before his wife was a human being, she was without shape or life, and her

original self was a part of the formless substance of the universe. Then she became a human

being. “Now there’s been another change, and she’s dead. It’s just like the progression of the

four seasons, spring, summer, fall, winter.” 5 When winter comes, we do not mourn. That would

be ungrateful. Similarly, a human being goes through seasons. Zhuangzi describes his wife as

now being like someone asleep in a vast room. “If I were to follow after her bawling and

sobbing, it would show that I don’t know anything about fate. So I stopped.” 6

In this story, note that Zhuangzi is singing and playing on a bowl. Rather than mourn passively,

he does something to counteract his sorrow. His singing is a profound human response, quite

believable. And Zhuangzi does not say that as a result of his insight he no longer feels sad.

Rather, he says that as far as mourning is concerned, “I stopped.” In other words, despite his

feelings, he deliberately behaves in a way that seems more grateful to the universe and therefore

more appropriate than mourning.

This tale suggests that to live in harmony with nature means to accept all its transformations. The

great Dao produces both yang and yin, which alternate perpetually. The story says that yin and

yang are our parents and we must obey them. If we cannot embrace the changes, we should at

least observe them with an accepting heart.

Zhuangzi (Chuang Tzu)

Daoism was enriched by the work of Zhuangzi (Chuang Tzu), who was active about 300 BCE.

What we know of him comes from the writings he left behind. His personality seems playful,

independent, and in love with the fantastic. The book of his writings, called the Zhuangzi

(Chuang Tzu), is composed of seven “inner chapters,” which are thought to be by the author

himself, and twenty-six “outer chapters,” whose authorship is less certain.

The Zhuangzi, unlike the poetry of the Daodejing, contains many whimsical stories. It continues

the themes of early Daoist thought, such as the need for harmony with nature, the movement of

the Dao in all that happens, and the pleasure that we can gain from simplicity. It underscores the

inevitability of change and the relativity of all human judgments. It also adds to Daoism an

appreciation for humor—something that is quite rare in the scriptures of the world.

Perhaps the most famous of all the stories in the book tells of Zhuangzi’s dream of being a

butterfly. In his dream he was flying around and enjoying life, but he did not know that he was

Zhuangzi. When he woke up he was struck by a question: Am I a person dreaming that I am a

butterfly, or am I a butterfly dreaming that I am a person? This story hints that the boundary

between reality and the imaginary is not really as clear as we might think.

Another story makes fun of people’s judgments and the arbitrariness of their joy and anger. A

trainer gave his monkeys three acorns in the morning and four at night. When the monkeys

conveyed their dissatisfaction with receiving too few acorns in the morning, the trainer obliged,

giving them four acorns in the morning and three at night. As a result, “the monkeys were all

delighted.” 7

The Zhuangzi rejects every barrier, including that between the ordinary and the fantastic,

between the normal and the paranormal, as hinted by the story of the butterfly dream. But the

love of the marvelous really shows itself best in some stories that talk of the supernatural powers

that a wise person can attain. The Zhuangzi tells of an exceptional person who could tell

everything about one’s past and future, another who could ride on the wind, and another who

was invulnerable to heat or pain. The Zhuangzi thus elaborates the potential results of being one

with the Dao.

Basic Early TEACHINGS

The main teachings of the Daodejing and the Zhuangzi can be summarized as follows:

 Dao This is the name for whatever mysterious reality makes nature to be what it is and to

act the way it does. The Chinese character for Dao is commonly translated as “way,” but

it has also been translated as “existence,” “pattern,” and “process.” Primarily, the Dao is

the way that nature expresses itself—the natural way. Human beings can unite

themselves with the Dao in the way they live.

 Wu wei: the ideal of effortlessness To have stern commandments would go against the

nature of Daoism; but it does offer recommendations about how to live—

recommendations that do not come from a divine voice but from nature, the model of

balance and harmony. The recommendation most often mentioned in the Daodejing is wu

wei, which literally means “no action.” Perhaps a better translation is “no strain” or

“effortlessness.” The ideal implies the avoidance of unnecessary action or action that is

not spontaneous. If we look at nature, we notice that many things happen quietly,

effortlessly: plants grow, birds and animals are born, and nature repairs itself after a

storm. Nature works to accomplish only what is necessary, but no more. Consider the

plain strength of the ordinary bird nest. Birds build homes according to their needs, and

what they make is simple and beautiful; they don’t require circular driveways, pillars, or

marbled entryways. The ideal of “no strain” is the antithesis of all those sweat-loving

mottoes such as “No pain, no gain” and “Onward and upward.”

The boatman who goes with the river’s flow is an example of wu wei in practice.

© Steven Vidler/Eurasia Press/Corbis

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 Simplicity Daoism has often urged its followers to eliminate whatever is unnecessary and

artificial and to appreciate the simple and the apparently ordinary. In this regard, Daoists

have tended to distrust any highly formal education, owing to its inherent complexity and

artificiality. (This was one of their major complaints against the Confucians, who put so

much trust in education.) In a passage that has delighted students for centuries, the

Daodejing in the twentieth chapter states its opinion: “Give up learning, and put an end to

your troubles.”

 Gentleness Because Daoists pursue the gentle way, they hate weapons and war. The wise

person loves peace and restraint and avoids all unnecessary violence. The wise person

“does not regard weapons as lovely things. For to think them lovely means to delight in

them, and to delight in them means to delight in the slaughter of men.” 8

 Relativity People see things from a limited point of view that is based on their own

concerns. They see things in terms of divisions: I-you, good-bad, expensive-cheap,

valuable-worthless, beautiful-ugly, and so forth. Daoists believe that it is necessary to

attain a vision of things that goes beyond these apparent opposites.

Daoism and the Quest for Longevity

Daoism has absorbed many practices that are thought to bring a person into union with the Dao.

These practices help the person feel the flow of nature, attain spiritual purity, and live a long life.

To use the word yoga to describe Daoist exercises could be misleading, because yoga is a

Sanskrit word. But this word is useful for conveying to nonspecialists the physical aspect of

Daoism. The canon of Daoist literature includes recommendations for many types of arm and

body movements, breathing regulation, diet, and massage. Today, several popular physical

disciplines continue this interest. Most influential is taiji (t’ai chi), a series of slow arm and leg

motions thought to aid balance and circulation. An astounding sight in the early morning in

China is to see hundreds of people doing taiji exercises in the parks. The spectacle looks like

ballet in graceful slow motion.

One “yogic” practice is called internal alchemy. It aims at transforming and spiritualizing the life

force (qi, ch’i) of the practitioner. Some later forms of internal alchemy teach exercises that

move the life force from its origin at the base of the spine upward to the head. From there it

circles back, via the heart, to its origin. This movement is accomplished through certain postures,

muscular exercises, and practices of mental imagery. Some Daoists have held that these

techniques of internal alchemy can create an entity—the “immortal embryo”—that can survive

the death of the body.

In ancient China, some people experimented with physical alchemy, hoping to create an elixir

that could extend life and even make a person immortal. Because gold did not rust, individuals

attempted to make gold either into a drinkable liquid or into a vessel from which an elixir could

be drunk. Jade, pearl, mother-of-pearl, and compounds of mercury were also utilized. Some

people undoubtedly died as a result of these experiments. When there seemed to be little success

in this direction, the alchemical search became a metaphor for the development of the type of

internal alchemy just described. In Chinese culture there remains, however, a great interest in

pills, foods, and medicines that are believed to prolong life. Some of these (such as ginseng,

garlic, and ginger) seem to have genuine medical benefits.

The Development of Daoism

Early Daoism was not an “organized religion.” Many of its earliest practitioners lived alone, as

some still do today. The reclusive lifestyle of the hermit dates back to ancient China, and some

chapters of the Daodejing may have emerged from that way of life.

As time went on, however, the movement took on many organized forms. Elements of Daoism

appealed to individuals and groups interested in achieving a variety of goals. Among their aims

were longevity, supernatural abilities, control over disease, social reform, political control, and

spiritual insight. Because of the wide-ranging interests within Daoism and its capacity to easily

form new groups, there emerged over centuries a multitude of sects, branches, and religious

communities. Their power waxed and waned, depending on their ability to maintain themselves

and on the interest of current rulers. (For example, Daoism reached perhaps its lowest point of

influence in 1281, when the emperor commanded that Daoist books be burned.) Among the

many organizations that developed, two proved to be particularly long-lived and influential. Both

still exist today.

One is an ancient organization called the Way of the Heavenly Masters (or Celestial Masters;

Tianshi, T’ien-shih). The organization traces itself back to a second-century teacher, Zhang

Daoling (Chang Tao-ling), who was believed to have had visions of Laozi. Zhang Daoling is

thought to have developed an organization that helped Daoism survive into the present. Control

of the organization is based on a hereditary model, with power usually passing from father to son

to grandson. The heads of the organization have the title of Heavenly Masters. The organization

set up a system of parishes. It is strong in Taiwan and has come to life again, after severe

repression by the Communist government, on the mainland.

The second persistent form of organized Daoism involved monasteries and related groups of

celibate monks and nuns. Although this form of Daoism was also suppressed in the early days of

the Communist government, it has resumed in mainland China, though under careful

governmental control. This monastic order is known as the Way of Complete Perfection

(Quanshen, Ch’üan-chen). It deliberately has blended elements of Daoism, Buddhism, and

Confucianism. Its principal prayer book was reprinted in 2000. Morning and evening services

that make use of the prayer book may be attended at many of its monasteries—most notably at

the White Cloud Monastery (Baiyunguan) in Beijing.

At the end of a family’s annual ceremony to honor its ancestors, red-robed Daoist priests conduct

participants to the offering table. Venerating one’s ancestors is a key element of Chinese

religions.

© Thomas Hilgers

One of the stimuli that influenced Daoism to take an organizational path was Buddhism, which

entered China in the first century CE. Buddhism was brought by a monastic clergy who set up

monasteries and temples that had impressive rites. Daoism followed these models in its own

development. By the fifth century CE, Daoism had grown into an organization with significant

political influence.

Daoism also imitated Buddhism in its production of a vast number of sacred books with wide-

ranging topics: guidebooks on meditation, breathing exercises, and sexual yoga; stories of

wonderworkers and of ecstatic excursions made to the stars; recipes for longevity and magical

powers; manuals of alchemy; and descriptions of ritual. A small sample of titles conveys the

flavor of Daoism: Scripture of Wondrous Beginning, Scripture of Great Simplicity, Like unto a

Dragon, Wondrous Scripture of Inner Daily Practice, Pillowbook Scripture, Biographies of Spirit

Immortals, The Yellow Court Scripture, and Scripture on Going beyond the World. A collection

of more than a thousand authoritative books was gathered and makes up the Daoist canon

(Daozang, Tao Tsang). A major edition of the canon was published in 1445, but supplements

continued to be added later.

https://portal.phoenix.edu/content/ebooks/9780078038273-experiencing-the-worlds-religions.-tradition-chal/jcr:content/images/220fig01.jpg
In Chinese temples, it is not unusual to encounter entranced shamans and their followers. Some

temples try to keep shamans away with warning signs.

© Thomas Hilgers

Daoism developed a pantheon of hundreds of deities. Some are powers of the universe; others

are people who became immortal; others are ancestral spirits. The deities include Laozi, spirits of

https://portal.phoenix.edu/content/ebooks/9780078038273-experiencing-the-worlds-religions.-tradition-chal/jcr:content/images/221fig01.jpg
nature, protective household gods, deified historical figures, and many others. Most important

are the Three Purities (Sanjing, San Ching). These constitute a Daoist trinity (probably modeled

on the Buddhist notion of the three bodies of the Buddha). The first of the Three Purities is the

primordial Dao; the second, a deity responsible for transmission of Daoist insight, is called the

Heavenly Worthy of Numinous Treasure; and the third is the deified Laozi, whose image may be

recognized by its white hair. Several female deities are important. Among them are Mother Li,

the mother of Lord Lao; Mazu (mentioned earlier), a deified girl who has become the patroness

of fishermen; Doumu, a star deity called Mother of the Big Dipper; and the Queen Mother of the

West, who is a mother figure responsible for all the immortals. The Jade Emperor, an ancient

legendary figure, is thought of as an emperor who rules heaven and earth and who judges

people’s deeds at the end of each year.

Other commonly worshiped gods are household gods, such as the gods of the hearth and the

doorway, and gods of the sky, earth, water, and town. Worship is also given to regional deities

and to the spirits of ancestors. Daoist temples represent many of these gods with statues and

paintings, and offerings of food, water, and incense are regularly placed in front of the images.

Daoism is strong in Taiwan, Hong Kong, and in overseas Chinese communities, such as in

Malaysia and Singapore. After initially being repressed by the Communist Party, Daoism is

experiencing a resurgence on the mainland. A large statue of Laozi was erected in 1999 in

southeastern China, and pilgrims from Taiwan and elsewhere routinely travel to the mainland to

honor the goddess Mazu at her pilgrimage site, Meizhou Island in southeast China.

Deeper Insights: The Chinese Garden—Bridge to the Infinite

The philosopher Wing-Tsit Chan has written of the semireligious role that a Chinese garden can

play:

 Nature is never looked upon by the Chinese as chaotic or disorganized. Heaven and earth

co-exist in harmony, and the four seasons run their course regularly.... This harmony of

man and nature in the flow of the great stream of rhythm makes the Chinese garden more

than something merely secular. It is true that no one would look upon the Chinese garden

as a religious structure.... But in spite of all this, we cannot deny the fact that the garden

is regarded as an ideal place for meditation. Meditation may be purely moral, an effort at

self-introspection. Intense and sincere meditation, however, inevitably leads to the

absorption in the Infinite. 9

Because of government support on the mainland for Complete Perfection Daoism, many of its

temples and monasteries are being rebuilt, particularly in traditional mountain locations.

Heavenly Master Daoism is also growing on the mainland. It was never suppressed in Taiwan

and is the major form of ritualized village Daoism. Its clergy do ministerial work, attending to

the needs of the public. Exorcists, who are often identified by their red hats or scarves, work to

heal and restore harmony. Priests, identified by their black caps, primarily perform blessings,

funerals, and other rites.

Daoist practices and beliefs are kept alive not only by Daoists but also by the Chinese tendency

to blend beliefs of several systems. It is common, for example, to find Daoist images in Buddhist

temples. In the mind of most Chinese, there need be no argument. In ordinary practice, elements

from Daoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism are combined. The three religions are mutually

supportive—as their members have generally agreed.

Daoism and the Arts

It is possible to see Daoist influences in many Chinese art forms, although the extent of the

influence is impossible to determine with precision. Paintings of Laozi riding on an ox are clear

examples of Daoist influence, as are references to Zhuangzi in poetry, but beyond that it is

perhaps more accurate to say that poetry and the arts share many of the same concerns of Daoist