Summarizer and opinion seeker are examples of _________ functions.

ELEVENTH EDITION

Communicating in Small Groups

Steven A. Beebe Texas State University

John T. Masterson Texas Lutheran University

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Principles and Practices

Editor in Chief: Ashley Dodge Senior Acquisitions Editor: Melissa Mashburn Editorial Assistant: Courtney Turcotte Marketing Coordinator: Jessica Warren Managing Editor: Denise Forlow Program Manager: Reena Dalal Senior Operations Supervisor: Mary Fischer Operations Specialist: Mary Ann Gloriande Art Director: Jayne Conte Cover Designer: Bruce Kenselaar Cover Image: Shutterstock Director of Digital Media: Brian Hyland Digital Media Project Management: Learning Mate Solutions, Ltd./Lynn Cohen Digital Media Project Manager: Tina Gagliostro Full-Service Project Management and Composition: Integra Printer/Binder: Courier Kendallville Text Font: 9.25/12.5 Utopia Std

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Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.

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ISBN-10: 0-205-98083-X ISBN-13: 978-0-205-98083-3

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Dedicated to Sue and Nancy

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BRIEF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1 Introducing Group Principles and Practices 1

CHAPTER 2 Understanding Small Group Communication Theory 36

CHAPTER 3 Facilitating Group Development 55

PART I Foundations of Group Communication

CHAPTER 4 Preparing to Collaborate 76

CHAPTER 5 Relating to Others in Groups 102

CHAPTER 6 Improving Group Climate 129

CHAPTER 7 Enhancing Communication Skills in Groups 148

CHAPTER 8 Managing Conflict 178

PART II Managing Group Relationships

CHAPTER 9 Leading Groups 218

CHAPTER 10 Making Decisions and Solving Problems 240

CHAPTER 11 Using Problem-Solving Techniques 269

CHAPTER 12 Enhancing Creativity in Groups and Teams 301

APPENDIX A Principles and Practices for Effective Meetings 326

APPENDIX B Principles and Practices for Communicating to an Audience 337

PART III Managing Group Tasks

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CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1 Introducing Group Principles and Practices 1 What Is Small Group Communication? 3

Communication 3 A Small Group of People 5 Meeting with a Common Purpose 5 Feeling a Sense of Belonging 5 Exerting Influence 5

What Is Team Communication? 6 Characteristics of an Effective Team 8 Characteristics of Effective Team Members 10

PUTTING PRINCIPLES INTO PRACTICE: Strategies for Becoming a Competent Team Member 12

Communicating Collaboratively: Advantages and Disadvantages 13 Advantages 13 Disadvantages 14 When Not to Collaborate 16 Me Versus We 17

Communicating in Different Types of Groups 19 Primary Groups 19 Secondary Groups 20

Communicating in Virtual Groups and Teams 21 Channels of Virtual Collaboration 22 Differences Between Virtual and Non-Virtual Collaboration 23 Virtual Group and Team Theory 25

How Can You Become a Competent Small Group Communicator? 26 VIRTUAL GROUPS 27

The Essence of Communication Competence 28 The Nine Core Small Group Communication Competencies 28

CASE STUDY: The Battle Over Working as a Virtual Group 29 COLLABORATING ETHICALLY: What Would You Do? 31

STUDY GUIDE Review, Apply, and Assess Group Communication Principles and Practices 32

CHAPTER 2 Understanding Small Group Communication Theory 36 The Nature of Theory and the Theory-Building Process 37 Theory: A Practical Approach to Group Communication 38

Explanatory Function 39

Preface xvii Acknowledgments xxii

PART I Foundations of Group Communication

Contentsviii

Predictive Function 39 COLLABORATING ETHICALLY: What Would You Do? 39

The Purpose of Communication in Small Groups: Making Sense 40 Complexity 41 Small Groups: More Complexity 41

Theoretical Perspectives for the Study of Group Communication 42 Systems Theory 42 Social Exchange Theory 43 Symbolic Convergence Theory 44

CASE STUDY: How Do You Keep a Group on Task? 46 Structuration Theory 46 Functional Theory 47

PUTTING PRINCIPLES INTO PRACTICE: Structuration and the Exercise of Free Will 48

A Model of Small Group Communication 49 VIRTUAL GROUPS 50

STUDY GUIDE Review, Apply, and Assess Group Communication Principles and Practices 52

CHAPTER 3 Facilitating Group Development 55 Why People Join Groups 56 Interpersonal Needs 56

Maslow’s Theory 56 Schutz’s Theory 57

Individual and Group Goals 59 Establishing Mutuality of Concern 60

COLLABORATING ETHICALLY: What Would You Do? 62 Interpersonal Attraction 62

Similarity 63 Complementarity 63 Proximity, Contact, and Interaction 63 Physical Attractiveness 63

PUTTING PRINCIPLES INTO PRACTICE: Mutuality of Concern 64 Group Attraction 64

Group Activities 64 Group Goals 65

VIRTUAL GROUPS 65 Group Membership 66

Culture and Group Development 66 Individualism and Collectivism 67 High-Context and Low-Context Cultures 67 High-Contact and Low-Contact Cultures 68 Homogeneity and Diversity 69

Group Formation over Time 70 CASE STUDY: How Do You Manage Conflicting Needs and Goals? 71

STUDY GUIDE Review, Apply, and Assess Group Communication Principles and Practices 73

Contents ix

CHAPTER 4 Preparing to Collaborate 76 How to Develop a Discussion Plan 77

Get Acquainted with Your Group Members 78 Clarify the Goals of the Group 78 Develop a Plan for Gathering Information and Analyzing Issues 79 Follow a Structured Agenda to Accomplish the Task 80 Share Information with Others 81 Determine How to Present Your Information 82

PUTTING PRINCIPLES INTO PRACTICE: What Should You Do with Group Members Who Don’t Pull Their Weight? 82

How to Formulate Discussion Questions 84 Questions of Fact 85

VIRTUAL GROUPS 85 Questions of Prediction 86 Questions of Value 87 Questions of Policy 88

CASE STUDY: Questioning the Cost of Textbooks 89 How to Use Logic and Reasoning Effectively 90

Inductive Reasoning 90 Deductive Reasoning 91 Causal Reasoning 92

How to Evaluate Evidence in Group Discussions 92 Facts 92 Examples 93 Opinions 93 Statistics 93 Gathering and Evaluating Evidence: A Special Emphasis on Web Resources 94

How to Develop Critical-Analysis Skills 95 Causal Fallacy 95 Either/Or Fallacy 95 Bandwagon Fallacy 95 Hasty Generalization 96 Attacking the Person 96 Red Herring 96

COLLABORATING ETHICALLY: What Would You Do? 97

STUDY GUIDE Review, Apply, and Assess Group Communication Principles and Practices 98

CHAPTER 5 Relating to Others in Groups 102 Roles 103

Who Are You? 103 Self-Concept Development: Gender, Sexual Orientation, Culture, and Role 104 Diversity of Roles in Small Groups 105 Group Task Roles 106

PART II Managing Group Relationships

Contentsx

Group-Building and Maintenance Roles 106 Individual Roles 107

Norms 108 How Do Norms Develop? 109 Identifying Group Norms 109

PUTTING PRINCIPLES INTO PRACTICE: Establishing Group Norms 110 Conforming to Group Norms 110

COLLABORATING ETHICALLY: What Would You Do? 112 Establishing Ground Rules 112

Status 114 Privileges Accorded to High-Status Group Members 114 Effects of Status Differences 114 Status Differences in Online Groups 115 Observing Status Differences to Predict Group Dynamics 116

Power 116 Power Bases 116

VIRTUAL GROUPS 117 Effects of Power on Group Process 118 Power and Gender 119 Status and Power: A Cultural Footnote 119

Trust 120 Developing Trusting Relationships 120 Trust in Face-to-Face and Virtual Teams 121

The Development of Group Relationships over Time 121 CASE STUDY: Adjusting to Variable Status and Power 122

Gender and Communication 122 Culture 123 Conversational Style 124 Time 124

STUDY GUIDE Review, Apply, and Assess Group Communication Principles and Practices 126

CHAPTER 6 Improving Group Climate 129 Defensive and Supportive Climates 130

Evaluation versus Description 131 Control versus Problem Orientation 131 Strategy versus Spontaneity 131 Neutrality versus Empathy 132 Superiority versus Equality 132 Certainty versus Provisionalism 132

Interpersonal Confirmation and Disconfirmation 133 COLLABORATING ETHICALLY: What Would You Do? 134

Disconfirming Responses 134 Confirming Responses 135

Group Cohesiveness 136 Composition and Cohesiveness: Building a Team 136

Contents xi

Individual Benefits and Cohesiveness 137 Task Effectiveness and Cohesiveness 137 Communication and Cohesiveness 137 Cohesiveness in Virtual Teams 138

Communication Networks 138 PUTTING PRINCIPLES INTO PRACTICE: Cohesiveness and Productivity at Harley-Davidson 139

Group Size 140 Group Climate and Productivity 141

VIRTUAL GROUPS 141 CASE STUDY: Avoiding Defensiveness 143

STUDY GUIDE Review, Apply, and Assess Group Communication Principles and Practices 145

CHAPTER 7 Enhancing Communication Skills in Groups 148 Verbal Dynamics in Small Groups 149

Words as Barriers to Communication 149 Listening 151

Listening Styles 151 Obstacles to Effective Listening 152 A Guide to Active Listening 154

The Importance of Nonverbal Communication in Groups 155 More Time Is Spent Communicating Nonverbally Than Verbally 156 Emotions and Feelings Are Typically Expressed Nonverbally Rather Than Verbally 156 Nonverbal Messages Are Usually More Believable Than Verbal Messages 156

Applications of Nonverbal Communication Research to Groups 157 Posture, Movement, and Gestures 157 Eye Contact 158 Facial Expressions 160 Vocal Cues 160 Personal Space 161 Territoriality 162 Seating Arrangement 162 Personal Appearance 164 Communication Environment 165

PUTTING PRINCIPLES INTO PRACTICE: Improving Nonverbal Communication Skills 166

Functions of Nonverbal Cues in Groups 167 Nonverbal Messages Influence Perceived Leadership 167 Nonverbal Messages Influence Persuasion Skills 167 Nonverbal Messages Help Synchronize Interaction 167 Nonverbal Messages Provide Information about Perceived Honesty or Dishonesty 168

Interpreting Nonverbal Communication 169 VIRTUAL GROUPS 170

Contentsxii

COLLABORATING ETHICALLY: What Would You Do? 171 CASE STUDY: Interpreting Indirect Communication 172

STUDY GUIDE Review, Apply, and Assess Group Communication Principles and Practices 174

CHAPTER 8 Managing Conflict 178 What Is Conflict? 180

Causes of Conflict 180 Misconceptions About Conflict 181

Types of Conflict 182 Pseudo-Conflict: When People Misunderstand One Another 182 Simple Conflict: When People Disagree about Issues 183 Ego Conflict: When Personalities Clash 184

Conflict and Diversity in Small Groups 186 Conflict in Individualistic and Collectivistic Cultures 186 Conflict in High-Context and Low-Context Cultures 186

PUTTING PRINCIPLES INTO PRACTICE: Strategies for Managing Conflict in Diverse Groups: Surface and Deep Diversity 187

Approaches to Conflict When There Are Gender Differences 188 Conflict-Management Styles 188

Avoidance 189 Accommodation 189 Competition 190 Compromise 191 Collaboration 191

Collaborative Conflict Management: Principles and Skills 192 Separate the People from the Problem 192 Focus on Shared Interests 193 Generate Many Options to Solve Problems 193 Base Decisions on Objective Criteria 193

When People Are Not Cooperative: Dealing with Difficult Group Members 194 Manage Your Emotions 194

CASE STUDY: Practice in Applying Principles 194 Describe What Is Upsetting You 196 Disclose Your Feelings 197

COLLABORATING ETHICALLY: What Would You Do? 197 Return to the Issue of Contention 197

Groupthink: Conflict Avoidance 199 Symptoms of Groupthink 200 Suggestions for Reducing Groupthink 202

VIRTUAL GROUPS 204 Consensus: Reaching Agreement Through Communication 206

The Nature of Consensus 206 Suggestions for Reaching Consensus 206

STUDY GUIDE Review, Apply, and Assess Group Communication Principles and Practices 212

Contents xiii

PART III Managing Group Tasks

CHAPTER 9 Leading Groups 218 What Is Leadership? 219 Trait Perspective: Characteristics of Effective Leaders 220 Functional Perspective: Group Needs and Roles 220

Task Leadership 221 Process Leadership 222

Situational Perspective: Adapting Style to Context 224 Leadership Style 225 Hersey’s Situational Leadership® Model 227 Some Observations on the Situational Approach to Leadership 228 Shared Leadership in Teams 228

Transformational Leadership 228 VIRTUAL GROUPS 229 CASE STUDY: Adjusting Leadership Style to Situation 230

Emergent Leadership in Small Groups 231 The Minnesota Studies 231

COLLABORATING ETHICALLY: What Would You Do? 232 Leadership and Gender 233

PUTTING PRINCIPLES INTO PRACTICE: Servant Leadership 233

STUDY GUIDE Review, Apply, and Assess Group Communication Principles and Practices 236

CHAPTER 10 Making Decisions and Solving Problems 240 Group Decision Making: Choosing among Alternatives 241

Elements of Effective and Ineffective Group Decision Making 242 Methods of Group Decision Making 243

Group Problem Solving: Overcoming Obstacles to Achieve a Goal 246 Problem Solving Defined 247 Barriers to Group and Team Problem Solving 247

Three Approaches to Group Problem Solving 249 Descriptive Approach 249

COLLABORATING ETHICALLY: What Would You Do? 250 Other Descriptive Models of Group Problem Solving 252

VIRTUAL GROUPS 253 Functional Approach 256

PUTTING PRINCIPLES INTO PRACTICE: Real Groups, Real Challenges: The Bona Fide Group Perspective 258

Communication Functions of Effective Group Problem Solvers 259 Prescriptive Approach 261

CASE STUDY: Keep Tuition Low 262 Cultural Assumptions About Group Problem Solving and Decision Making 263

STUDY GUIDE Review, Apply, and Assess Group Communication Principles and Practices 265

Contentsxiv

CHAPTER 11 Using Problem-Solving Techniques 269 An Overview of Prescriptive Problem-Solving Strategies 271

The Origin of Prescriptive Problem-Solving Strategies 271 Finding a Balance between Group Structure and Interaction 271

Groups Need Structure 272 Groups Need Interaction 273

Reflective Thinking: The Traditional Approach to Group Problem Solving 274 Step 1: Identify and Define the Problem 274 Tools for Defining the Problem 275

COLLABORATING ETHICALLY: What Would You Do? 276 Step 2: Analyze the Problem 278 Tools for Analyzing a Problem 279 How to Establish Criteria 282

VIRTUAL GROUPS 283 Step 3: Generate Several Possible Solutions 283 Step 4: Evaluate Options and Select the Best Solution or Combination of Solutions 284 Tools for Evaluating the Solutions 285 Step 5: Test and Implement the Solution 285 Tools for Implementing a Solution 286 How to Use Reflective Thinking in Your Group or Team 288

Question-Oriented Approaches to Problem Solving 289 Ideal-Solution Format 289 Single-Question Format 290 How to Use Question-Oriented Approaches in Your Group or Team 290

PUTTING PRINCIPLES INTO PRACTICE: When Should You Make a Decision Based on Careful Analysis and When Should You Trust Your “Gut Instincts”? 292

Beyond Technique 293 CASE STUDY: Who Loses Their Job 293

STUDY GUIDE Review, Apply and Assess Group Communication Principles and Practices 295

CHAPTER 12 Enhancing Creativity in Groups and Teams 301 What Is Creativity? 302 Why Study Creativity? 303 Myths about Creativity 304

Creativity Myth 1: Creativity Is a Mysterious Process That Can’t Be Learned 304 Creativity Myth 2: Only a Few Gifted People Are Creative 304 Creativity Myth 3: Creativity Just Happens 305

Barriers to Group and Team Creativity 305 Premature Evaluation of Ideas 305 Poor Physical Surroundings 306 Too Many People 306 Poor Timing 306 Stinking Thinking 306

Principles of Group and Team Creativity 307 Appropriately Analyze and Define the Problem 307

Contents xv

Create a Climate of Freedom 308 Listen to Minority Points of View 308 Encourage People to See Things and Themselves Differently 309

Selectively Increase Group and Team Structure 309 Techniques for Enhancing Group and Team Creativity 310

Brainstorming 311 CASE STUDY: Clipping Negative Thinking 313

The Nominal-Group Technique 313 COLLABORATING ETHICALLY: What Would You Do? 315 PUTTING PRINCIPLES INTO PRACTICE: Using Your Whole Mind 316

The Delphi Technique 317 VIRTUAL GROUPS 318

Electronic Brainstorming 318 The Affinity Technique 319 How to Use Brainstorming in Your Group or Team 320

STUDY GUIDE Review, Apply, and Assess Group Communication Principles and Practices 323

APPENDIX A Principles and Practices for Effective Meetings 326 Giving Meetings Structure 328

Determine the Meeting Goal(s) 328 Identify Items That Need to Be Discussed to Achieve the Goal 328 Organize the Agenda Items to Achieve the Goal 328

Becoming a Meeting Facilitator: Managing Group and Team Interaction 330 Be a Gatekeeper 331 Focus on the Goal 331 Monitor Time 332 Structure Interaction 332

How to Lead Meetings 333 How to Participate in Meetings 334

PUTTING PRINCIPLES INTO PRACTICE: How to Make a Meeting Better When You’re Not the Meeting Leader 335

APPENDIX B Principles and Practices for Communicating to an Audience 337 Panel Discussions 337 Symposium Presentations 338 Forum Presentations 338 Planning What to Say to an Audience 339

Analyze Your Audience 339 Have a Clear Objective 339 Identify Your Major Ideas 340 Support Your Major Ideas 340 Organize Your Ideas 340

Contentsxvi

Presenting Information to an Audience 341 Select Your Method of Delivery 341 Use Effective Delivery Skills 341 Consider Using Visual Aids 341 Using Computer-Generated Graphics 342

Glossary 343 Notes 349 Photo Credits 375 Index 377

F rom our first edition to this, our eleventh edition, our goal in writing this book has remained the same: to write a book students find interesting and practical, and instruc- tors find clear and comprehensive. We are pleased that the previous ten editions continue to be praised and widely used by both teachers and students.

We have written the eleventh edition of Communicating in Small Groups: Principles and Practices to serve as the primary text for a college-level course that focuses on group communi- cation. We continue to seek a balanced approach to presenting the latest small group principles, while also identifying practical practices that bring the principles to life.

New to the Eleventh Edition In this new edition we have thoroughly updated the research that anchors the principles and skills we present, incorporated new pedagogical features to enhance student learning, and added new applications of technology to enhance collaborate. Here’s an overview of what’s new.

Expanded Emphasis on Virtual Groups and Teams. From the first page of Chapter 1 through the final appendix, we have included additional research-based information about the role technology plays in facilitating collaboration in contemporary society. Students who have used technological tools all of their lives are increasingly becoming more sophisticated about the use of technology. We have revised our coverage of technology and the use of new media to reflect students’ existing knowledge while also building on it.

Increased Application of Group Skills. Students take a course in group communica- tion not only to improve their knowledge but also to become more skilled communicators. How to develop a discussion plan, create an agenda, facilitate a meeting, manage conflict, make ef- ficient and effective decisions, lead others, and collaboratively solve problems are just a few of the skill sets that are presented. To help students bolster their communication competence, we have expanded our application of specific group communication skills throughout the book. Our “Theory into Practice” feature has been re-titled “Putting Principles into Practice,” and we’ve added new material and applications to ensure students can increase their group com- munication skill.

Linking Chapter Objectives with Chapter Headings. To help students learn, review, and master chapter content, each learning objective that appears at the beginning of a chapter corresponds to a specific major heading. Students can easily confirm their mastery of each section of the material by reviewing the chapter objectives.

New Chapter-End Study Guide. We have completely revised our chapter-end material to help students assess their understanding of chapter content. Our new Study Guide features use the revised chapter objectives to organize their study. We review information linked to each objective and help them clinch chapter content; we identify key terms and page numbers where students can review their understanding of the term. Finally, we present activities and assess- ment measures—including several new assessment measures—linked with each objective in the book.

PREFACE

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Prefacexviii

Revised Ethics Feature. To help students explore their own values and ethics when col- laborating with others, we have revised several of the “Collaborating Ethically: What Would You Do?” features. These mini case studies can be used for student journal entries or spark insightful class discussions.

Crisp Presentation of Chapter Content. Sometimes less is more. To help students quickly grasp ideas and information, we have looked for ways to structure the text’s content using bullets, new subheads, and streamlined prose to assist students’ mastery of the material.

New Inclusion of Contemporary Group Communication Research. As we have for 30 years, we’ve done our best to find the latest research about small group communication and add it to our already comprehensive digest of small group communication research ap- plications. Each chapter includes new and updated references to the latest applications of and insights into communicating in small groups.

New Diversity Material Integrated into Every Chapter. As we have in previous editions, we continue to integrate research and application of diversity throughout the text. For example, in Chapter 8 we offer new, practical strategies for addressing conflict in diverse groups looking at both surface and deep diversity. Thanks to an increased use of technol- ogy as well as an increasingly diverse society, we ensure students can adapt and respond to others from different backgrounds and cultures. Rather than relegating culture and diversity topics to a boxed feature, we carefully integrate our discussion of culture and diversity into every chapter.

And Much, Much More. Each chapter includes new examples, illustrations, cartoons, and updated pedagogy to make Communicating in Small Groups: Principles and Practices the best learning tool possible. We’ve made a special effort to streamline our coverage of content to make room for new research and additional pedagogical features so as not to add to the overall length of the book.

Chapter-by-Chapter Revision Overview Here’s a brief summary highlighting several specific changes we’ve made to the eleventh edition:

Chapter One: Introducing Group Principles and Practices ■ New material about the importance of virtual groups and teams. ■ Extensively revised discussion of communicating in virtual groups and teams. ■ New research about best practices for virtual group and team collaboration.