The film experience corrigan and white pdf

New Examples Appeal to Movie Buffs of Today — and Tomorrow Eye-catching new part and chapter openers spotlight recent movies like Man of Steel, Fruitvale Station, The Avengers, The Great Gatsby, The Heat, and Inception alongside classics like The Wizard of Oz, Psycho, and City of God, linking film’s rich history to contemporary cinema.

Reading about Film: Critical Theories and Methods C h A p T E R 1 1 427

new technology can be seen as merely enhancing the film experience as we have known it (for example, the return of 3-D technologies), in other ways it alters both the medium and our experience of it (for example, the puzzles, interactivity, and convergence culture of video games). Scholars continue to draw on the lega- cies of previous inquiries in film theory in order to identify the salient questions our contemporary audiovisual experience raises and to develop tools with which to address those questions.

11.33 The Matrix (1999). “What is the matrix?” the film’s ad campaign asked. Postmodern theorist Jean Baudrillard is quoted in the film.

This chapter has aimed to demystify the field of film theory, which is not to imply that readers will not have to struggle with theory or do some work to understand film on a more abstract plane. Because film theory is a notoriously difficult discourse, any summary gives it much more continuity than it actu- ally warrants. The film journals in which filmmakers like Eisenstein or Louis Delluc debated the new medium are not unlike film blogs that today consider the future of cinema in an age of media convergence. In reading and pick- ing apart theorists’ work, it is important to recall that referring to “theory” in the abstract is misleading. In reviewing Stuart Hall’s approach to reception theory or Fredric Jameson’s definition of postmodernism, we look at concrete responses to intellectual challenges. The term “theory" is a useful, shorthand way to refer to a body of knowledge and a set of questions. We study this corpus to gain historical perspective — on how realist theory grew from the effects of World War II, for example; to acquire tools for decoding our experi- ences of particular films — like the close analysis of formalism; and above all to comprehend the hold that movies have on our imaginations and desires.

■ Consider whether cinematic specificity is affected by watching films across platforms.

■ Think of insights from other academic disciplines or artistic pursuits that seem to be missing from this account of film theory, and consider what we might learn from these new approaches.

■ How might the formalist and realist film theorists debate the return of 3-D technology?

■ Consider how debates about race and representation raised by a film like 12 Years a Slave (2013) could be reframed by drawing on film theory.

Activities ■ Do a shot-by-shot analysis of the opening sequence of a film. What

codes — of lighting, camera movement, framing, or figure movement — are used to create meaning?

■ Compare reviews of a film from a number of different sources (and periods, if relevant). Pay particular attention to the time and place each review appeared. What does the range of reviews tell you about the film’s reception context(s)?

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Concepts at Work Feature Better Connects Ideas and Films The chapter-ending Concept at Work feature clearly connects each key concept mentioned in the chapter to specific films — both those mentioned in the chapter and other notable examples.

Proven Learning Tools That Foster Critical Viewing and Analysis The Film Experience’s learning tools have been updated for this edition, including new Viewing Cues in every chapter, in-depth Film in Focus essays on films like Stories We Tell and Minority Report, Form in Action boxes with analysis of multiple films, and the very best coverage of writing about film.

Francis Ford Coppola directed Apocalypse Now (1979), one of Hollywood’s most ambitious film narratives, not long after his blockbuster successes The Godfather and The Godfather: Part II and his ingenious The Conversa- tion. Coppola and his first successful films were part of an American renaissance in moviemaking during the 1960s and 1970s, revealing the marked influence of the French New Wave filmmakers Jean-Luc Godard, François Truffaut, and others who brought decidedly experimental and ironic attitudes to film narrative. Apocalypse Now is also one of the first serious attempts by a U.S. director to confront the lingering anger and pain of the Vietnam War, a then-recent and traumatic memory that Americans struggled to make sense of.

The film’s story is deceptively simple: during the Vietnam War, Captain Willard (played by Martin Sheen) and his crew journey into the jungle to find a maverick and rebellious U.S. Army colonel named Kurtz (Mar- lon Brando). The story describes Willard’s increasingly strange encounters in the war-torn jungles of Vietnam and Cambodia. Eventually he finds and confronts the

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bizarre rebel Kurtz at his riverside encamp- ment in Cambodia.

Apocalypse Now constructs its story through a particular plot with a particular nar- rative point of view. The story of Willard and Kurtz could be plotted in a variety of other ways — by offering more information about the crew that accompanies Willard, for instance, or by showing events from an objective point of view rather than from one man’s percep- tions and thoughts. However, the film’s plot concentrates less on the war or on how Kurtz became what he is (which is the main topic of the characters’ conversations) than on Willard and his quest to find Kurtz.

The plot begins with the desperate and shell-shocked Willard being given the assignment to seek out and kill Kurtz, to “terminate with extreme prejudice,” and then fol- lows Willard on his journey as he encounters a variety of strange and surreal people, sights, and activities [Figure 6.43]. In one sense, the plot’s logic is linear and progres- sive: for Willard, each new encounter reveals more about the Vietnam War and about Kurtz. At the same time, the plot creates a regressive temporal pattern: Willard’s journey up the river takes him farther and farther away from a civilized world, returning him to his most primitive instincts.

The mostly first-person voiceover narration of Apoca- lypse Now focuses primarily on what Willard sees around him and on his thoughts about those events. At times, the narration extends beyond Willard’s perspective, showing actions from the perspective of other characters or from a more objective perspective, while still representing the other characters and events as part of Willard’s confused impressions. Bound mostly to Willard’s limited point of view, the narration colors events and other characters with a tone that appears alternately perplexed, weary, and fascinated. As a function of the film’s narration,

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plot and Narration in Apocalypse Now ( 1979 )

See also: The Deer Hunter (1978); Platoon (1986); Full Metal Jacket (1987)

FILM IN FOCUS bedfordstmartins.com /filmexperience

To watch a video about narration in Apocalypse Now, see the Film Experience LaunchPad.

6.43 Apocalypse Now (1979). Toward the end of his journey and the film, one of many shots that approximate the point of view of Willard, the film’s narrator.

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Wes Anderson’s Fantastic Mr. Fox uses stop-motion animation to bring a much-loved Roald Dahl children’s book to life. The tale pits three ruthless farmers against Mr. Fox’s thrill-seeking thievery, pull- ing an array of animals into the fray in the process. Taking Ander- son’s predilection for telling stories through mise-en-scène to its extreme, the film sets its largely underground action within an elab- orately textured design. Since characters, props, and sets are all constructed, the film relies on the coordination of figure movement and lighting to direct the viewer’s attention to narrative elements.

A scene depicting the displaced animals’ new home in Badger’s Flint Mine opens with Mole playing the piano in a relaxed manner reminiscent of 1950s Hollywood [figure 2.39a]. The space is large and tastefully lit by candles and a garland of what appears to be fruit and fake flowers entwined with twinkling lights. Even in this first im- age, however, the storage racks in the background indicate that the gracious living of Badger’s home is being challenged by an influx of refugees and the hoarding of stolen supplies.

The camera tracks right to a kitchen area [figure 2.39b]. Bright, cheery lighting highlights Rabbit chopping ingredients for a commu- nal meal, and the cramped space and detailed abundance of food (like the roasting rack of stolen chickens) indicates both the large number and the camaraderie of the refugee animals.

The camera moves right again to Mr. Fox and Badger, strolling past the opening to a bedroom where the feet of an exhausted ani- mal can be seen lying on a top bunk [figure 2.39c] and discussing the sustainability of the group’s current living arrangement.

The scene ends at a punch bowl [figure 2.39d], beyond which the makeshift aspects of the living arrangements are evident: stolen cases of cider, bags of flour, and chicken carcasses are stored in the background. It is at this point in the shot that Ash, Mr. Fox’s son, believing decisive action is needed to restore Mr. Fox’s honor, asks his cousin Kristofferson to help him retrieve his father’s tail from the ferocious Farmer Bean.

Production design by Nelson Lowery richly colors this tale in which animals dress and act more human than the humans hunting them.

mise-en-scène in Fantastic Mr. Fox (2009)

form in action bedfordstmartins.com/filmexperience

To watch a video about the mise-en-scène of Fantastic Mr. Fox and a clip from the film, see the Film Experience LaunchPad.

2.39b

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f o u r t h E d i t i o n

t h E f i l m E x p E r i E n c E An Introduction

Timothy Corrigan University of Pennsylvania

Patricia White Swarthmore College

Bedford/St. Martin’s Boston  •  New York

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For Bedford/St. Martin’s

Publisher for Communication: Erika Gutierrez Developmental Editor: Jesse Hassenger Senior Production Editor: Harold Chester Senior Production Supervisor: Lisa McDowell Marketing Manager: Tom Digiano Copy Editor: Denise Quirk Indexer: Leoni McVey Photo Researcher: Jennifer Atkins Text Design: Jerilyn Bockorick Cover Design: William Boardman Cover Art: Drive-in movie theater. © Will Steacy/Getty Images Composition: Cenveo Publisher Services Printing and Binding: RR Donnelley and Sons

Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009, 2004 by Bedford/St. Martin’s All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except as may be expressly permitted by the applicable copyright statutes or in writing by the Publisher.

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Acknowledgments

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Distributed outside North America by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS Companies and representatives throughout the world.

ISBN 978-1-137-46395-1

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This book is dedicated to Kathleen and Lawrence Corrigan and Marian and Carr Ferguson, and to Max Schneider-White.

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Timothy Corrigan is a professor of English and Cinema Studies at the University of Pennsylvania. His work in Cinema Studies has focused on modern American and contemporary international cinema. He received a B.A. from the University of Notre Dame and completed graduate work at the University of Leeds, Emory University, and the University of Paris III. His other books include New German Film: The Displaced Image (Indiana UP); The Films of Werner Herzog: Between Mirage and History (Routledge); Writing about Film (Longman/Pearson); A Cinema without Walls: Movies and Culture after Vietnam (Routledge/Rutgers UP); Film and Literature: An Introduction and Reader (Routledge); Critical Visions in Film Theory (Bedford/St. Martin’s), also with Patricia White; American Cinema of the 2000s (Rutgers UP), and The Essay Film: From Montaigne, After Marker (Oxford UP), winner of the 2012 Katherine Singer Kovács Award for the outstanding book in film and media studies. He has published essays in Film Quarterly, Discourse, and Cinema Journal, among other collections, and is also an editor of the journal Adaptation and a former editorial board member of Cinema Journal. In 2014, he received the Society for Cinema and Media Studies Award for Outstanding Peda- gogical Achievement.

Patricia White is a professor of Film and Media Studies at Swarthmore College. She is the author of Women’s Cinema/World Cinema: Projecting 21st Century Feminisms (Duke University Press) and Uninvited: Classical Hollywood Cinema and Lesbian Representability (Indiana University Press), as well as numerous articles and book chapters on film theory and culture. She is coeditor with Timothy Cor- rigan and Meta Mazaj of Critical Visions in Film Theory: Classic and Contemporary Readings (Bedford/St. Martin’s). She served on the editorial collective of the femi- nist film journal Camera Obscura and the board of Women Make Movies and is currently on the advisory boards of Camera Obscura and Film Quarterly.

About the Authors

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preface

“ Experience is not what happens to you; it is what you do with what happens.”

—Aldous Huxley

i n our culture, movies have become a near-universal experience, even as their delivery methods have expanded and changed. Whether watching filmed im- ages unfold over a giant multiplex or local art-house screen, a state-of-the-art TV set or portable tablet, we have all experienced the pleasures that movies can bring: journeying to imaginary worlds, witnessing re-creations of history, observing stars in familiar and unfamiliar roles, and exploring the laughter, thrills, or emotions of different genres. Understanding the full depth and variety of the film experience starts with that enjoyment. But it also requires more than just initial impressions.

This book aims to help students learn the languages of film and synthesize those languages into a cohesive knowledge of the medium that will, in turn, en- hance their movie watching. The Film Experience: An Introduction offers students a serious, comprehensive introduction to the art, industry, culture, and experience of movies—along with the interactive, digital tools and ready-made examples to bring that experience to life.

As movie fans ourselves, we believe that the complete film experience comes from an understanding of both the formal and the cultural aspects of cinema. Knowing how filmmakers use the familiarity of star personas, for example, can be as valuable and enriching as understanding how a particular editing rhythm creates a specific mood. The Film Experience builds on both formal knowledge and cultural contexts to ensure that students gain a well-rounded ability to engage in critical analysis. The new fourth edition is better equipped than ever to meet this challenge, with the best art program in this course, revised Concepts at Work boxes that prompt students to connect their own film experiences to each chapter’s concepts, and the addition of dozens of new video clips and accompanying questions, providing accessible visual examples. The learn- ing tools we have created help students make the transition from movie fan to critical viewer, allowing them to use the knowledge they acquire in this course to enrich their movie-watching experiences throughout their lives.

The Best Coverage of Film’s Formal Elements We believe that comprehensive knowledge of film practices and techniques allows students a deeper and more nuanced understanding of film meaning. Thus The Film Experience provides strong and clear explanations of the major concepts and

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practices in mise-en-scène, cinematography, editing, and sound, plus the best and most extensive coverage of the structure of narrative film, genre, documentaries, and experimental films. Going beyond mere descriptions of the nuts and bolts of film form, The Film Experience highlights how these formal elements can be ana- lyzed and interpreted within the context of a film as a whole—formal studies made even more vivid by our suite of new online film clips.

In choosing our text and video examples, we draw from the widest variety of movies in any introductory text, demonstrating how individual formal elements can contribute to a film’s larger meaning. We understand the importance of con- necting with students through films they may already know, and we have added new examples referring to recent films like Man of Steel, The Great Gatsby, Life of Pi, The Avengers, The Bling Ring, and Fruitvale Station; we also feel that it is our responsibility to help students understand the rich variety of movies throughout history, utilizing classics like The Jazz Singer, Citizen Kane, The African Queen, Bonnie and Clyde, The Godfather, and Chinatown, as well as a wealth of experi- mental, independent, and international films.

Fully Encapsulating the Culture of Film In addition to a strong foundation in film form, we believe that knowledge of the nature and extent of film culture and its impact on our viewing experiences is necessary for a truly holistic understanding of cinema. As such, one of the core pillars of The Film Experience story has always been its focus on the relation- ship among viewers, movies, and the industry. Throughout, the book explores how these connections are shaped by the social, cultural, and economic contexts of films through incisive discussions of such topics as the influence of the star system, the marketing strategies of indies versus blockbusters, and the multi- tude of reasons why we are drawn to some films over others. In particular, the Introduction, “Studying Film: Culture and Experience,” explores the importance of the role of the viewer, recognizing that without avid movie fans there would be no film culture, and offers a powerful rationale for why we should study and think seriously about film. Chapter 1, “Encountering Film: From Preproduction to Exhibition,” details how each step of the filmmaking process—from script to release—informs, and is informed by, the where, when, and why of our movie- watching experiences.

New to This Edition Thanks to the valuable feedback from our colleagues and from our own students, in this new edition we have taken the opportunity to update and enhance The Film Experience for today’s students. As ever, The Film Experience continues to be the best at representing today’s film culture—with cutting-edge coverage of topics like 3-D technology, digital distribution, and social media marketing campaigns.

LaunchPad Solo for The Film Experience Brings Film to Life—through Video This edition takes advantage of the media with a new online platform, home to numerous movie clips, video essays, discussion questions, and more—perfect for interactive learning. Bringing print and digital together, the Viewing Cue feature in the margins of each chapter now includes special video call-outs directing students to a film clip online in LaunchPad Solo for The Film Experience. The video essays are based on the book’s Film in Focus and Form in Action features and illustrate

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the concepts discussed in the chapter. Each film clip or video is accompanied by thought-provoking discussion questions. The LaunchPad Solo platform makes it easy to assign the videos and questions, and, because students will all have access to the same group of clips and activities, classroom conversations can start from a common ground. Access to LaunchPad Solo for The Film Experience can be pack- aged free with the book or purchased on its own.

The Strongest Art Program Available—Now Better Than Ever With more than nine hundred images—the best and most extensive art program in any introductory film text—The Film Experience visually reinforces all the major techniques, concepts, and film traditions discussed in the text. New part-opening and chapter-opening images cover both classic and contemporary cinema, and examples throughout the text have been updated and enhanced. As always, the vast majority of the images are actual film frames from digital sources, rather than publicity or production stills. We have selected the best available source versions and preserved the aspect ratios of the original films whenever possible.

Concepts at Work Boxes Connect Concepts and Films The chapter-ending Concept at Work boxes have been strengthened to clearly con- nect each key concept mentioned in the chapter to specific films—both contemporary films students will recognize and memorable examples from the classics. This better connects the book’s history, theories, and ideas with students’ own film-watching experiences. The feature acts as an accessible walkthrough of the chapter, mak- ing connections to students’ experiences while also reviewing the material they’ve learned. These connections are further enhanced by end-of-chapter activities that can work as in-class discussions or homework assignments.

New Examples from a Broad Range of Films Appeal to Movie Buffs of Today (and Tomorrow) Each generation of students that takes the introductory course (from eighteen- year-old first-year students to returning adults) is familiar with its own recent history of the movies; hence we have updated this edition with a number of new examples that reflect the diverse student body, from Hollywood blockbusters such as The Hunger Games, Gravity, and Frozen to independent fare like Pariah, Much Ado About Nothing, and Stories We Tell, as well as popular international films like Persepolis, My Name Is Khan, and Oldboy.

Proven Learning Tools That Foster Critical Viewing and Analysis The Film Experience transforms students from movie buffs to critical viewers by giving them the help they need to translate their movie experiences into theoretical knowledge and analytical insight. Our host of learning tools includes:

■ Compelling chapter-opening vignettes that immediately place students inside a film. Each vignette, many of them new to this edition, draws from actual scenes in a real movie to connect what students know as movie fans to key ideas in the chapter’s discussion. For example, Chapter 9 opens with a discussion of how the generic familiarity of the conventions and formulas in Edgar Wright’s Shaun of the Dead, Hot Fuzz, and The World’s End contributes to our enjoyment of these films.

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■ Film in Focus essays in each chapter that provide close analyses of specific films, demonstrating how particular techniques or concepts inform and enrich those films. For example, a detailed deconstruction in Chapter 4 of the editing patterns in Bonnie and Clyde shows how they create specific emotional and visceral effects.

■ Form in Action boxes with image-by-image analyses in each formal chapter (Chapters 1–9), giving students a close look at how the formal concepts they read about translate onscreen. With several new additions, including Chapter 5’s comparison of the ways popular music has been used throughout film his- tory, each Form in Action essay brings key cinematic techniques alive and teaches students how to read and dissect a film formally.

■ Marginal Viewing Cues adjacent to key discussions in the chapter highlighting key concepts, prompting students to consider these concepts while viewing films on their own or in class—and to visit our online clip library for some spe- cific examples.

■ The best instruction on writing about film and the most student writing ex- amples of any introductory text. Praised by instructors and students as a key reason they love the book, Chapter 12, “Writing a Film Essay: Observations, Arguments, Research, and Analysis,” is a step-by-step guide to writing papers about film—from taking notes, choosing a topic, and developing an argument to incorporating film images and completing a polished essay. It includes several annotated student essays, including a new one on Steven Spielberg’s Minority Report.

Resources for Students and Instructors For more information on the student resources or to learn more about package options, please visit the online catalog at bedfordstmartins.com/filmexperience/catalog.

■ For students and instructors: LaunchPad Solo for The Film Experience at bedfordstmartins.com/filmexperience.

Available packaged free with The Film Experience or purchased separately, LaunchPad Solo features a collection of short videos, including both film clips and unique annotated video essays designed to give students a deeper look at important film concepts covered in the text. The videos further the discussions in the book and bring them vividly to life. The videos are great as in-class lecture launchers or as motivators for students to explore key film concepts and film history further.

■ For instructors: the Online Instructor’s Resource Manual by Amy Monaghan, Clemson University.

The downloadable Instructor’s Resource Manual recommends methods for teaching the course using the chapter-opening vignettes, the Viewing Cues, and the Film in Focus and Form in Action features. In addition, it offers such standard teaching aids as chapter overviews, questions to generate class dis- cussion, ideas for encouraging critical and active viewing, sample test ques- tions, and sample syllabi. Each chapter of the manual also features a complete, alphabetized list of films referenced in each chapter of the main text. Instruc- tors who have adopted LaunchPad Solo for The Film Experience can find a full instructor section within LaunchPad Solo that includes the Instructor’s Resource Manual and PowerPoint presentations.

■ The Bedford/St. Martin’s Video Resource Library. For qualified adopters, Bedford/St. Martin’s is proud to offer in DVD format a variety of short and

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feature-length films discussed in The Film Experience for use in film courses, including films from the Criterion Collection. For more information, please contact your local sales representative.

Print and Digital Formats For more information on these formats and packaging information, please visit the online catalog at bedfordstmartins.com/filmexperience/catalog.

LaunchPad Solo is a dynamic new platform that dramatically enhances teaching and learning. LaunchPad Solo for The Film Experience collects videos, activities, quizzes, and instructor’s resources on a single site. LaunchPad Solo of- fers a student-friendly approach, organized for easy assignability in a simple user interface. Instructors can create reading, video, or quiz assignments in seconds, as well as embed their own videos or custom content. A gradebook quickly and easily allows instructors to review the progress for a whole class, for individual students, and for individual assignments, while film clips and videos enhance every chapter of the book. LaunchPad Solo can be packaged for free with The Film Experience or purchased on its own. Learn more at bedfordstmartins.com /LaunchPad.

The Film Experience is available as a print text. To get the most out of the book and gain access to the extensive video program, package LaunchPad Solo for free with the text.

The loose-leaf edition of The Film Experience features the same print text in a convenient, budget-priced format, designed to fit into any three-ring binder. Package LaunchPad Solo with the loose-leaf edition for free.

The Bedford e-Book to Go for The Film Experience includes the same con- tent as the print book, and provides an affordable, tech-savvy PDF e-book option for students. Instructors can customize the e-book by adding their own content and deleting or rearranging chapters. Learn more about custom Bedford e-Books to Go at bedfordstmartins.com/ebooks.

Acknowledgments A book of this scope has benefited from the help of many people. A host of review- ers, readers, and friends have contributed to this edition, and Timothy Corrigan is especially grateful to his students and his University of Pennsylvania colleagues Karen Beckman, Peter Decherney, Meta Mazaj, and Nicola Gentili for their hands- on and precise feedback on how to make the best book possible. Patricia White thanks her colleagues in Film and Media Studies at Swarthmore, Bob Rehak and Sunka Simon; the many colleagues and filmmakers who have offered feedback and suggestions for revision, especially Homay King, Helen Lee, and Jim Lyons (in memoriam); and her students and assistants, especially Mara Fortes, Robert Alford, Brandy Monk-Payton, Natan Vega Potler, and Willa Kramer.

Instructors throughout the country have reviewed the book and offered their advice, suggestions, and encouragement at various stages of the project’s develop- ment. For the fourth edition, we would like to thank Jacob Agatucci, Central Or- egon Community College; Elizabeth Alsop, Western Kentucky University; Timothy Boehme, Jefferson College; Jennifer Clark, Fordham University; Angela Dancey, University of Illinois at Chicago; Mark Eaton, Azusa Pacific University; Stacey Effrig, Blue Ridge Community College; Daniel Fitzstephens, University of Colo- rado; Jim Ford, Rogers State University; Todd Kennedy, Nicholls State University; Sherry Lewis, University of Texas El Paso; Jayne Marek, Franklin College; Yosálida C. Rivero-Zaritzky, Mercer University; and Ramsay Wise, University of Missouri– Columbia.

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For the third edition, we would like to thank Kara Anderson, Brooklyn Col- lege; Craig Breit, Cerritos College; John Bruns, College of Charleston; Chris Cagle, Temple University; Donna Campbell, Washington State University; Jonathan Cavallero, Pennsylvania State University; Shayna Connelly, DePaul University; Joe Falocco, Penn State Erie, The Behrend College; Neil Goldstein, Montgomery County Community College; Gregory Dennis Hagan, Madisonville Community Col- lege; Roger Hallas, Syracuse University; D. Scot Hinson, Wittenberg University; Michael Kaufmann, Indiana University—Purdue University Fort Wayne; Glenn Man, University of Hawai’i at M–anoa; Sarah T. Markgraf, Bergen Community College; Tom Marksbury, University of Kentucky; Kelli Marshall, University of Toledo; Michelle McCrillis, Columbus State University; Michael Minassian, Broward Col- lege; Robert Morace, Daemen College; Scott Nygren, University of Florida; Deron Overpeck, Auburn University; Anna Siomopoulos, Bentley University; Lisa Stokes, Seminole State College; Richard Terrill, Minnesota State University, Mankato; and Robert Vettese, Southern Maine Community College.