Beyond Marginality, pages 167–187
Copyright © 2019 by Information Age Publishing
All rights of reproduction in any form reserved. 167
CHAPTER 10
A PROPOSITION FOR A
HOLISTIC APPROACH TO
ADAPTATION AND A UNIFIED
SENSE OF SELF
A Conceptual Framework
in Educational Settings
Detra D. Johnson
University of Louisville
Questions are often raised about how African American women educators
are able to remain in the career despite challenges they face including sex-
ism, racism, inequality, and indifference. In fact, it was from personal experi-
ence in the PK–12 setting that I realized there were systemic, institutionalized
problems that impacted teacher perspectives of teaching and retention of
classroom teachers, particularly African American women teachers. I sought
to conceptualize a study that was reflective of the unique experiences of Af-
rican American women educators while being mindful that the need to in-
crease the number of diverse teachers and administrators is critical because
Co
py
ri
gh
t
©
2
01
8.
I
nf
or
ma
ti
on
A
ge
P
ub
li
sh
in
g.
A
ll
r
ig
ht
s
re
se
rv
ed
.
Ma
y
no
t
be
r
ep
ro
du
ce
d
in
a
ny
f
or
m
wi
th
ou
t
pe
rm
is
si
on
f
ro
m
th
e
pu
bl
is
he
r,
e
xc
ep
t
fa
ir
u
se
s
pe
rm
it
te
d
un
de
r
U.
S.
o
r
ap
pl
ic
ab
le
c
op
yr
ig
ht
l
aw
.
EBSCO Publishing : eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 9/10/2020 10:59 PM via SOUTH UNIV -
SAVANNAH CAMPUS
AN: 1733306 ; Elizabeth T. Murakami.; Beyond Marginality: Understanding the Intersection of Race,
Ethnicity, Gender and Difference in Educational Leadership Research
Account: soc1
168 D. D. JOHNSON
American classrooms are increasingly becoming filled with students of color.
However, most of the educators in these classrooms do not look like the stu-
dents they teach and may not understand the communities they serve. After
conducting research with African American women teachers to gain a deeper
understanding about the dynamics of their perspectives, results from their
particular experiences reinforced a social perspective that paralleled my own
in my role as an African American woman educator (Johnson, 2015). Build-
ing from those, this chapter proposes a holistic approach that reports how
African American women teachers adapted through a unified sense of resil-
iency and self-determination to remain in the career despite challenges and
adversities in educational settings. The findings from this study can also help
inform leadership preparation by illustrating how diverse school leaders and
educators were able to promote racial and social justice as well as human
rights opportunities for all students.
CONCEPTUAL MODEL OF A HOLISTIC APPROACH
TO ADAPTATION AND A UNIFIED SENSE OF SELF
The conceptual model of a holistic approach to adaptation and a unified
sense of self was developed as part of data analysis of hypothesized themes that
were interpreted from interviews with research participants (Johnson, 2015).
From this data analysis, Figure 10.1 represents this model from three African
American women teachers’ perspectives that were collected, analyzed, and
triangulated which led to this proposed model for educational leaders.
This study utilized themes that were derived from two theoretical
frameworks. The theoretical framework of resilience was comprised of ten
themes: deeply committed, enjoys change, bias for optimism, flexible locus
of control, ability to control events, moral and spiritual support, positive
relationships, education, efficacy, and leadership and role model. Schelvis,
Zwetsloot, Bos, and Wiezer (2014) identified three dimensions of resilience
as the following: the ability to change and adapt as necessary, the ability
to recover quickly, and the ability to remain confident and vigorous after
changes. This perspective also supports individuals’ need to develop ways
to respond, monitor, anticipate, and learn when working as school leaders
and educators. The resiliency framework connects and is interrelated to
self-determination dimensions which are equally important for developing
and sustaining school leaders.
There were four themes of self-determination that helped to develop the
foundation for this emerging model. The themes or dimensions of self-de-
termination were autonomy, self-regulation, psychological empowerment,
and self-regulation. Authors Deci and Ryan (2002) reported that a coher-
ent sense of self, that is a sense of wholeness and vitality, is an integration
of both knowledge and experience. With the viewpoints of this integration
Co
py
ri
gh
t
©
2
01
8.
I
nf
or
ma
ti
on
A
ge
P
ub
li
sh
in
g.
A
ll
r
ig
ht
s
re
se
rv
ed
.
Ma
y
no
t
be
r
ep
ro
du
ce
d
in
a
ny
f
or
m
wi
th
ou
t
pe
rm
is
si
on
f
ro
m
th
e
pu
bl
is
he
r,
e
xc
ep
t
fa
ir
u
se
s
pe
rm
it
te
d
un
de
r
U.
S.
o
r
ap
pl
ic
ab
le
c
op
yr
ig
ht
l
aw
.
EBSCO Publishing : eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 9/10/2020 10:59 PM via SOUTH UNIV -
SAVANNAH CAMPUS
AN: 1733306 ; Elizabeth T. Murakami.; Beyond Marginality: Understanding the Intersection of Race,
Ethnicity, Gender and Difference in Educational Leadership Research
Account: soc1
A Holistic Approach to Adaptation and a Unified Sense of Self 169
characterized by humanistic, psychoanalytic, and developmental theories,
organismic metatheory can be used (Deci & Ryan, 2002). Moreover, the
authors conclude that self-determination exists in a dialectic view that in-
teracts between an active, integrating human nature and social contexts
that could either inhibit or develop an individual (organism) active nature
(Deci & Ryan, 2002). This organismic-dialectical perspective can either fa-
cilitate or disrupt the promotion of healthy psychological and social devel-
opment when one needs to adapt to challenges and adversities in life.
Grounded theory was used to present a “conceptually dense” (Denzin
& Lincoln, 2000, p. 278) emergent theory of a holistic approach to adapta-
tion and a unified sense of self. According to Whetten (1989), a complete
theory must contain the following four essentials that include “what”—de-
fines which constructs should be logically considered as part of the expla-
nation of the phenomenon; “how”—pieces together how the constructs
are related; “why”—understands what the underlying psychological, eco-
nomic, or social dynamics are to justify the selection of constructs and the
Figure 10.1 Conceptual model of the holistic approach to adaptation and the
unified sense of self for education leaders.
Co
py
ri
gh
t
©
2
01
8.
I
nf
or
ma
ti
on
A
ge
P
ub
li
sh
in
g.
A
ll
r
ig
ht
s
re
se
rv
ed
.
Ma
y
no
t
be
r
ep
ro
du
ce
d
in
a
ny
f
or
m
wi
th
ou
t
pe
rm
is
si
on
f
ro
m
th
e
pu
bl
is
he
r,
e
xc
ep
t
fa
ir
u
se
s
pe
rm
it
te
d
un
de
r
U.
S.
o
r
ap
pl
ic
ab
le
c
op
yr
ig
ht
l
aw
.
EBSCO Publishing : eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 9/10/2020 10:59 PM via SOUTH UNIV -
SAVANNAH CAMPUS
AN: 1733306 ; Elizabeth T. Murakami.; Beyond Marginality: Understanding the Intersection of Race,
Ethnicity, Gender and Difference in Educational Leadership Research
Account: soc1
170 D. D. JOHNSON
proposed causal relationship; and “when”—examines the appropriateness
of the propositions’ definitions and explanations for application. The dis-
tinct role of each theoretical framework was analyzed specifying the logical,
deduced implications for research as a theoretical argument.
This theoretical model can be defined as “a set of interrelated constructs,
definitions, and propositions that presents a systematic view of a phenom-
ena by specifying relations among variables, with the purpose of explain-
ing and predicting phenomenon” (Kerlinger, 1986, p. 9). In comparison,
Argyris and Schon (1974) have defined theory as “a set of interconnect-
ed propositions that have the same referent—the subject of the theory”
(pp. 4–5). Furthermore, LeCompte and Preissle (1993) reported, “theoriz-
ing is simply the cognitive process into their minds helped to understand
and perceive reality as the participants did” (p. 239). In this study, the expe-
riences and the perceptions of the African American women teachers were
described and explained at a concrete level.
Ultimately, through cross-case analysis, an understanding of the events was
developed so that their experiences be related from the past to the present.
Eventually, clustering and categorizing the events or concepts of my partici-
pants’ voices through their stories created higher-order units that are known
as constructs. Then, it was with these constructs their experiences of resiliency
incorporated with their perceptions of the concept of self-determination that
best describes the relationship between resiliency and self-determination. As
the researcher, propositions of this phenomenon provided an explanation of
relationship between resiliency and self-determination. Some of the themes
of resiliency (autonomy, religion, and flexible locus of control) were related
to dimensions of self-determination (autonomy, self-realization, self-regula-
tion, and psychological empowerment). For example, numerous researchers
have stated that there is a distinct association between an internal locus of
control (i.e., autonomy) and resilience (Hodge, Danish, & Martin, 2012). At
this point, the multiple propositions of relatedness between the themes of
resiliency and self-determination provided the building blocks of an abstract
theory for an emerging theoretical model for a holistic approach to adapta-
tion and a unified sense of self. In order to better contextualize the model,
I will review the context of the study and the model’s developmental back-
ground, the model’s theoretical underpinnings, then conclude this chapter
by discussing how the conceptual model of a holistic approach to adaptation
and a unified sense of self might be used to inform educational leadership
practice and policy research.
Context of the Study
In early August 1964, many African American teachers in a rural
segregated school district in Texas prepared to enter into unknown
Co
py
ri
gh
t
©
2
01
8.
I
nf
or
ma
ti
on
A
ge
P
ub
li
sh
in
g.
A
ll
r
ig
ht
s
re
se
rv
ed
.
Ma
y
no
t
be
r
ep
ro
du
ce
d
in
a
ny
f
or
m
wi
th
ou
t
pe
rm
is
si
on
f
ro
m
th
e
pu
bl
is
he
r,
e
xc
ep
t
fa
ir
u
se
s
pe
rm
it
te
d
un
de
r
U.
S.
o
r
ap
pl
ic
ab
le
c
op
yr
ig
ht
l
aw
.
EBSCO Publishing : eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 9/10/2020 10:59 PM via SOUTH UNIV -
SAVANNAH CAMPUS
AN: 1733306 ; Elizabeth T. Murakami.; Beyond Marginality: Understanding the Intersection of Race,
Ethnicity, Gender and Difference in Educational Leadership Research
Account: soc1
A Holistic Approach to Adaptation and a Unified Sense of Self 171
territories—desegregated schools. This historical event triggered emotions
and professional decisions based on uncertainty and optimism for the few
African American teachers who were allowed to continue to work in the
community in which they had come to know and love. However, optimism
and experience was not enough to sustain most African American teachers
to remain in the career. Adversities and challenges during the transition of
school integration became a new normal for teachers, in particular, African
American women teachers. It was through their abilities to persist in the ca-
reer that their perspectives became critical in the development of shaping
their identities as school leaders.
For this research, a narrative and oral history inquiry technique pro-
vided evidence of the lived experiences of three African American women
teachers who, in their own voices, shared their stories and their percep-
tions of resilience and self-determination in multicultural learning envi-
ronments before, during, and after desegregation. Three African Ameri-
can women teachers from a rural Texas school district participated in the
study. A 37-question interview protocol modified from two original studies
was used to answer the following three research questions: (a) What were
the teaching experiences of African American women teachers in a rural
Southern school district before, during, and after desegregation?; (b) What
characteristics of resilience emerged as themes that influenced retention
and longevity of African American women teachers in a rural Southern
school district before, during, and after desegregation?; and (c) What char-
acteristics of self-determination emerged as themes that influenced reten-
tion and longevity of African American women teachers in a rural Southern
school district before, during, and after desegregation? Interview data was
transcribed and triangulated from the three individual interview sessions
with the participants. Cross-case analysis was used to compare and contrast
the individual participants’ cases that was grounded and authenticated in
the context of the resiliency and self-determination theoretical frameworks.
Testing Resiliency and Self-Determination
Educator resiliency was developed and tested as a conceptual theoretical
framework based on African American women teachers’ perspectives about
desegregation and their decisions to remain in education for many years
despite the adversities that they experienced (Johnson, 2015; Polidore,
2004; Taylor, 2009). In all three studies, African American women teach-
ers were able to prevail in their profession through the lens of resiliency.
From the three studies, ten characteristics of adult resilience were identi-
fied as: positive relationships, deep commitment, bias for optimism, control
of events, efficacy, education as important, religion, leader/professional,
Co
py
ri
gh
t
©
2
01
8.
I
nf
or
ma
ti
on
A
ge
P
ub
li
sh
in
g.
A
ll
r
ig
ht
s
re
se
rv
ed
.
Ma
y
no
t
be
r
ep
ro
du
ce
d
in
a
ny
f
or
m
wi
th
ou
t
pe
rm
is
si
on
f
ro
m
th
e
pu
bl
is
he
r,
e
xc
ep
t
fa
ir
u
se
s
pe
rm
it
te
d
un
de
r
U.
S.
o
r
ap
pl
ic
ab
le
c
op
yr
ig
ht
l
aw
.
EBSCO Publishing : eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 9/10/2020 10:59 PM via SOUTH UNIV -
SAVANNAH CAMPUS
AN: 1733306 ; Elizabeth T. Murakami.; Beyond Marginality: Understanding the Intersection of Race,
Ethnicity, Gender and Difference in Educational Leadership Research
Account: soc1
172 D. D. JOHNSON
enjoys change, and flexible locus of control (Johnson, 2015; Polidore,
2004; Taylor, 2009).
The research findings identified four dimensions of self-determination
which aligned with the ten characteristics of adult resilience that correlat-
ed with the research describing African American women teachers’ per-
spectives about desegregation and their decisions to remain in the career
(Johnson, 2015). The four dimensions of self-determination were identi-
fied as autonomy, psychological empowerment, self-realization, and self-
actualization. Consequently, adult resilience and self-determination both
exhibited interrelated attributes that could impact and contribute to a
teacher’s retention and career longevity. More so, these attributes helped
to understand how the teacher remained in the career to promote racial
and social justice for students, particularly African American students.
RESILIENCE AND SELF-DETERMINATION STUDIES
Limited research addresses African American teachers’ perspectives of race
and diversity in rural educational settings or in schools dominated by stu-
dents of color in rural school communities. Polidore (2004) and Taylor
(2009) studied the topic of educator resiliency with African American wom-
en teachers who served as teachers between the years of 1969–1976. Poli-
dore (2004) gave voice to the experiences of African American women who
taught during a critical period in America’s educational system. Likewise,
Taylor examined the perspectives of African American women teachers re-
lated to their teaching experiences and to the characteristics of resilience
that influenced retention in a particular rural community before, during,
and after desegregation (2009). The examination of the experiences of
three African American women teachers in a Southern rural school district
related to their stories and perceptions of teaching before, during, and af-
ter desegregation, the characteristics of resiliency and self-determination,
and the validation and elaboration of an emerging research model was the
purpose of this study (Johnson, 2015).
Resiliency is defined as “the process of, capacity for, or outcome of suc-
cessful adaptation despite challenging or threatening circumstances” (Mas-
ten, Best, & Garmezy, 1990, p. 425). Educator resiliency is symbolized by
several aspects such as, deep commitment, enjoyment of change, positive
relationships, bias for optimism, morale, and spiritual support, efficacy, flex-
ible locus of control, and control of events (Day, 2008; Polidore, Edmond-
son, & Slate, 2010; Taylor, 2013). However, a deeper understanding of Af-
rican American women educators’ resiliency and self-determination could
provide a foundation for career longevity and teacher effectiveness (Bobek,
2002; Gagne & Deci, 2005; Gu & Day, 2007; Kirby & Grissmer, 1993; Polidore
Co
py
ri
gh
t
©
2
01
8.
I
nf
or
ma
ti
on
A
ge
P
ub
li
sh
in
g.
A
ll
r
ig
ht
s
re
se
rv
ed
.
Ma
y
no
t
be
r
ep
ro
du
ce
d
in
a
ny
f
or
m
wi
th
ou
t
pe
rm
is
si
on
f
ro
m
th
e
pu
bl
is
he
r,
e
xc
ep
t
fa
ir
u
se
s
pe
rm
it
te
d
un
de
r
U.
S.
o
r
ap
pl
ic
ab
le
c
op
yr
ig
ht
l
aw
.
EBSCO Publishing : eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 9/10/2020 10:59 PM via SOUTH UNIV -
SAVANNAH CAMPUS
AN: 1733306 ; Elizabeth T. Murakami.; Beyond Marginality: Understanding the Intersection of Race,
Ethnicity, Gender and Difference in Educational Leadership Research
Account: soc1
A Holistic Approach to Adaptation and a Unified Sense of Self 173
et al., 2010; Taylor, 2013) and an understanding of resistance to change and
teacher burnout (Beltman, Mansfield, & Price, 2011; Malloy & Allen, 2007;
Tait, 2008). Educator resiliency can allow school leaders and educators to
persist through the many challenges and adversities they might face.
According to Deci and Ryan (2002), self-determination theory (SDT)
assumes that humans have an innate, natural, and constructive tendency to
develop an elaborate and unified sense of self. SDT acknowledges construc-
tive tendency as being a crucial fundamental facet of human life. Self-deter-
mination is defined as an innate, natural, and constructive ability to develop
an elaborate sense of self (Deci & Ryan, 2002). Furthermore, understand-
ing African American women educators’ resiliency and self-determination
could possibly lead to further research that could assist in understanding
what contributes to the career longevity of such teachers (Gu & Day, 2007;
Kirby & Grissmer; 1993). In addition, self-determination is defined as an
expression of personal agency that exemplifies one’s strengths, needs, pref-
erences, and limitations to be able to evaluate their goals and options (Mar-
tin & Marshall, 1995). According to Eisenman and Chamberlin (2001) and
Whitney-Thomas and Moloney (2001), self-determination embodies the
following internal characteristics: (a) a consciousness about oneself, (b)
a belief in oneself, and (c) a feeling of empowerment. Self-determination
behaviors include decision-making, problem-solving, support systems, and
goal setting and attainment. Collectively, these characteristics could easily
help to shape school leaders and educators throughout their careers in this
ever changing landscape in education.
The findings from this study confirmed research findings and results from
the previous studies that indicated several factors linked to teacher resiliency
could be generalizable to a larger population of elementary teachers. Edu-
cator resiliency theory was constructed by the following characteristics—re-
ligion, flexible locus of control, optimistic bias, autonomy, commitment,
change, positive relationship, education, and efficacy. Self-determination
characteristics included autonomous functioning, self-regulation, psycho-
logical empowerment and self-realization. Therefore, research findings in-
dicated similarities in the previous research studies as well as new constructs
of resiliency that correlate with the research literature on self-determination
as a factor that contribute to teacher retention and career longevity. An
emerging theoretical model of a holistic approach to adaptation and a uni-
fied sense of self resulted from the data. The study suggested that this model
could assist in educational learning environments for the recruitment, train-
ing, and retention of teachers as well as provide a model for parents and
educators to imitate resilience and self-determination themes as a coping
mechanism for life’s challenges. As a template for mechanisms to defeat
hardships, promote racial and social justice, and support human rights, this
model can be viewed as appropriate and timely for shaping school leaders.
Co
py
ri
gh
t
©
2
01
8.
I
nf
or
ma
ti
on
A
ge
P
ub
li
sh
in
g.
A
ll
r
ig
ht
s
re
se
rv
ed
.
Ma
y
no
t
be
r
ep
ro
du
ce
d
in
a
ny
f
or
m
wi
th
ou
t
pe
rm
is
si
on
f
ro
m
th
e
pu
bl
is
he
r,
e
xc
ep
t
fa
ir
u
se
s
pe
rm
it
te
d
un
de
r
U.
S.
o
r
ap
pl
ic
ab
le
c
op
yr
ig
ht
l
aw
.
EBSCO Publishing : eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 9/10/2020 10:59 PM via SOUTH UNIV -
SAVANNAH CAMPUS
AN: 1733306 ; Elizabeth T. Murakami.; Beyond Marginality: Understanding the Intersection of Race,
Ethnicity, Gender and Difference in Educational Leadership Research
Account: soc1
174 D. D. JOHNSON
Both ecological and organismic dialectical perspectives assisted in the devel-
opment of this holistic model for school leaders and educators.
LIMITATIONS OF CURRENT RESEARCH
Previous documented experiences of teachers have primarily focused on
White teachers and have ignored the experiences of African American
teachers. Searches of doctoral research revealed that no studies had exam-
ined resilience and African American teachers which coincided with their
voices, resiliency, and self-determination. Only recently have the experi-
ences of African American teachers been included in the literature from
which history has been written. The awareness of the memories included
in scholarly research of both White and African American teachers’ memo-
ries, voices, and experiences of historical events in order to extract an inter-
pretation of the events requires a unique undertaking of exploration. How-
ever, it is these teachers’ memories, perceptions, experiences, and voices
that are essential to the destruction of institutional amnesia that marginal-
izes individual memories.
By including the voices and experiences, African American women
teachers’ individual memories will no longer be silenced through institu-
tional amnesia. Much can be learned about the power of achieving your
highest potential as a productive human being through resilience and self-
determination through opportunities to gain deeper understanding of the
perspectives of previously silenced voices. Even though African American
women teachers shared the challenges and adversities of race, gender, and
politics on their individual matriculation from classroom teachers at Black
schools until their retirement as teachers and leaders from White schools,
these unparalleled conditions did not deter them from becoming the
strong and resourceful women that they were destined to become.
The stories told in their own individual voices can serve as a testimo-
ny to the many victories and successes that they each have experienced
both personally and professionally as African American women teachers.
The teachers’ individual stories are inextricably linked to their communal
and collective history. Through the conscious listening to the previously
unheard and silenced voices, the social, cultural, and historical message
of resiliency and self-determination now has a new image. The teachers’
perspectives and experiences inform and provide a more complete aware-
ness and understanding about a hidden and unique phenomenon related
to diverse school leaders and educators as they promote racial and social
justice in our school systems.
This study recognized the challenges in the classroom at both all-Black
and predominately White schools where teachers felt strongly that it was
Co
py
ri
gh
t
©
2
01
8.
I
nf
or
ma
ti
on
A
ge
P
ub
li
sh
in
g.
A
ll
r
ig
ht
s
re
se
rv
ed
.
Ma
y
no
t
be
r
ep
ro
du
ce
d
in
a
ny
f
or
m
wi
th
ou
t
pe
rm
is
si
on
f
ro
m
th
e
pu
bl
is
he
r,
e
xc
ep
t
fa
ir
u
se
s
pe
rm
it
te
d
un
de
r
U.
S.
o
r
ap
pl
ic
ab
le
c
op
yr
ig
ht
l
aw
.
EBSCO Publishing : eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 9/10/2020 10:59 PM via SOUTH UNIV -
SAVANNAH CAMPUS
AN: 1733306 ; Elizabeth T. Murakami.; Beyond Marginality: Understanding the Intersection of Race,
Ethnicity, Gender and Difference in Educational Leadership Research
Account: soc1
A Holistic Approach to Adaptation and a Unified Sense of Self 175
necessary to systematically and personally process to overcome adverse
situations by advancing the concepts of resilience and self-determination
through the voices of teachers who chose to remain in the profession. The
teachers’ willingness and cooperation to share their perspectives and expe-
riences through this study provided an avenue and awareness to a part of
educational history that is no longer hidden or silenced. It is for this that
communities should be thankful for each teacher who was a pioneer in
the desegregation process. Their voices will be heard and each individual
who participated is no longer silenced by institutionalized amnesia. Help-
ing educators and school leaders to develop positive responses, to become
resilient, and to be self-determined in challenging situations in schools,
may enhance the likelihood that educators will remain in the profession.
THE HOLISTIC APPROACH TO ADAPTATION AND A
UNIFIED SENSE OF SELF CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND
MODEL OF RESILIENCE AND SELF-DETERMINATION
As a researcher, the goal was to test the developed theory based on the re-
search findings from the following and two other previous research studies
(Johnson, 2015; Polidore, 2004; Taylor, 2009). The conceptual model of a
holistic approach to adaptation and a unified sense of self was developed
from the documented and analyzed data from each participant utilizing the
theoretical model of resilience in education and self-determination frame-
work (Polidore, 2004). Figure 10.2 represents the theoretical model used
for resilience in education. The use of this model tested previous studies’
results with African American women teachers to be later used with a larger
model of educational leaders. A new proposed theoretical conceptual mod-
el would be asserted and such tests would be made with positive results. It
can also be understood that it is proper expectation for scientific research
to disconfirm a theory so that it can be replaced with a more suitable one.
According to Polidore (2004), each of the themes were based on research
on the construct of resilience utilizing an ecological and development per-
spective which provide the framework shown below. Providing a systemic
view of resiliency through ecological and developmental perspectives
rather than the unusual trait assessment of resilience was most appropriate
(Polidore, 2004; Walsh, 2006). The supposition of the resiliency framework,
typically attentive to children and adolescents, is that adults tend to develop
resiliency through relationships over a lifetime. Walsh (1998) contends that
when adults learn to cope and adapt through multiple processes rather
than a fixed set of attributes, adult resiliency is developed. An ecological
perspective acknowledges that adult learning is an evolving process that
takes place over one’s lifetime and determines how well one is able to adapt
Co
py
ri
gh
t
©
2
01
8.
I
nf
or
ma
ti
on
A
ge
P
ub
li
sh
in
g.
A
ll
r
ig
ht
s
re
se
rv
ed
.
Ma
y
no
t
be
r
ep
ro
du
ce
d
in
a
ny
f
or
m
wi
th
ou
t
pe
rm
is
si
on
f
ro
m
th
e
pu
bl
is
he
r,
e
xc
ep
t
fa
ir
u
se
s
pe
rm
it
te
d
un
de
r
U.
S.
o
r
ap
pl
ic
ab
le
c
op
yr
ig
ht
l
aw
.
EBSCO Publishing : eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 9/10/2020 10:59 PM via SOUTH UNIV -
SAVANNAH CAMPUS
AN: 1733306 ; Elizabeth T. Murakami.; Beyond Marginality: Understanding the Intersection of Race,
Ethnicity, Gender and Difference in Educational Leadership Research
Account: soc1
176 D. D. JOHNSON
to external processes and environmental influences. Environment influ-
ences include such dynamics as work, family, school, and/or larger social
systems throughout an individual’s life span (Walsh, 2006).
The purpose of this chapter is to provide an overview of a holistic approach
to adaptation and a unified sense of self conceptual model in educational
settings which can provide a “big picture” to help understand the model as
a point of reference. This conceptual model can serve as a bridge between
the gap of theoretical models, resiliency and self-determination, and empiri-
cal research as a method that proves practical for realistic application in the
tasks of research. More so, the major purpose of this chapter is to strengthen
and expand the conceptual framework/model for school leadership devel-
opment so that it may have more utility as a research and intervention model
for educators. Dubin (1978) stated that with this bridge “emphasis is put
upon the traffic between theory and research and the essential links that
maintain their constant interaction” (p. 2). This functioning bridge could
be considered as an interaction between theory and research. The link or
bridge between theory and research can be explained through illustrations
or drawings to focus attention to the application of the theoretical construct
Developmental Perspective (Life Cycle)
Deeply
Committed
Enjoys
Change
Bias for
Optimism
Positive
Relationships
Education
Important
Can
Control
Events
Flexible
Locus of
Control
Moral/
Spiritual
Support
Resilient
Educator
Ec
olo
gical Perspective
Figure 10.2 Polidore (2004) graphic conceptualization of resilience in education
theoretical framework. Source: Polidore (2004). Reprinted with permission.
Co
py
ri
gh
t
©
2
01
8.
I
nf
or
ma
ti
on
A
ge
P
ub
li
sh
in
g.
A
ll
r
ig
ht
s
re
se
rv
ed
.
Ma
y
no
t
be
r
ep
ro
du
ce
d
in
a
ny
f
or
m
wi
th
ou
t
pe
rm
is
si
on
f
ro
m
th
e
pu
bl
is
he
r,
e
xc
ep
t
fa
ir
u
se
s
pe
rm
it
te
d
un
de
r
U.
S.
o
r
ap
pl
ic
ab
le
c
op
yr
ig
ht
l
aw
.
EBSCO Publishing : eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 9/10/2020 10:59 PM via SOUTH UNIV -
SAVANNAH CAMPUS
AN: 1733306 ; Elizabeth T. Murakami.; Beyond Marginality: Understanding the Intersection of Race,
Ethnicity, Gender and Difference in Educational Leadership Research
Account: soc1
A Holistic Approach to Adaptation and a Unified Sense of Self 177
model. Quite possibly one goal of scientific research and the justification for
publication is the revision or modification in the structure of ideas which
may encourage researchers to contribute or extend this conceptual model.
An integrated model of resiliency and self-determination in education could
provide a new perspective about recruitment, selection, training, and reten-
tion of educators, particularly African American teachers and a model to un-
derstand the multiple identities that shape school leaders.
The process of developing this conceptual model was similar to Dubin’s
(1978) process that identified the following 8 steps: (a) developing the units
or structure of the theory, (b) specifying the relationships among the units
or structure of the theory, (c) determining the boundaries within which
the theory functions, (d) illuminating the systems stars in which the theory
is expected to function, (e) specifying the propositions or truth statements
about how the theory is expected to operate, (f) characterizing the em-
pirical indicators used to make the propositions testable, (g) constructing
a hypothesis to predict the values and relationships among units, and (h)
conducting research studies to test the predicted values and relationships
(Chermack, 2005). Authors Sutton and Staw (1995) contend that empiri-
cal evidence can play a pivotal and crucial role in confirming, revising, or
discrediting existing theory and in the pursuit of developing a new theory.
After coding the data for units of meaning and then sorting the indi-
vidual pieces of meaning into categories, the transcripts were revisited with
an eye of identifying “recurring regularities in the data” (Merriam, 2009,
p. 135) that could help organize the mass amount of information that had
been collected. Once focused on the three distinct research questions as
they related to the time periods covered in the study (before, during, and
after desegregation), as a research, the process was to step back and view
the data from a global perspective. The term “themes” was used to describe
the patterns that were found repeatedly within the interview transcriptions.
All hypothesized themes were interpreted in the interviews with the partici-
pants. The themes were linked to the individual participants’ stories and
voices even though their personal experiences were unique and specific
to them. Over the course of several weeks, the initial list of themes was
reduced into a more rigorous, shorter list of themes. The shorter list of
themes included resiliency (autonomy, religion, flexible locus of control,
and leader/role model) and themes of self-determination (autonomy,
self-realization, self-regulation, and psychological empowerment). Each of
these themes was prevalent across the research process.
Essentially, themes emerged to at least some degree of each phase of
the research timeline; while participants worked as teachers in segregated
schools, while their districts were implementing desegregation plans, and
after the teachers worked in desegregated predominantly white schools. In
the discussions below, each theme is explained in order to highlight how
Co
py
ri
gh
t
©
2
01
8.
I
nf
or
ma
ti
on
A
ge
P
ub
li
sh
in
g.
A
ll
r
ig
ht
s
re
se
rv
ed
.
Ma
y
no
t
be
r
ep
ro
du
ce
d
in
a
ny
f
or
m
wi
th
ou
t
pe
rm
is
si
on
f
ro
m
th
e
pu
bl
is
he
r,
e
xc
ep
t
fa
ir
u
se
s
pe
rm
it
te
d
un
de
r
U.
S.
o
r
ap
pl
ic
ab
le
c
op
yr
ig
ht
l
aw
.
EBSCO Publishing : eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 9/10/2020 10:59 PM via SOUTH UNIV -
SAVANNAH CAMPUS
AN: 1733306 ; Elizabeth T. Murakami.; Beyond Marginality: Understanding the Intersection of Race,
Ethnicity, Gender and Difference in Educational Leadership Research
Account: soc1
178 D. D. JOHNSON
these patterns manifested across the data. However, it was important to be
alert to the possibility that patterns would interconnect in the participants’
data that may differ from what was expected. Miles and Huberman (1994)
described this encounter with the data as “following up surprises” (p. 270).
A cross-case analysis was used to link the categories and to address the re-
search questions to see what experiences they held in common. Descriptions
and interpretation of the categories were aggregated based on the individ-
ual teachers’ interview responses on a case by case basis. Identifying themes
allowed a portrait to emerge from the essence of the teachers’ experiences
and perspectives. Although the participants in this study discussed and re-
lated information specific to a Texas school district, synthesizing the teach-
ers’ voices and stories in this manner provided a means for other scholars
to compare and contrast events and circumstances in other research sites.
In-depth experiences and perceptions of teachers who taught before,
during, and after desegregation was shared through a unique inquiry told
in their own voices and through personal and professional stories. Their ex-
periences and perceptions were collected, analyzed, and triangulated which
led to an emerging theoretical model for a holistic approach to adaptation
and a unified sense of self. Figure 10.3 represents the model which revealed
nine themes from Polidore’s (2004) and Taylor’s (2009) theoretical model
of adult resilience with the efficacy theme added. Figure 10.4 presents their
model with the added theme of leadership and role model. The themes of
resiliency were deeply committed, enjoys change, bias for optimism, flex-
ible locus of control, ability to control events, moral and spiritual support,
positive relationships, education, and efficacy.
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND MODEL VALIDATION
AND IMPLICATION
With the increasing demands and stressors from our national-, state-, and
local-level accountability policies and standards, educational leaders are of-
ten overwhelmed and challenged to remain in the education profession.
Theoretical construction serves as the approach between theory and re-
search in which either could provide definitive answers to society’s practical
and sensible ideas. The following serves as a recommendation of examples
of how stakeholders including policymakers, school leaders, and teachers
can effectively employ the resiliency and self-determination conceptual
framework in schools based on leadership policies.
Policy makers should take a systematic view at teacher hiring, induc-
tion, training, and retention processes that includes programs that can ef-
fectively recruit and hire teachers that exhibit characteristics of resiliency
and self-determination. Teacher recruitment and hiring are complicated
Co
py
ri
gh
t
©
2
01
8.
I
nf
or
ma
ti
on
A
ge
P
ub
li
sh
in
g.
A
ll
r
ig
ht
s
re
se
rv
ed
.
Ma
y
no
t
be
r
ep
ro
du
ce
d
in
a
ny
f
or
m
wi
th
ou
t
pe
rm
is
si
on
f
ro
m
th
e
pu
bl
is
he
r,
e
xc
ep
t
fa
ir
u
se
s
pe
rm
it
te
d
un
de
r
U.
S.
o
r
ap
pl
ic
ab
le
c
op
yr
ig
ht
l
aw
.
EBSCO Publishing : eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 9/10/2020 10:59 PM via SOUTH UNIV -
SAVANNAH CAMPUS
AN: 1733306 ; Elizabeth T. Murakami.; Beyond Marginality: Understanding the Intersection of Race,
Ethnicity, Gender and Difference in Educational Leadership Research
Account: soc1
A Holistic Approach to Adaptation and a Unified Sense of Self 179
practices in which pre-employment or university-based programs may not
be sufficient in providing the appropriate and significant knowledge and
skills required for successful and sustainable teaching. Effective recruit-
ment of educators who are resilient and self-determined can improve the
performance of beginning teachers which decreases the loss of teachers
and increases student achievement (Ingersoll & Strong, 2011).
When school district leadership policies and policy makers focus on
teacher support that assist teachers with developing a holistic approach to
adaptation and a unified sense of self for professional learning, teaching,
and teacher leadership development opportunities which improves qual-
ity and positively impacts student learning. Policy makers should consider
the conceptual framework as a reliable approach and as a valuable com-
ponent that creates resilient and self-determined educators. For example,
Developmental Perspective (Life Cycle)
Deeply
Committed
Enjoys
Change
Bias for
Optimism
Positive
Relationships
Efficacy
Education
Important
Can
Control
Events
Flexible
Locus of
Control
Moral/
Spiritual
Support
Resilient
Educator
Ec
olo
gical Perspective
Figure 10.3 Polidore (2004) and Taylor (2009) graphic conceptualization of
resilience in education theoretical framework. Source: Taylor (2009). Reprinted
with permission.
Co
py
ri
gh
t
©
2
01
8.
I
nf
or
ma
ti
on
A
ge
P
ub
li
sh
in
g.
A
ll
r
ig
ht
s
re
se
rv
ed
.
Ma
y
no
t
be
r
ep
ro
du
ce
d
in
a
ny
f
or
m
wi
th
ou
t
pe
rm
is
si
on
f
ro
m
th
e
pu
bl
is
he
r,
e
xc
ep
t
fa
ir
u
se
s
pe
rm
it
te
d
un
de
r
U.
S.
o
r
ap
pl
ic
ab
le
c
op
yr
ig
ht
l
aw
.
EBSCO Publishing : eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 9/10/2020 10:59 PM via SOUTH UNIV -
SAVANNAH CAMPUS
AN: 1733306 ; Elizabeth T. Murakami.; Beyond Marginality: Understanding the Intersection of Race,
Ethnicity, Gender and Difference in Educational Leadership Research
Account: soc1
180 D. D. JOHNSON
leadership policy and policy making stakeholders should incorporate the
resiliency and self-determination model as part of the interview protocol or
guidelines that considers state required, highly qualified teacher expecta-
tions. Another example for policy makers and school leadership policies
would be to strategically plan for the costs associated with return on invest-
ments for induction or teacher development programs for new teachers.
Several studies have calculated that between 40% and 50% of new teachers
leave within the first 5 years of entry into teaching.
By creating policies utilizing the resiliency and self-determination con-
ceptual framework directed at new teachers through formal induction,
mentoring, and tiered credentialing, the goal of retaining teachers ensures
teacher effectiveness, warrants school leadership accountability, endorses
student learning, and minimizes hiring costs. Carver and Feiman-Nemser
Developmental Perspective (Life Cycle)
Deeply
Committed
Enjoys
Change
Bias for
Optimism
Positive
Relationships
Leader and
Role ModelEfficacy
Education
Important
Can
Control
Events
Flexible
Locus of
Control
Moral/
Spiritual
Support
Resilient
Educator
Ec
olo
gical Perspective
Figure 10.4 Johnson (2015) addition to the existing model of Polidore (2004)
and Taylor (2009) graphic conceptualization of resilience in education theoretical
framework. Sources: Polidore (2004)and Taylor (2009). Adapted with permission.
Co
py
ri
gh
t
©
2
01
8.
I
nf
or
ma
ti
on
A
ge
P
ub
li
sh
in
g.
A
ll
r
ig
ht
s
re
se
rv
ed
.
Ma
y
no
t
be
r
ep
ro
du
ce
d
in
a
ny
f
or
m
wi
th
ou
t
pe
rm
is
si
on
f
ro
m
th
e
pu
bl
is
he
r,
e
xc
ep
t
fa
ir
u
se
s
pe
rm
it
te
d
un
de
r
U.
S.
o
r
ap
pl
ic
ab
le
c
op
yr
ig
ht
l
aw
.
EBSCO Publishing : eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 9/10/2020 10:59 PM via SOUTH UNIV -
SAVANNAH CAMPUS
AN: 1733306 ; Elizabeth T. Murakami.; Beyond Marginality: Understanding the Intersection of Race,
Ethnicity, Gender and Difference in Educational Leadership Research
Account: soc1
A Holistic Approach to Adaptation and a Unified Sense of Self 181
(2009) report that long-term investment including professional develop-
ment in purposeful policies which support teacher recruitment, hiring,
training, and retention for teacher development are positively linked to
gains in student achievement. When school districts utilize the constructs
of the conceptual framework of a holistic approach to adaptation and a uni-
fied sense of self that incorporates the themes of adult resilience and self-
determination, they may find that their teachers could experience more
professional, personal, and social success. On the same note, school dis-
tricts should look for and consider this conceptual model when consider-
ing recruitment, training, and retention of school leaders.
The theory behind induction holds that teaching is complex work; pre-
employment teacher preparation is not really sufficient to provide all of the
knowledge and skills necessary to successful teaching. A significant portion of
training can only be acquired on the job. The goals of the support programs
are to improve the performance and retention of beginning teachers—not
only to prevent the loss of high-quality teachers; but to improve teacher ef-
fectiveness and to develop human capital an asset with the goal of improving
student learning and academic success. (Ingersoll & Strong, 2011). Utilizing
this conceptual model provides a nexus that supports the retention of class-
room teachers. Teachers and school leaders could use the model as a method
to identify those characteristics necessary to remain in the career.
By understanding, the processes of resiliency and self-determination, that
is the ability of adapting to adversities and challenges through problem solv-
ing, the implications for teachers with the help of school leaders, would be to
learn how remaining confident and committed to their work increases their
intentions to remain in the career. The processes of resilience and self-deter-
mination practiced through the understanding of a sense of autonomy (con-
trol events), efficacy (psychological empowerment), self-realization (religion
or spirituality), and self-regulation (flexible locus of control) when innova-
tively linked, creates a level of synergism that helps teachers persists through
demanding and potentially problematic circumstances. More so, school lead-
ers should consider potential sources of support for new teachers—hiring
practices, relationships with colleagues, and curriculum—all found within
earlier research, to influence new teacher satisfaction with their work, their
sense of success with their students, and their eventual retention with their
teaching career (Johnson, Kardos, Kauffman, Liu, & Donaldson, 2004). This
discovery implies that by having a clearer understanding of resiliency and
self-determination factors as a holistic approach to adaptation and a unified
sense of self could influence teachers and school leaders to increase teacher
retention and decrease teacher turnover.
Teachers play an important role in the development of our children
and future productive citizens in this country. The strategies and processes
in the recruitment, training, and retention of teachers and school leaders
Co
py
ri
gh
t
©
2
01
8.
I
nf
or
ma
ti
on
A
ge
P
ub
li
sh
in
g.
A
ll
r
ig
ht
s
re
se
rv
ed
.
Ma
y
no
t
be
r
ep
ro
du
ce
d
in
a
ny
f
or
m
wi
th
ou
t
pe
rm
is
si
on
f
ro
m
th
e
pu
bl
is
he
r,
e
xc
ep
t
fa
ir
u
se
s
pe
rm
it
te
d
un
de
r
U.
S.
o
r
ap
pl
ic
ab
le
c
op
yr
ig
ht
l
aw
.
EBSCO Publishing : eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 9/10/2020 10:59 PM via SOUTH UNIV -
SAVANNAH CAMPUS
AN: 1733306 ; Elizabeth T. Murakami.; Beyond Marginality: Understanding the Intersection of Race,
Ethnicity, Gender and Difference in Educational Leadership Research
Account: soc1
182 D. D. JOHNSON
could greatly impact student outcomes and school effectiveness. Adminis-
trators should encourage teachers to not only provide responsive pedago-
gy; but they should also encourage teachers to be great leaders and positive
role models. When school districts utilize the constructs of the theoretical
model of a holistic approach to adaptation and a unified sense of self that
incorporates the themes of resilience and self-determination, they may find
that their students could experience more academic and social success.
Recruiting and training teachers and school leaders is crucial in the de-
velopment of students to meet the changing needs of our society. School
districts should recruit school leaders and teachers who exhibit not only the
qualities of an effective teacher/leader, but they should recruit teachers/
leaders who exhibit characteristics of a resilient and self-determined teach-
er/leaders. Teachers and school leaders can be trained to look for and to
nurture resiliency and self-determination in all students, especially students
of color, students with learning and physical disabilities, and students from
low socio-economic backgrounds.
Unfortunately, teacher retention continues to be one of the nation’s most
significant struggles in education. Three out of five teachers leave the career
within the first 5 years in the profession due to factors including recruitment,
hiring, and training practices as well as the lack of support (Darling-Hammond,
2001; Ingersoll & Strong, 2011). Those familiar with this train of thought may
be interested to know that high quality teacher induction practices of selecting
and training teachers who exhibit resiliency and self-determination could po-
tentially improve educators professional learning, teaching effectiveness, and
leadership capacity. Both teachers and principals could significantly benefit
from communicating the conceptual framework for resiliency and self-deter-
mination as a strategy for improving teacher performance, increasing teacher
retention, providing professional and personal well-being, transmitting a posi-
tive culture on the campus and within the educational system, and satisfying
district requirements and state mandates (Glassford & Salinitri, 2007). For
example, teacher performance could be improved when principals are aware
of teachers’ characteristics of self-efficacy, particularly when they are teaching
in high need areas. Teachers who exhibit high levels of self-efficacy are more
than likely to remain on campus rather than transfer or leave. Principals can
use this aspect of resiliency to empower teachers support and motivate other
teachers to stay when they might consider leaving.
Utilizing a holistic approach to adaptation and unified sense of self dur-
ing challenging situations helps to ensure successful professional learn-
ing, teaching, and intentions to remain in education. Schools and school
districts that are struggling academically should not also be faced with
the struggle of retaining teachers. Ingersoll and Smith (2003) agree that
high quality teacher support could cut teacher turnover dramatically. For
instance, SDT conceives that school environments that support teachers’
Co
py
ri
gh
t
©
2
01
8.
I
nf
or
ma
ti
on
A
ge
P
ub
li
sh
in
g.
A
ll
r
ig
ht
s
re
se
rv
ed
.
Ma
y
no
t
be
r
ep
ro
du
ce
d
in
a
ny
f
or
m
wi
th
ou
t
pe
rm
is
si
on
f
ro
m
th
e
pu
bl
is
he
r,
e
xc
ep
t
fa
ir
u
se
s
pe
rm
it
te
d
un
de
r
U.
S.
o
r
ap
pl
ic
ab
le
c
op
yr
ig
ht
l
aw
.
EBSCO Publishing : eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 9/10/2020 10:59 PM via SOUTH UNIV -
SAVANNAH CAMPUS
AN: 1733306 ; Elizabeth T. Murakami.; Beyond Marginality: Understanding the Intersection of Race,
Ethnicity, Gender and Difference in Educational Leadership Research
Account: soc1
A Holistic Approach to Adaptation and a Unified Sense of Self 183
needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness will enhance teachers’
commitment, engagement, and intentions to stay in the career (Ryan &
Deci, 2000). Resiliency advances that high levels of positive self-efficacy, au-
tonomy, and constructive views of education also stimulates teachers’ will-
ingness to remain in the career. For example, incorporating high quality
professional development that does not narrow teacher professional discre-
tion, focus on lower-order learning, conflicts with building or constructing
flexible learning opportunities, or stifles autonomy help to influence teach-
ers’ professional learning, teaching, and leadership opportunities (Achin-
stein, Ogawa, & Speiglman, 2004). Consistent with the framework, it seems
clear that resiliency and self-determination suggests that teachers’ inten-
tions to stay in the career could improve with organizational conditions
such as effective and quality professional development and encouraging
leadership behaviors.
More so, universities could use the constructs of the conceptual model to
effectively train teachers and school administrators to be resilient and self-de-
termined leaders and role models in the classroom and on campuses. Univer-
sities could use the constructs of the theoretical model of a holistic approach
to adaptation and a unified sense of self to effectively train teachers to be
resilient and self-determined leaders and role models in the classroom. Effec-
tively trained teachers modeling resiliency and self-determination could have
a domino effect for successful schools and successful students. The attributes
of resiliency and self-determination should be a part of the development of
productive and successful students. Over time, the synergy of this approach
will help develop self-determined and resilient citizens.
The knowledge of the experiences and perspectives shared between the
African American women teachers as participants and me as the researcher
becomes an opportunity for growth in cultural knowledge, understand-
ing, and education that can benefit a wider audience outside the African
American community. Hopefully, this research will contribute to scholarly
work about public school teachers that highlights the intersections of race,
gender, and politics as they pertain to public school teachers, particularly
African American teachers. It is my intention to bring about the opportu-
nity for increased educational and cultural discourse from my participants
who shared their experiences and memories specific to them because of
the historical era through which they lived and worked. This historical era
was essential in what they experienced and the impact of race, gender, and
the social, political, and cultural nuances of recruiting, training, and retain-
ing of African American teachers. A discussion of the implications of the
conceptual model of a holistic approach to adaptation and a unified sense
of self was viewed as the possible needs of the learning community that
includes teachers, administrators, and universities. With the increasing de-
mands and stressors from our national, state, and local level accountability
Co
py
ri
gh
t
©
2
01
8.
I
nf
or
ma
ti
on
A
ge
P
ub
li
sh
in
g.
A
ll
r
ig
ht
s
re
se
rv
ed
.
Ma
y
no
t
be
r
ep
ro
du
ce
d
in
a
ny
f
or
m
wi
th
ou
t
pe
rm
is
si
on
f
ro
m
th
e
pu
bl
is
he
r,
e
xc
ep
t
fa
ir
u
se
s
pe
rm
it
te
d
un
de
r
U.
S.
o
r
ap
pl
ic
ab
le
c
op
yr
ig
ht
l
aw
.
EBSCO Publishing : eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 9/10/2020 10:59 PM via SOUTH UNIV -
SAVANNAH CAMPUS
AN: 1733306 ; Elizabeth T. Murakami.; Beyond Marginality: Understanding the Intersection of Race,
Ethnicity, Gender and Difference in Educational Leadership Research
Account: soc1
184 D. D. JOHNSON
policies and standards, teachers are overwhelmed and challenged to re-
main in the teaching profession.
As a result of this study and the lack of scholarly research related to the
phenomena of resiliency and self-determination, the following recommen-
dations would be beneficial for scholars to continue the research initiated
in this inquiry:
1. Conduct more in-depth research focused on one or more selected
participants from this study as a documentary.
2. Conduct quantitative analysis of the information collected in
the study to aggregate the data on multiple levels and to provide
thicker descriptions.
3. Conduct interviews with other African American women teachers
who left school districts with similar characteristics to those in the
study to determine if their experiences were transferred to other
school districts.
4. Conduct interviews of other stakeholders who were present dur-
ing the same time period that the three African American women
teachers worked in the school district (include African American
men, White women, White men, and any other races/ethnicities
who were teachers and administrators).
5. Conduct research on African American women teachers’ experi-
ences in suburban school districts during the same time period.
6. Conduct case study research of the lives and experiences of African
American women teachers in both segregated and desegregated
schools located in small communities elsewhere in the country to
help fill the gap in literature.
7. Examine the impact of desegregation of the African American
community (students, parents, and stakeholders).
8. Examine the re-segregation within urban, suburban, and rural
school districts.
9. Examine the impact of recruitment, hiring, training, and retention
of African American teachers after desegregation.
These studies would contribute to the emerging model of a holistic ap-
proach to adaptation and a unified sense of self as a conceptual framework
and model of resilience and self-determination to help shape school lead-
ers specifically by looking at the experiences that mirror the theoretical
frameworks of resiliency and self-determination.
SUMMARY
Rarely have the voices of those who have been marginalized or devalued
been included in the strategies to transform school districts to address the
Co
py
ri
gh
t
©
2
01
8.
I
nf
or
ma
ti
on
A
ge
P
ub
li
sh
in
g.
A
ll
r
ig
ht
s
re
se
rv
ed
.
Ma
y
no
t
be
r
ep
ro
du
ce
d
in
a
ny
f
or
m
wi
th
ou
t
pe
rm
is
si
on
f
ro
m
th
e
pu
bl
is
he
r,
e
xc
ep
t
fa
ir
u
se
s
pe
rm
it
te
d
un
de
r
U.
S.
o
r
ap
pl
ic
ab
le
c
op
yr
ig
ht
l
aw
.
EBSCO Publishing : eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 9/10/2020 10:59 PM via SOUTH UNIV -
SAVANNAH CAMPUS
AN: 1733306 ; Elizabeth T. Murakami.; Beyond Marginality: Understanding the Intersection of Race,
Ethnicity, Gender and Difference in Educational Leadership Research
Account: soc1
A Holistic Approach to Adaptation and a Unified Sense of Self 185
issues and challenges faced by teachers in public schools across the country.
The African American women teacher participants from this study were
able to adapt and to develop a unified sense of self to resist the oppression
of the social and historical politics that hid and masked persistent preju-
dices, discrimination, and social injustice that each of these women teach-
ers encountered and endured as they transitioned before, during, and after
desegregation in a Southern rural school district in Texas. These experi-
ences help to support a comprehensible conceptual framework/model of
resiliency and self-determination that seeks to identify and articulate the
underlying psychological and developmental mechanisms that underpin
optimal human functioning, adaptation, and positive psychosocial develop-
ment required for today’s school leaders. Today’s and tomorrow’s school
leaders must be able to employ and utilize the practical outcomes of this
model to examine the direct measures of ecological and organismic-dia-
lectical perspectives that affect school leadership development, which in
turn will provide important information about how practitioners can adapt,
modify, and improve the quality of educational leadership programs. We
need to conduct theoretically driven causal inferences regarding school
leadership. Therefore, this template is offered as a conceptual model of
school leadership development that focuses on racial and social justice as a
potential theoretical framework to guide such research.
REFERENCES
Achinstein, B., Ogawa, R. T., & Speiglman, A. (2004). Are we creating separate and
unequal tracks of teachers? The effects of state policy, local conditions, and
teacher characteristics on new teacher socialization. American Educational Re-
search Journal, 41(3), 557–604.
Argyris, C., & Schon, D. A. (1974). Theory in practice: Increasing professional effective-
ness. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Beltman, S., Mansfield, C., & Price, A. (2011). Thriving not just surviving: A review
of research on teacher resilience. Educational Research Review, 6(3), 185–207.
Bobek, B. L. (2002). Teacher resiliency: A key to career longevity. The Clearing
House, 75(4), 202–205.
Carver, C. L., & Feiman-Nemser, S. (2009). Using policy to improve teacher induc-
tion: Critical elements and missing pieces. Educational Policy, 23(2), 295–328.
Chermack, T. J. (2005). Studying scenario planning: Theory, research suggestions,
and hypotheses. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 72, 59–73.
Darling-Hammond, L. (2001). The challenge of staffing our schools. Educational
Leadership, 58(8), 12–17.
Day, C. (2008). Committed for life? Variations in teachers’ work, lives, and effective-
ness. Journal of Educational Change, 9(3), 243–260.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (Eds.). (2002). Handbook of self-determination research. Roch-
ester, NY: University of Rochester Press.
Co
py
ri
gh
t
©
2
01
8.
I
nf
or
ma
ti
on
A
ge
P
ub
li
sh
in
g.
A
ll
r
ig
ht
s
re
se
rv
ed
.
Ma
y
no
t
be
r
ep
ro
du
ce
d
in
a
ny
f
or
m
wi
th
ou
t
pe
rm
is
si
on
f
ro
m
th
e
pu
bl
is
he
r,
e
xc
ep
t
fa
ir
u
se
s
pe
rm
it
te
d
un
de
r
U.
S.
o
r
ap
pl
ic
ab
le
c
op
yr
ig
ht
l
aw
.
EBSCO Publishing : eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 9/10/2020 10:59 PM via SOUTH UNIV -
SAVANNAH CAMPUS
AN: 1733306 ; Elizabeth T. Murakami.; Beyond Marginality: Understanding the Intersection of Race,
Ethnicity, Gender and Difference in Educational Leadership Research
Account: soc1
186 D. D. JOHNSON
Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (Eds.). (2000). Handbook of qualitative research. Thou-
sand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
Dubin, R. (1978). Theory development. New York, NY: Free Press.
Eisenman, L. T., & Chamberlin, M. (2001). Implementing self-determination activi-
ties: Lessons from schools. Remedial and Special Education, 22(3), 138–147.
Gagne, M., & Deci, E. L. (2005). Self-determination theory and work motivation.
Journal of Organizational Behavior, 26, 331–362.
Glassford, L. A., & Salinitri, G. (2007). Designing a successful new teacher induc-
tion program: An assessment of the Ontario experience. Canadian Journal of
Educational Administration and Policy, 60, 1–34.
Gu, Q., & Day, C. (2007). Teachers’ resilience: A necessary condition for effective-
ness. Teaching and Teacher Education, 23(8), 1302–1316.
Hodge, K., Danish, S., & Martin, J. (2012). Developing a conceptual framework for
life skills intervention. The Counseling Psychologist, 41(8), 1125–1152.
Ingersoll, R. M., & Smith, T. M. (2003). The wrong solution to the teacher shortage.
Educational leadership, 60(8), 30–33.
Ingersoll, R., & Strong, M. (2011). The impact of induction and mentoring pro-
grams for beginning teachers: A critical review of the research. Review of Edu-
cational Research, 81(2), 201–233.
Johnson, D. D. (2015). The way we were: Voices of three African American female teachers
before, during, and after desegregation in a Southern rural district (Doctoral dis-
sertation). Texas A&M University, College Station, TX. Retrieved from Pro-
Quest, UMI Dissertation Publishing. (UMI No. 036184).
Johnson, S. M., Kardos, S. M., Kauffman, D., Liu, E., & Donaldson, M. L. (2004).
The support gap: New teachers’ early experiences in high-income and low-
income schools. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 12(61), 12–61.
Kerlinger, F. N. (1986). Foundations of behavioral research (3rd ed.). New York, NY:
Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.
Kirby, S. N., & Grissmer, D. W. (1993). Teacher attrition: Theory. Evidence, and suggested
policy options (Vol. 7827). Santa Monica, CA: Rand.
LeCompte, M. D., & Preissle, J. (1993). Ethnography and qualitative design in educa-
tional research (2nd ed.). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Malloy, W. W., & Allen, T. (2007). Teacher retention in a teacher resiliency-building
rural school. The Rural Educator, 26(2), 19–27.
Martin, J. E., & Marshall, L. H. (1995). Choicemaker: A comprehensive self-deter-
mination transition program. Intervention in School and Clinic, 30(3), 147–156.
Masten, A. K., Best, M., & Garmezy, N. (1990). Resilience and development: Contri-
butions from the study of children who overcome adversity. Development and
Psychopathology, 2, 425–444.
Merriam, S. B. (2009). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation (3rd
ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis (2nd ed.). Thou-
sand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
Polidore, E. T. (2004). The teaching experiences of Lucille Bradley, Maudester Hicks,
and Algeno McPherson before, during, and after desegregation in the rural south: A
theoretical model of adult resilience among three African American female educators
Co
py
ri
gh
t
©
2
01
8.
I
nf
or
ma
ti
on
A
ge
P
ub
li
sh
in
g.
A
ll
r
ig
ht
s
re
se
rv
ed
.
Ma
y
no
t
be
r
ep
ro
du
ce
d
in
a
ny
f
or
m
wi
th
ou
t
pe
rm
is
si
on
f
ro
m
th
e
pu
bl
is
he
r,
e
xc
ep
t
fa
ir
u
se
s
pe
rm
it
te
d
un
de
r
U.
S.
o
r
ap
pl
ic
ab
le
c
op
yr
ig
ht
l
aw
.
EBSCO Publishing : eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 9/10/2020 10:59 PM via SOUTH UNIV -
SAVANNAH CAMPUS
AN: 1733306 ; Elizabeth T. Murakami.; Beyond Marginality: Understanding the Intersection of Race,
Ethnicity, Gender and Difference in Educational Leadership Research
Account: soc1
A Holistic Approach to Adaptation and a Unified Sense of Self 187
(Doctoral dissertation). Sam Houston State University, Huntsville, TX. Re-
trieved from ProQuest, UMI Dissertation Publishing. (UMI No. 3143583)
Polidore, E., Edmonson, S. L., & Slate, J. R. (2010). Teaching experiences of Af-
rican American educators in the Rural south. The Qualitative Report, 15(3),
568–599. Retrieved from http://nsuworks.nova.edu/tqr/vol15/iss3/6
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of
intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psycholo-
gist, 55(1), 68–78.
Schelvis, R. M., Zwetsloot, G. I., Bos, E. H., & Wiezer, N. M. (2014). Exploring teach-
er and school resilience as a new perspective to solve persistent problems in
the educational sector. Teachers and Teaching, 20(5), 622–637.
Sutton, R. I., & Staw, B. M. (1995). What theory is not. Administrative Science Quar-
terly, 40(3), 371–384.
Tait, M. (2008). Resilience as a contributor to novice teacher success, commitment,
and retention. Teacher Education Quarterly, Fall, 57–75.
Taylor, J. L. (2009). The teaching experiences of African American women before, during,
and after desegregation, in the rural south: A narrative inquiry through the lens of
resilience and Black feminist theory (Doctoral dissertation). Sam Houston State
University, Huntsville, TX. ProQuest, UMI Dissertation Publishing. (UMI No.
3362001)
Taylor, J. L. (2013). The power of resilience: A theoretical model to empower, en-
courage and retain teachers. The Qualitative Report, 18(35), 1–25. Retrieved
from http://nsuworks.nova.edu/tqr/vol18/iss35/2
Walsh, F. (1998). Strengthening family resilience. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Walsh, F. (2006). Strengthening family resilience (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Guilford
Press.
Whetten, D. A. (1989). What constitutes a theoretical contribution? The Academy of
Management Review, 14(4), 490–495.
Whitney-Thomas, J., & Molony, M. (2001, Spring). “Who I am and what I want”:
Adolescents’ self-determination and struggles. Exceptional Children, 67(3),
375–389.
Co
py
ri
gh
t
©
2
01
8.
I
nf
or
ma
ti
on
A
ge
P
ub
li
sh
in
g.
A
ll
r
ig
ht
s
re
se
rv
ed
.
Ma
y
no
t
be
r
ep
ro
du
ce
d
in
a
ny
f
or
m
wi
th
ou
t
pe
rm
is
si
on
f
ro
m
th
e
pu
bl
is
he
r,
e
xc
ep
t
fa
ir
u
se
s
pe
rm
it
te
d
un
de
r
U.
S.
o
r
ap
pl
ic
ab
le
c
op
yr
ig
ht
l
aw
.
EBSCO Publishing : eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 9/10/2020 10:59 PM via SOUTH UNIV -
SAVANNAH CAMPUS
AN: 1733306 ; Elizabeth T. Murakami.; Beyond Marginality: Understanding the Intersection of Race,
Ethnicity, Gender and Difference in Educational Leadership Research
Account: soc1
Co
py
ri
gh
t
©
2
01
8.
I
nf
or
ma
ti
on
A
ge
P
ub
li
sh
in
g.
A
ll
r
ig
ht
s
re
se
rv
ed
.
Ma
y
no
t
be
r
ep
ro
du
ce
d
in
a
ny
f
or
m
wi
th
ou
t
pe
rm
is
si
on
f
ro
m
th
e
pu
bl
is
he
r,
e
xc
ep
t
fa
ir
u
se
s
pe
rm
it
te
d
un
de
r
U.
S.
o
r
ap
pl
ic
ab
le
c
op
yr
ig
ht
l
aw
.
EBSCO Publishing : eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 9/10/2020 10:59 PM via SOUTH UNIV -
SAVANNAH CAMPUS
AN: 1733306 ; Elizabeth T. Murakami.; Beyond Marginality: Understanding the Intersection of Race,
Ethnicity, Gender and Difference in Educational Leadership Research
Account: soc1
MVP main
Typewritten Text
This page intentionally left blank.
