Technical communication a reader centered approach pdf

third party content may be suppressed. Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. The publisher reserves the right to remove content from this title at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. For valuable information on pricing, previous editions,

changes to current editions, and alternate formats, please visit www.cengage.com/highered to search by ISBN#, author, title, or keyword for materials in your areas of interest.

Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

Technical communicaTion

a reader-centered approach

Eighth EDitiON

Paul V. anderson

Elon University

Australia Brazil Japan Korea Mexico Singapore Spain United Kingdom United States

Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

© 2014, 2011, 2007 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright herein may be reproduced, transmitted, stored, or used in any form or by any means graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including but not limited to photocopying, recording, scanning, digitizing, taping, Web distribution, information networks, or information storage and retrieval systems, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without the prior written permission of the publisher.

Library of Congress Control Number: 2012956388

ISBN-13: 978-1-133-30981-9

ISBN-10: 1-133-30981-X

Wadsworth 20 Channel Center Street Boston, MA 02210 USA

Cengage Learning is a leading provider of customized learning solutions with office locations around the globe, including Singapore, the United Kingdom, Australia, Mexico, Brazil and Japan. Locate your local office at international.cengage.com/region

Cengage Learning products are represented in Canada by Nelson Education, Ltd.

For your course and learning solutions, visit www.cengage.com

Purchase any of our products at your local college store or at our preferred online store www.cengagebrain.com

Instructors: Please visit login.cengage.com and log in to access instructor-specific resources.

Technical Communication: A Reader- Centered Approach, Eighth Edition Paul V. Anderson

Publisher: Michael Rosenberg

Development Editor: Ed Dodd

Assistant Editor: Erin Bosco

Editorial Assistant: Rebecca Donahue

Media Editor: Janine Tangney

Brand Manager: Lydia LeStar

Market Development Manager: Erin Parkins

Content Project Manager: Corinna Dibble

Art Director: Marissa Falco

Manufacturing Planner: Betsy Donaghey

Rights Acquisition Specialist: Jessica Elias

Production Service and Compositor: MPS Limited

Text and Cover Designer: Riezebos Holzbaur Design Group

For product information and technology assistance, contact us at Cengage Learning Customer & Sales Support, 1-800-354-9706

For permission to use material from this text or product, submit all requests online at www.cengage.com/permissions

Further permissions questions can be emailed to permissionrequest@cengage.com

Printed in Canada 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 17 16 15 14 13

Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

For MY FaMIlY Margie

Christopher and Kirsten Soren and Sigrid Rachel and Jeff

Drew Mom and Dad

and For MY TeaCHers James W. Souther and Myron L. White

Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

v

Part I

iNtrODuctiON 1 1 | Communication, Your Career, and This Book 2 2 | Overview of the Reader-Centered

Communication Process: Obtaining a Job 22

Part II

DEfiNiNg YOur cOmmuNicatiON’s gOals 59 3 | Defining Your Communication’s Goals 60

Part III

PlaNNiNg 87 4 | Planning for Usefulness 88 5 | Planning Your Persuasive Strategies 104

Part IV

cONDuctiNg rEsEarch 131 6 | Conducting Reader-Centered Research:

Gathering, Analyzing, and Thinking Critically About Information 132

7 | Using Five Reader-Centered Research Methods 154

Part V

DraftiNg PrOsE ElEmENts 179 8 | Drafting Reader-Centered Paragraphs, Sections,

and Chapters 180 9 | Using Nine Reader-Centered Patterns for

Organizing Paragraphs, Sections, and Chapters 204

10 | Developing an Effective, Professional Style 230 11 | Beginning a Communication 253 12 | Ending a Communication 268 13 | Writing Reader-Centered Front and Back

Matter 275

Part VI

DraftiNg Visual ElEmENts 291 14 | Creating Reader-Centered

Graphics 292

15 | Creating Eleven Types of Reader-Centered Graphics 315

16 | Designing Reader-Centered Pages and Documents 334

Part VII

rEVisiNg 359 17 | Revising Your Drafts 360 18 | Testing Drafts for Usefulness and

Persuasiveness 378

Part VIII

aPPlicatiONs Of thE rEaDEr- cENtErED aPPrOach 393 19 | Creating Communications with a Team 394 20 | Creating and Delivering Listener-Centered Oral

Presentations 410 21 | Managing Client and Service-Learning

Projects 434 22 | Creating Reader-Centered Websites 448

Part IX

suPErstructurEs 469 23 | Writing Reader-Centered Letters, Memos,

E-mails, and Digital Exchanges 470 24 | Writing Reader-Centered Proposals 483 25 | Writing Reader-Centered Empirical Research

Reports 507 26 | Writing Reader-Centered Feasibility

Reports 537 27 | Writing Reader-Centered Progress

Reports 560 28 | Writing Reader-Centered Instructions 572

aPPENDicEs Appendix A: Documenting Your Sources 599 Appendix B: Projects 617 References 629 Index 633

BriEf cONtENts

Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

vii

cONtENts

Preface xvii

Part I

iNtrODuctiON 1

chapter 1 | communication, Your career, and this Book 2

Communication Expertise Will Be Critical to Your Success 3

Learning Objectives for This Chapter 3

Characteristics of Workplace Writing 4

At Work, Writing Is an Action 8

At Work, Writing Supports the Reader’s Action 9

The Two Essential Qualities of Effective Writing at Work: Usefulness and Persuasiveness 9

The Main Advice of This Book: Think Constantly About Your Readers 12

The Dynamic Interaction Between Your Communication and Your Readers 12

Six Reader-Centered Strategies You Can Begin Using Now 16

Communicating Ethically 18

How to Gain the Most from This Book 19

use WHaT You’Ve learned 20

Case: Help Mickey Chelini Select the Right Forklift Truck 20

chapter 2 | Overview of the reader- centered communication Process: Obtaining a Job 22

How to Gain the Most from This Chapter 23

How to Write an Effective Résumé 23

Guideline 1: Define your résumé’s objectives by learning what you reader wants 23

Guideline 2: Plan your résumé by thinking creatively about your qualifications, deciding how long your résumé should be, and choosing the type of résumé you will prepare 26

Guideline 3: Draft your résumé’s text to highlight the qualifications that will most appeal to the employer 27

Guideline 4: Design your résumé’s appearance to support rapid reading, emphasize your qualifications, and look attractive 35

WritEr’s tutOrial: Using Tables to Design a Résumé 37

Guideline 5: Revise your résumé to increase its impact and to eliminate errors and inconsistencies 40

A Reader-Centered Approach to Writing Your Job Application Letter 46

Guideline 1: Define your letter’s objectives by identifying the questions the employer wants it to answer, including “Why us?” and “What would you contribute”? 46

Guideline 2: Plan ways to answer the employer’s questions about your interest and potential contributions persuasively 47

Guideline 3: Draft a letter that answers the employer’s questions clearly and with details 47

Guideline 4: Revise your letter to increase its impact and assure that you project a favorable image of yourself 51

Ethical Issues in the Job Search 52

Writing for Employment in Other Countries 54

Interviewing Effectively and Displaying Your Work 54

Social Media and Employer’s Judgments About You 55

Conclusion 55

use WHaT You’Ve learned 55

Case: Advising Patricia 56

Part II

DEfiNiNg YOur cOmmuNicatiON’s gOals 59

chapter 3 | Defining Your communication’s goals 60

Your Goal: To Envision Your Reader’s Response to Each Specific Aspect of Your Communication 61

How to Determine What Your Communication Must Do to Be Useful 63

Guideline 1: Describe your reader’s task 63 Guideline 2: Identify the major kinds of information your reader

wants from your communication 64

Guideline 3: Describe the way your reader will look for the information 66

Guideline 4: Describe the way your reader will use the information 66

How to Determine What Your Communication Must Do to Be Persuasive 67

Guideline 1: Describe your reader’s current attitudes and what you want them to be after reading your communication 67

Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

viii cONtENts

Guideline 2: Find out why your reader holds his or her current attitudes 68

How to Create a Profile of Your Reader 68

Guideline 1: Describe your reader’s professional role and characteristics 68

Guideline 2: Describe your reader’s relevant personal characteristics 69

Guideline 3: Global Guideline: Describe your reader’s cultural characteristics 69

Guideline 4: Learn who all your readers will be 73 How to Identify Relevant Elements of the Context for Your

Communication 77

Guideline 1: Describe the context in which your reader will read 77

Guideline 2: Identify any constraints on the way you write 77 How to Identify Your Communication’s Stakeholders:

A First Step in Writing Ethically 78

Guideline 1: Ethics Guideline: Identify your communication’s stakeholders 78

Guideline 2: Determine how your communication’s stakeholders will view its impact on them 79

How to Gather All This Information About Your Communication’s Purpose, Reader, and Context 79

Guideline 1: Ask others for help 80 Guideline 2: Ask your readers 80 Putting Your Definition into Action: An Example 80

Conclusion 83

use WHaT You’Ve learned 84

Case: Announcing the New Insurance Policy 84

Part III

PlaNNiNg 87

chapter 4 | Planning for usefulness 88 What to Learn About How to Create Useful

Communications 88

How to Provide the Exact Content Your Readers Need 89

Guideline 1: Identify your readers’ questions and subquestions 89

Guideline 2: Go beyond your readers’ questions 90 Guideline 3: Find a superstructure that suggests questions your

readers will ask 90

Guideline 4: Avoid including information your readers don’t need 90

How to Organize in a Way That Helps Your Readers Perform Their Tasks 90

Guideline 1: Group together the items your readers will use together 91

Guideline 2: Organize hierarchically 92 Guideline 3: Give the bottom line first 93 Guideline 4: Adapt an appropriate superstructure 94 Guideline 5: Outline, if this will be helpful 94

How to Help Your Readers Quickly Find What They Want 95

Guideline 1: Create pathways and signposts that direct readers to the content they want 95

Guideline 2: Create a modular design if you have a complex audience 95

How to Help Your Readers Quickly Understand What You Are Saying 97

Guideline 1: Identify the background your readers need about the topic 98

Guideline 2: Identify the background your readers need about the situation 98

Guideline 3: Identify your readers’ cultural expectations 98 Guideline 4: Plan your graphics 99 How to Treat Your Communication’s Stakeholders

Ethically 100

Guideline 1: Ask stakeholders directly 100 Guideline 2: Imagine what your communication’s stakeholders

would say 101

How to Test the Likelihood That Your Plans Will Succeed 101

Conclusion 101

use WHaT You’Ve learned 102

Case: Filling the Distance Learning Classroom 103

chapter 5 | Planning Your Persuasive strategies 104

The Competitive and Collaborative Uses of Persuasion 104

What to Concentrate on When Reading This Chapter 105

How Persuasion Works 105

How to Focus on Your Readers’ Goals and Values 106

Guideline 1: Listen—and respond flexibly to what you hear 107 Guideline 2: Identify business-related goals you can help your

readers achieve 107

Guideline 3: Identify values-based goals you can help your readers achieve 107

Guideline 4: Identify achievement and growth goals you can help your readers reach 108

How to Reason Soundly 109

Guideline 1: Present sufficient and reliable evidence 112 Guideline 2: Explicitly justify your line of reasoning where

necessary 112

Guideline 3: Respond to—and learn from—your readers’ concerns and counterarguments 113

How to Build an Effective Relationship with Your Readers 114

Guideline 1: Establish your credibility 114 Guideline 2: Present yourself as a partner, not a critic 117 How to Organize to Create a Favorable Response 119

Guideline 1: Choose carefully between direct and indirect organizational patterns 121

Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

cONtENts ix

Guideline 2: Create a tight fit among the parts of your communication 122

How to Appeal to Your Readers’ Emotions 122

How to Adapt to Your Readers’ Cultural Background 124

How to Persuade Ethically 124

Guideline 1: Don’t mislead 124 Guideline 2: Don’t manipulate 125 Guideline 3: Open yourself to your readers’ viewpoint 125 Guideline 4: Argue from human values 125 Conclusion 125

use WHaT You’Ve learned 127

Case: Debating a Company Drug-Testing Program 130

Part IV

cONDuctiNg rEsEarch 131

chapter 6 | conducting reader-centered research: gathering, analyzing, and thinking critically about information 132

What to Focus on Learning in This Chapter 133

Interdependence of Research and Writing 134

How to Define Reader-Centered Goals for Research 134

Guideline 1: Identify the information and ideas your readers want, need, and will find persuasive 135

Guideline 2: Identify the criteria by which your readers will judge the quality of your research 135

How to Gather Information and Ideas Your Readers Want and Need 136

Guideline 1: Identify the full range of sources and methods that may provide helpful information 136

Guideline 2: Use secondary sources your readers will find credible and unbiased 138

Guideline 3: Use primary research methods in a credible and unbiased way 139

Guideline 4: Gather information that can be analyzed in subgroups 139

Guideline 5: Take careful notes 139 Intermission 140

How to Analyze Your Results for Relationships and Patterns Your Readers Will Find Useful 142

Guideline 1: Review your research objectives 142 Guideline 2: Arrange your information in an analyzable

form 142

Guideline 3: Look for meaningful relationships in your results 143

How to Draw Conclusions That Are Focused on Your Readers’ Needs 144

Guideline 1: Choose conclusions that align with your readers’ decisions and actions 144

Guideline 2: Acknowledge uncertainty 145 How to Explain the Significance of Your Conclusions to

Your Readers 145

How to Recommend Actions Based on Your Conclusions That Will Benefit Your Readers 146

How to Think Critically Throughout Your Research Process 146

Guideline 1: Let go of your anchor 146 Guideline 2: Value counterarguments, counterevidence, and

exceptions 147

Guideline 3: Avoid personal or organizational biases 147 Guideline 4: Thinking critically about your sources 147 How to Observe Intellectual Property Law and Document

Your Sources 147

Ethical Guidelines for Documenting Sources 150

Conclusion 151

use WHaT You’Ve learned 151

chapter 7 | using five reader-centered research methods 154

How to Conduct Research Using Your Memory and Creativity 155

How to Research on the Internet 160

How to Use the Library Effectively 163

WritEr’s tutOrial: Three Ways to Search Efficiently on the Internet 164

How to Conduct Effective Interviews 169

WritEr’s tutOrial: Conducting Efficient Library Research 170

How to Conduct a Survey 173

Part V

DraftiNg PrOsE ElEmENts 179

chapter 8 | Drafting reader-centered Paragraphs, sections, and chapters 180

The Similarities Among Paragraphs, Sections, and Chapters 180

What to Focus on When Reading This Chapter 181

How to Start a Segment 181

Guideline 1: Begin by announcing your topic 182 Guideline 2: Present your generalizations before

your details 183

How to Arrange the Parts of Your Communication to Create Clarity, Coherence, and Persuasivness 185

Guideline 1: Move from most important to least important 185 Guideline 2: Consult conventional strategies when having

difficulties organizing 186

Guideline 3: Global Guideline: Consider your readers’ cultural background when organizing 186

Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

x cONtENts

How to Help Your Readers See the Organization of Your Communication 187

Guideline 1: Provide signposts that create a map of your communication 188

Guideline 2: Smooth the flow of thought from sentence to sentence 195

Ethics Guideline: Examine The Human Consequences of What You’re Drafting 198

Conclusion 199

use WHaT You’Ve learned 199

Case: Increasing Organ Donations 201

chapter 9 | using Nine reader-centered Patterns for Organizing Paragraphs, sections, and chapters 204

How to Group Items Formally (Formal Classification) 205

How to Group Items Informally (Informal Classification) 208

Comparison 209

How to Describe an Object (Partitioning) 214

How to Describe a Process (Segmenting) 215

How to Describe a Cause-and-Effect Relationship 220

How to Persaude Readers That a Cause-and-Effect Relationship Exists 221

Describing a Problem and Its Solution 224

Combination of Patterns 227

use WHaT You’Ve learned 228

chapter 10 | Developing an Effective, Professional style 230

How to Create an Effective, Professional Voice 231

Guideline 1: Find out what’s expected 232 Guideline 2: Consider the roles your voice creates for your readers

and you 233

Guideline 3: Consider how your attitude toward your subject will affect your readers 234

Guideline 4: Say things in your own words 234 Guideline 5: Global Guideline: Adapt your voice

to your readers’ cultural background 235

Guideline 6: Ethics Guideline: Avoid stereotypes 235 How to Construct Sentences Your Reader Will Find Easy to

Understand, Easy to Remember, and Interesting 236

Guideline 1: Simplify your sentences 237 Guideline 2: Put the action in your verbs 238 Guideline 3: Use the active voice unless you have a good reason

to use the passive voice 239

Guideline 4: Emphasize what’s most important 240 Guideline 5: Vary your sentence length and structure 241 Guideline 6: Global Guideline: Adapt your sentences for readers

who are not fluent in your language 242

Choose Words That Convey Your Meaning Clearly and Precisely 242

Guideline 1: Use concrete, specific words 243 Guideline 2: Use specialized terms when—and only when—your

readers will understand them 245

Guideline 3: Use words accurately 246 Guideline 4: Choose plain words over fancy ones 246 Guideline 5: Choose words with appropriate associations 247 Guideline 6: Global Guideline: Consider your readers’ cultural

background when choosing words 248

Guideline 7: Ethics Guideline: Use inclusive language 249 Conclusion 250

use WHaT You’Ve learned 250

chapter 11 | Beginning a communication 253

How to Motivate Your Readers to Pay Attention 254

Guideline 1: Provide an informative subject line for e-mails and memos 255

Guideline 2: Refer to Your Readers' Request 255 Guideline 3: Offer to Help Your Readers Solve a Problem 255 How to Help Your Readers Find What They Need 258

Guideline 1: State your main point 258 Guideline 2: Provide a forecasting statement 258 Guideline 3: Include a summary 259 How to Encourage Readers to Read Your Message with an

Open Mind 259

How to Identify the Background Information Your Readers Need 261

How to Pick the Right Length for Your Introduction 262

How to Adapt Your Beginning to Your Readers’ Cultural Background 264

Ethics Guideline: How to Address Unethical Practices 265

Conclusion 266

use WHaT You’Ve learned 266

chapter 12 | Ending a communication 268 How to Define the Goals for a Communication’s

Ending 268

How to Select the Appropriate Strategy or Group of Strategies for Ending Your Communication 269

Guideline 1: After you’ve made your last point, stop 269 Guideline 2: Repeat your main point 270 Guideline 3: Summarize your key points 270 Guideline 4: Refer to a goal stated earlier in your

communication 271

Guideline 5: Focus on a key feeling 272 Guideline 6: Tell your readers how to get assistance or more

information 272

Guideline 7: Tell your readers what to do next 273

Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

cONtENts xi

Guideline 8: Identify any further study that is needed 273 Guideline 9: Follow applicable social conventions 273 Conclusion 273

use WHaT You’Ve learned 274

chapter 13 | Writing reader-centered front and Back matter 275

How to Plan Front and Back Matter for a Communication You Are Writing 276

Guideline 1: Review the ways your readers will use the communication 276

Guideline 2: Review your communication’s persuasive goals 276

Guideline 3: Find out what’s required 276 Guideline 4: Find out what’s expected 277 A Word About Conventions and Local Practice 277

How to Write a Reader-Centered Transmittal Letter 277

How to Write Reader-Centered Front Matter 279

How to Write Reader-Centered Back Matter 288

Part VI

DraftiNg Visual ElEmENts 291

chapter 14 | creating reader-centered graphics 292

How to Identify Places Where Graphics Would Increase Your Communication’s Usefulness and Persuasiveness 294

Guideline 1: Find places where graphics would make your communication easier for your reader to use 294

Guideline 2: Find places where graphics can increase your communication’s persuasiveness 295

How to Choose the Type of Graphic Best Matched to Your Objectives 295

Guideline 1: Consider your readers’ tasks 295 WritEr’s tutOrial: Graphics Help Readers Understand and

Use Information 296

Guideline 2: Consider your readers’ attitudes 299 How to Make Your Graphics Easy for Your Readers to

Understand and Use 299

Guideline 1: Design your graphics to support your readers’ tasks 299

Guideline 2: Consider your readers’ knowledge and expectations 300

Guideline 2: Simplify your graphics 300 Guideline 3: Label the important content clearly 301 Guideline 4: Provide informative titles 302 How to Use Color to Support Your Message 303

How to Use Graphics Software and Existing Graphics Effectively 307

How to Integrate Your Graphics with Your Text 308

Guideline 1: Introduce your graphics in your text 308 Guideline 2: Place your graphics near your references to

them 308

Guideline 3: State the conclusions you want your readers to draw 309

Guideline 4: When appropriate, include explanations in your figures 309

How to Determine Whether You Need to Obtain Permission and Cite the Sources for Your Graphics 310

Global Guideline: Adapt your Graphics When Writing to Readers in Other Cultures 310

Ethics Guideline: Avoid Graphics That Mislead 310

Conclusion 312

use WHaT You’Ve learned 314

chapter 15 | creating Eleven types of reader-centered graphics 315

WritEr’s tutOrial: Tables 316

WritEr’s tutOrial: Line graphs 318

WritEr’s tutOrial: Bar Graphs 320

WritEr’s tutOrial: Pictographs 322

WritEr’s tutOrial: Pie Charts 323

WritEr’s tutOrial: Photographs 324

WritEr’s tutOrial: Drawings 326

WritEr’s tutOrial: Screen Shots 328

WritEr’s tutOrial: Flowcharts 330

WritEr’s tutOrial: Organizational Charts 332

WritEr’s tutOrial: Schedule Charts 333

chapter 16 | Designing reader-centered Pages and Documents 334

A Reader-Centered Approach to Design 335

Design Elements of a Communication 335

How to Help Your Reader See How Your Communication Is Organized 336

Guideline 1: Create a grid to serve as the visual framework for your page 336

WritEr’s tutOrial: Designing Grid Patterns for Print 338

Guideline 2: Align related elements with one another 341 Guideline 3: Group related items visually 343 Guideline 4: Use contrast to establish hierarchy and focus 344 Using Word Processors to Create Page Designs 348

How to Use Page Design to Unify a Long Communication Visually 348

How to Select Type That Is Easy for Your Readers to Read 349

How to Choose the Physical Characteristics That Support Your Communication’s Goals 352

Conclusion 352