What kinds of colors were favored by rococo painters

THE ENLIGHTENMENT

A new way of thinking about the world

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What is the Enlightenment?

A new reliance on science and empirical thinking
A new emphasis on philosophy and rationality as guiding principles
Avoidance of using religion, myth or tradition to explain all natural phenomena
A new interest in the rights of the individual. (However, individual rights were only conferred on white men of property).
A return to the classical ideals of the ancient world. Classical ideals and aesthetics were rejected as pagan during the expansion of Christianity beginning with the fall of Rome and continuing through the Middle Ages.
Enlightenment ideals were first explored during the Renaissance but took hold more widely in the 18th century
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How did Enlightenment values manifest in terms of visual culture including architecture, and art?

GERMAIN BOFFRAND, Salon de la Princesse, with painting by CHARLES-JOSEPH NATOIRE and sculpture by J. B. LEMOINE, Hôtel de Soubise, Paris, France, 1737–1740

Decorative art, architecture, and even fashion applied a new, lighter spirit to design called Rococo that replaced the heavier look of the Baroque era of Louis XIV.

At the beginning of the 18th century Louis XIV still ruled France with an iron hand, but his death in 1715 marked a change not only in the ruling figure in France, but it also ushered in a new era in terms of philosophy, science, politics, and visual culture. The 18th century would come to be characterized by revolution in France, an event that reverberated throughout Europe and as far as America. With the death of the Sun King, power was a little more diffused among the aristocracy. Their presence was no longer required at Versailles, and many aristocrats built a hôtel particulier, or private home which they decorated lavishly in Rococo style. Many became major art patrons and had social gatherings which included aristocrats, but also writers and people of fashion. Here is an example of an interior which demonstrates the softer style, and the use of floral motifs. Furniture was built on a smaller scale, one could say more feminine. Other characteristics of this style included gilded moldings and mirrors, small sculpture and paintings, and floral ornamentation.

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FEMME SAVANTES AND SALON CULTURE

LEFT: Julie de Lespinasse, salonnière and writer. RIGHT: Madame de Pompadour, mistress of Louis XV and patroness of arts and letters

Because the center of the French universe shifted from Versailles to Paris, many noblewomen held daily or weekly salons or parties (like today’s cocktail parties) where people of the nobility as well as writers, poets, and artists from the lower classes gathered and exchanged ideas. The most noted salonnière was a gifted hostess who knew how to put together an exciting guest list and who could mingle and converse on a variety of topics with her guests. She was a power broker sometimes, and oftentimes a writer herself as was Julie de Lespinasse above left. A contemporary wrote that “she knew how to make herself interesting to a wide circle of strong minds.” (Jean Francois Marmontel, Memoirs). These women were called FEMMES SAVANTES (or learned women) and they competed with each other to attract the best and brightest to their homes. Although these women had few rights compared to our society today, they were powerful in terms of their marriages or relationships to powerful men (like Madame de Pompadour) above left, who was the mistress to King Louis XV, and many believe that the Rococo period reflects a female centric culture.

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Rococo defined:

The word Rococo comes from the French word ”rocaille” or rock. It refers to the popularity of rocks, shells, grottos and fountains during this period
Rococo begins after the death of Louis XIV when Louis XV (his great grandson) comes to power
Rococo style avoids the heavy feel of the Baroque and replaces it with ornamentation that is based on shapes found in nature like leaves, vines, tendrils, and flowers
The color palette moves from gold and silver to soft pastel shades of blue and pink, and the furniture is small and lighter in tone
Aristocrats were liberated from having to attend Louis XIV in Versailles and instead moved to Paris. It was a carefree time (for them, not the peasants) and paintings about love, romance, and being in outdoor settings were popular.
Grand Manner painting (think Poussin) was out of favor among those on the forefront of art, design, fashion, and decorating
FRANÇOIS DE CUVILLIÉS, Hall of Mirrors, the Amalienburg, Nymphenburg Palace park, Munich, Germany, early 18th century

French Rococo style spread throughout Europe. In fact you might say that France began to influence fashion and design at this time. Here is a German example of a Rococo interior, this one in the Amalienburg Palace in Munich. This view shows the most remarkable room in the Palace, a circular room called the Hall of Mirrors. The blue and silvery light is dazzling, and light is multiplied by the mirrors. The wall décor and the moldings seem to be organic and they weave and swirl around the contours of the space. Notice the small scale furniture also in blue, and the windows that bring the outdoors in.

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LEFT: Amalienburg Rococo interior

RIGHT: Baroque interior Louis XIV

An enormous part of the shift of power in 18th century France was that aristocrats were no longer required to be in attendance at Versailles, or to take residence in the warren of rooms there when the King was holding court. They now entertained in their private homes in Paris, and it was usually the women, aristocratic wives who were in charge of what was called salons. A salon was a weekly, or sometimes daily event at a private home. For example, Julie de Lespinasse, a bright articulate woman, was an important hostess. Known as femmes savants these women would invite a wide range of guests including fellow aristocrats, but also artists, writers, philosophers and great wits. Jean François Marmontel wrote that Madame de Lespinasse “knew how to make herself interesting to a wide circle of strong minds.” Other important and powerful women of the time included Madame de Pompadour, the Mistress of King Louis XV.

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Balthasar Neumann, facade of pilgrimage church of Vierzehnheiligen looking east near Bad Staffelstein, Germany 1743-1772

Rococo style also appears on building exteriors like this example of a German pilgrimage church, the church of (Vertzen-hi legen) Vierzehnheiligen (or Fourteen Saints). The architect Balthasar Neumann avoided the use of straight lines preferring ovals and circles that the church a feeling of undulating motion that is different in appearance from the Baroque style by avoiding classical elements. The interior on the next slide is typically Rococo.

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BALTHASAR NEUMANN, interior (left) and plan (right) of the pilgrimage church of Vierzehnheiligen, near Staffelstein, Germany, 1743-1772

Here we see the interior of the Vierzehnheiligen pilgrimage church near Staffelstein in which strongly features Rococo details, both in terms of decor and also in the building plan itself. Although you can see the influence of Neumann’s inspiration, the architecture of Borromini, this interior is light and delicate, avoiding the Baroque heaviness. Described an an undulating space filled with light, the walls seem to dissolve and soar where they meet the ceiling seamlessly. The paintings on the interior, as well as the flowing lines and light reveal a new form of church design in Europe.

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ART AND SOCIETY

POUSSINISTES AND RUBENISTES

LEFT: Rubens, Garden of Love, 1630-32, RIGHT: Poussin, Et in Arcadia Ego, 1655

At the turn of the 18th century the French Royal Academy, a group of men who decided which artists paintings were worthy to be shown at exhibitions held in the Salon in the Louvre were divided into two groups, the Poussinistes and the Rubénistes. The Poussinistes believed that drawing and line were the determining factor of a great work, whereas the Rubénistes believed in the supremacy of color. The next painter we will examine was one of the greatest of the 18th century. Antoine Watteau was Flemish, like Rubens, and his style of painting that focused on color, became the preferred style in the 18th century, the style of Rubens.

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ANTOINE WATTEAU, L’Indifférent, ca. 1716. Oil on canvas, 10” x 7”. Louvre, Paris

No one exemplifies the Rococo painting style better than the Flemish painter Antoine Watteau. If one contrasts this painting with Rigaud’s portrait of King Louis XIV, one has a clear sense of the differences between the Baroque and the Rococo periods in France. This painting of a dancer is only 10 inches tall (think about small paintings being placed in Rococo rooms that we saw in previous slide) as opposed to the portrait of the Louis XIV which is nearly 10 feet tall and was placed above his throne as a symbol of his presence when he was not in residence. Watteau’s palette is inspired by Rubens, his countryman, although Watteau moved to Paris and concentrated on different subject matter. Watteau made figure studies and then transferred his ideas to paintings. He filled his figures with dancelike grace and also concentrated on the nuances of color (think Rococo).

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Above: Rigaud, Louis XIV, 1701, 9 feet tall

Right: Watteau, L’Indifferent, 1716, 10 inches tall

Watteau

Pierrot ("Gilles”)

1717 -1719

Oil on canvas

184 × 149 cm (72.4 × 58.7 in)

Louvre, Paris

This painting also by Watteau but not included in Gardner’s is important because it reflects one of Watteau’s inspirations. The leisured classes in Paris enjoyed going to fairs as well as public and private entertainments where they would enjoy the Commedia del Artè a popular and light hearted theatrical group. It also underscores the preoccupations of the rich who with their increased sense of freedom from the oppressive strictures of King Louis XIV, they were able to enjoy themselves in Paris and its social life which was more diverse in terms of class than the court of Versailles.

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Jean Antoine Watteau

Fêtes Vénitienne

1718-1719

Oil on canvas

55.90 x 45.70 cm

18 x 22 inches

National Galleries Scotland

Watteau is the seated musician on the right, his friend the painter Vleughels is pictured left as the turbaned dancer in copper colored silk. The central dancing female figure is probably the actress Charlotte Desmares.

This is a very fine example of the 'fêtes galantes' perfected by Watteau though not included in Gardner. He portrayed himself as the seated musician playing a musette. The central dancer may be the leading actress Charlotte Desmares, who was mistress of the Duc d'Orleans. Her male dancing partner is Nicolas Vleughels, a Flemish painter, who was Watteau's friend and landlord. The painting may contain a private meaning enjoyed by the two artists. The other figures are based on drawings Watteau made from his direct observations of contemporary society. The painting acquired its present title from an engraving made after it, published in 1732.

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LEFT: Fete Champêtre (Garden party ) by Giorgione/Titian 1510, oil on canvas, 110 × 138 cm (43.3 × 54.3 in), Louvre, Paris

RIGHT: Peter Paul Rubens The Garden of Love 1630-1635, oil on canvas, 78 x 112.5 inches, The Prado Museum, Madrid

WATTEAU’S PREDECESSORS

A forerunner of this genre, Fête Champêtre this painting begun by Giorgione and completed by his student Titian, shows a garden party with people engaging in pleasurable pursuits in a country setting. However, the origin of this subject matter is a bit of a mystery and it is unclear if this is a mythological story. This differs from Watteau’s Fêtes Galantes which feature people dancing, dining and flirting, often wearing elaborate costumes or masquerade attire. Rubens version of the Fête Champêtre was known by Watteau who was certainly inspired by it. Rubens took his ideas for this painting from a poem entitled Roman de la Rose written in the Middle Ages. The women are more prominent in this work, and some of them may be portraits of Ruben’s wife. As previously mentioned, Watteau was inspired by the palette of Rubens.

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ANTOINE WATTEAU, Return from Cythera, 1717. Oil on canvas, 4’ 3” x 6’ 4 1/2”. Louvre, Paris

Watteau was compelled to present an application piece to the French Academy in order to allow him to exhibit his work. This piece set off a fierce debate between the Poussinistes and the Rubénistes. A bit of a departure for Watteau, it shows his familiar group of aristocrats enjoying the pleasures of love in an outdoor setting, but he applied a mythological theme to get the support of the judges. This was such an unusual entry that the judges came up with a new name to categorize it—they called it A fête galante (amorous festival or party) as opposed to a Fête Champêtre (country party) Since that time, the fête galante can be defined as a painting featuring amorous figures in an outdoor setting. This painting, Pilgrimage to Cythera or Return from Cythera is a fusion of mythology and the fête galante. Cythera was the island of youth and love presided over by Aphrodite, the Goddess of Love. The painting is filled with a sense of sweetness and sensuality and the landscape enhances this feeling. The elegant figures move with a dancelike grace. On the far right we see the statue of Aphrodite presiding over the couples.

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Watteau, Signboard of Gersaint, 1721

This is Watteau’s final work before he died of tuberculosis at the age of 36 in 1721. Although more somewhat subdued in color, Watteau popularized the use of bright color and subjects that depict leisure and we will see his influence on subsequent painters. This work was painted for a friend who was an art dealer and was literally meant to be a sign for the shop. But it also contains a great deal of humorous commentary. Some of the paintings in the background depict sensual subjects which are contrasted against the formal attire of the patrons in the shop. Most telling is the detail in the left foreground. The couple are standing in an elegant pose in which the man extends his hand to the woman with her graceful back to us. Watteau worked his figures over and over until he found the most elegant way of presenting them. They both look down at a shop attendant who is boxing a painting of Louis XIV signifying the end of his autocratic reign and the end of the restraint and tyranny that characterized his era.

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FRANÇOIS BOUCHER, Cupid a Captive, 1754. Oil on canvas, 5’ 6” x 2’ 10”. The Wallace Collection, London

Although Watteau died very young his influence is undeniable. This painter was the next to gain great favor in France. François Boucher was patronized by Madame de Pompadour, the mistress of Louis XV and became the court painter. Like Watteau’s Cythera, he used mythological imagery to depict sensual, cavorting females and angels, using a palette inspired by Rubens. However, Boucher did not depict contemporary activities in Paris, preferring to show cute young men and women involved in flirtation or images from mythology. Boucher’s works were like fantasies that reflected a time when the wealthy were preoccupied with pleasure and sensual pursuits which they were able to indulge following the repressive era of Louis XIV. Although the subject matter and composition of Boucher’s work is hard for the modern art lover to appreciate, his beautifully painted fantasy landscapes and luscious skin tones mirrored the beauty aesthetic of his time.

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Madame de Pompadour, Mistress of King Louis XV, painted by François Boucher in 1756.

The quintessential “femme savant”, she had a great deal of influence on the Court and French society. She gathered men of learning to create the first Encyclopedia. Boucher painted numerous portraits of her.

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JEAN-HONORÉ FRAGONARD, The Swing, 1766. Oil on canvas, approx. 2’ 8 5/8” x 2’ 2”. Wallace Collection, London

Boucher’s student, Jean-Honoré Fragonard utilized many of Boucher’s ideas but also was clearly influenced by Watteau in terms of his landscapes and elegant aristocrats indulging in their pleasurable lives. He used a predominantly pastel colored palette, and reflected a lighthearted view of the world which pleased the aristocrats who patronized his work. In this work, The Swing, a relatively small work was painted in 1766, we see the playful, and slightly naughty subject matter favored at this time. The man pictured on the lower left is probably looking up the skirt of his mistress while urging a clueless older man identified as a bishop to swing her higher. The woman kicks off her dainty slipper towards the statue of Cupid while the abundant garden seems to swirl around them, making a kind of frame. The female in a coral dress is highlighted as is the face of her lover which the bishop stand in the shade of the trees, seemingly unaware of what is going on.

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CLODION, Nymph and Satyr Carousing, ca. 1780-1790. Terracotta, 1’ 11 1/4” high. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
This relatively small table sculpture epitomizes the delicacy, and the sensuality that runs through most of the most popular works of the Rococo era. Clodion borrows from Italian Mannerist work, which is an exaggerated revival of Hellenistic era statues. This depicts a mythological scene featuring a satyr, a legendary creature with a voracious libido, and a nude female nymph who is pouring wine from a cup into his open mouth alluding to Bacchus, the god of wine. Clodion lived and worked in Rome for awhile where he was probably inspired by statues from antiquity before returning to France where his work was widely collected.

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GIAMBATTISTA TIEPOLO, Apotheosis of the Pisani Family, ceiling fresco in the Villa Pisani, Stra, Italy, 1761-1762. Fresco, 77’ 1” X 44’ 3”.

While many of the Rococo paintings we have seen are small and delicate, for example Watteau’s L’Indifferent (10 inches in height), and Fragonard’s The Swing was (3 feet in height), some Rococo paintings were massive as seen in this ceiling fresco by Giambattista Tiepolo in the Villa Pisani in Italy. Featuring masses of putti, the cupid like figures so prominent in Rococo work, this fresco depicts the Apotheosis of the Pisani family, apotheosis meaning their ascent into heaven. They have commissioned Tiepolo to present themselves as near deities. The color palette features pastel and glowing shades of blue and pink. Aside from ceiling frescos, Tiepolo was also known for his Rococo era painting with themes that were primarily mythological or religious.

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The Philosophes

French intellectuals or philosophes were inspired by Sir Isaac Newton (who believed in the necessity of using empirical evidence and rationality) and John Locke (who believed that men were endowed with natural rights of individual liberty, freedom, and the right to personal property).

Philosophes: (including Voltaire, Diderot and Rousseau)

Believed that reason could cure the ills of society
Criticized the powers of the church and state (monarchy)
Promoted the idea of a “doctrine of progress”
This may seem like common beliefs in our time but in their time these ideas were RADICAL

THREE SHORT BIOS OF IMPORTANT NAMES IN FRENCH HISTORY

Denis Diderot: a French philosopher who helped compile the first Encyclopedia under the patronage of Madame de Pompadour. Also a writer and art critic.

Voltaire: French writer and philosopher who introduced the ideas of Newton and Locke to the French intelligentsia while criticizing the institution of the monarchy

Jean Jacques Rousseau: an influential French writer who believed that “society” had a corrupting influence on people. He emphasized the importance of our connection to nature. Further he suggested that because we are inherently good we should obey all our natural inclinations, an idea that goes against orthodox Christianity. Rousseau’s ideas would later usher in Romanticism.

THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

In the 18th century, the move towards scientific discovery prompted advances in technology and manufacturing that changed the world
The Industrial revolution began in England with the invention of the steam engine
Sources of power like steam, coal and oil improved transportation which worked in tandem with the increased production of goods. Improved transportation and an increase in mechanization transformed the economy of Western Europe and the lives of European workers—though not always for the better
The Industrial Revolution had a huge impact on the economy, but also on the arts
JOSEPH WRIGHT OF DERBY, A Philosopher Giving a Lecture at the Orrery, ca. 1763–1765. Oil on canvas, 4’ 10” x 6’ 8”. Derby Museums and Art Gallery, Derby

Many people from the wealthy to the middle class developed a fascination for science. Aside from cavorting around in gardens and flirting which was portrayed by artists like Watteau, Boucher, and Fragonard, many people of the upper and middle classes were absorbed in the study of Enlightenment philosophy and scientific innovations. The English painter Joseph Wright of Darby captures that sense of scientific discovery in this painting. Utilizing dramatic lighting he depicts a scientist (in red) accompanied by an observer or assistant (the man taking notes on the left) in the process of considering a model of the solar system. On the far right is the man who commissioned this work surrounded by his children. Two of Joseph Wrights greatest patrons were Josiah Wedgewood who pioneered the process for making mass produced pottery and Richard Arkwright whose invention of a spinning frame modernized the textile industry.

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Mechanization changed how things were produced. For example:

Josiah Wedgewood pioneered the mass production of pottery, and Sir Richard Arkwright developed a spinner that revolutionized the textile industry.

Mechanization made goods cheaper and more available but the increase of factories often came at the expense of workers who were exploited

"Hercules in the Garden of the Hesperides" vase, 1785, John Flaxman ( (designer for Josiah Wedgwood) Jasperware, 20 x 6 inches in diameter

ABRAHAM DARBY III and THOMAS F. PRITCHARD, iron bridge at Coalbrookdale, England, 1776–1779.

This is the first use of iron in a bridge design. Bridges like this were able to bear the weight of steam powered trains as transportations systems developed in England and France, transporting people and goods more efficiently. This kind of cast-iron construction echoes the Roman aqueducts but more importantly become very influential in terms of the future of architecture, allowing greater strength in structures which resulted in large scale buildings like the Crystal Palace in England and the Eiffel Tower in France.

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Fragonard, The Swing, 1766

Wright of Derby, A Philosopher Giving a Lecture, 1763-65

RECAP

After the death of Louis XIV the court was no longer confined to Versailles allowing aristocrats to return to Paris where they socialized with others of their class, as well as a greater variety of other people including artists, writers, philosophers, wits and people of fashion
Under the patronage of Madame de Pompadour the first Encyclopedia was written. Science and philosophy became influential trends leading to the idea that science could explain natural phenomena thus eliminating the power of superstition. People began to accept the validity and importance of personal liberty resulting in distrust of the absolute power of the King
New technological inventions including better transportation and mechanization allowed mass production of goods and provided jobs for the poor (who were often exploited). Technology made it easier to have access to less expensive goods for those of the middle and upper classes, which then expanded the class base
TERMS to KNOW:

ROCOCO

SALON CULTURE

FEMME SAVANT

FÊTE GALANTE

FÊTE CHAMPÊTRE

THE ENLIGHTENMENT

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At the beginning of the 18th century Louis XIV still ruled France with an iron hand, but his death in 1715 marked a change not only in the ruling figure in France, but it also ushered in a new era in terms of philosophy, science, politics, and visual culture. The 18th century would come to be characterized by revolution in France, an event that reverberated throughout Europe and as far as America. With the death of the Sun King, power was a little more diffused among the aristocracy. Their presence was no longer required at Versailles, and many aristocrats built a hôtel particulier, or private home which they decorated lavishly in Rococo style. Many became major art patrons and had social gatherings which included aristocrats, but also writers and people of fashion. Here is an example of an interior which demonstrates the softer style, and the use of floral motifs. Furniture was built on a smaller scale, one could say more feminine. Other characteristics of this style included gilded moldings and mirrors, small sculpture and paintings, and floral ornamentation.

*

Because the center of the French universe shifted from Versailles to Paris, many noblewomen held daily or weekly salons or parties (like today’s cocktail parties) where people of the nobility as well as writers, poets, and artists from the lower classes gathered and exchanged ideas. The most noted salonnière was a gifted hostess who knew how to put together an exciting guest list and who could mingle and converse on a variety of topics with her guests. She was a power broker sometimes, and oftentimes a writer herself as was Julie de Lespinasse above left. A contemporary wrote that “she knew how to make herself interesting to a wide circle of strong minds.” (Jean Francois Marmontel, Memoirs). These women were called FEMMES SAVANTES (or learned women) and they competed with each other to attract the best and brightest to their homes. Although these women had few rights compared to our society today, they were powerful in terms of their marriages or relationships to powerful men (like Madame de Pompadour) above left, who was the mistress to King Louis XV, and many believe that the Rococo period reflects a female centric culture.

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French Rococo style spread throughout Europe. In fact you might say that France began to influence fashion and design at this time. Here is a German example of a Rococo interior, this one in the Amalienburg Palace in Munich. This view shows the most remarkable room in the Palace, a circular room called the Hall of Mirrors. The blue and silvery light is dazzling, and light is multiplied by the mirrors. The wall décor and the moldings seem to be organic and they weave and swirl around the contours of the space. Notice the small scale furniture also in blue, and the windows that bring the outdoors in.

*

An enormous part of the shift of power in 18th century France was that aristocrats were no longer required to be in attendance at Versailles, or to take residence in the warren of rooms there when the King was holding court. They now entertained in their private homes in Paris, and it was usually the women, aristocratic wives who were in charge of what was called salons. A salon was a weekly, or sometimes daily event at a private home. For example, Julie de Lespinasse, a bright articulate woman, was an important hostess. Known as femmes savants these women would invite a wide range of guests including fellow aristocrats, but also artists, writers, philosophers and great wits. Jean François Marmontel wrote that Madame de Lespinasse “knew how to make herself interesting to a wide circle of strong minds.” Other important and powerful women of the time included Madame de Pompadour, the Mistress of King Louis XV.

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Rococo style also appears on building exteriors like this example of a German pilgrimage church, the church of (Vertzen-hi legen) Vierzehnheiligen (or Fourteen Saints). The architect Balthasar Neumann avoided the use of straight lines preferring ovals and circles that the church a feeling of undulating motion that is different in appearance from the Baroque style by avoiding classical elements. The interior on the next slide is typically Rococo.

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Here we see the interior of the Vierzehnheiligen pilgrimage church near Staffelstein in which strongly features Rococo details, both in terms of decor and also in the building plan itself. Although you can see the influence of Neumann’s inspiration, the architecture of Borromini, this interior is light and delicate, avoiding the Baroque heaviness. Described an an undulating space filled with light, the walls seem to dissolve and soar where they meet the ceiling seamlessly. The paintings on the interior, as well as the flowing lines and light reveal a new form of church design in Europe.

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At the turn of the 18th century the French Royal Academy, a group of men who decided which artists paintings were worthy to be shown at exhibitions held in the Salon in the Louvre were divided into two groups, the Poussinistes and the Rubénistes. The Poussinistes believed that drawing and line were the determining factor of a great work, whereas the Rubénistes believed in the supremacy of color. The next painter we will examine was one of the greatest of the 18th century. Antoine Watteau was Flemish, like Rubens, and his style of painting that focused on color, became the preferred style in the 18th century, the style of Rubens.

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No one exemplifies the Rococo painting style better than the Flemish painter Antoine Watteau. If one contrasts this painting with Rigaud’s portrait of King Louis XIV, one has a clear sense of the differences between the Baroque and the Rococo periods in France. This painting of a dancer is only 10 inches tall (think about small paintings being placed in Rococo rooms that we saw in previous slide) as opposed to the portrait of the Louis XIV which is nearly 10 feet tall and was placed above his throne as a symbol of his presence when he was not in residence. Watteau’s palette is inspired by Rubens, his countryman, although Watteau moved to Paris and concentrated on different subject matter. Watteau made figure studies and then transferred his ideas to paintings. He filled his figures with dancelike grace and also concentrated on the nuances of color (think Rococo).

*

This painting also by Watteau but not included in Gardner’s is important because it reflects one of Watteau’s inspirations. The leisured classes in Paris enjoyed going to fairs as well as public and private entertainments where they would enjoy the Commedia del Artè a popular and light hearted theatrical group. It also underscores the preoccupations of the rich who with their increased sense of freedom from the oppressive strictures of King Louis XIV, they were able to enjoy themselves in Paris and its social life which was more diverse in terms of class than the court of Versailles.

*

This is a very fine example of the 'fêtes galantes' perfected by Watteau though not included in Gardner. He portrayed himself as the seated musician playing a musette. The central dancer may be the leading actress Charlotte Desmares, who was mistress of the Duc d'Orleans. Her male dancing partner is Nicolas Vleughels, a Flemish painter, who was Watteau's friend and landlord. The painting may contain a private meaning enjoyed by the two artists. The other figures are based on drawings Watteau made from his direct observations of contemporary society. The painting acquired its present title from an engraving made after it, published in 1732.

*

A forerunner of this genre, Fête Champêtre this painting begun by Giorgione and completed by his student Titian, shows a garden party with people engaging in pleasurable pursuits in a country setting. However, the origin of this subject matter is a bit of a mystery and it is unclear if this is a mythological story. This differs from Watteau’s Fêtes Galantes which feature people dancing, dining and flirting, often wearing elaborate costumes or masquerade attire. Rubens version of the Fête Champêtre was known by Watteau who was certainly inspired by it. Rubens took his ideas for this painting from a poem entitled Roman de la Rose written in the Middle Ages. The women are more prominent in this work, and some of them may be portraits of Ruben’s wife. As previously mentioned, Watteau was inspired by the palette of Rubens.

*

Watteau was compelled to present an application piece to the French Academy in order to allow him to exhibit his work. This piece set off a fierce debate between the Poussinistes and the Rubénistes. A bit of a departure for Watteau, it shows his familiar group of aristocrats enjoying the pleasures of love in an outdoor setting, but he applied a mythological theme to get the support of the judges. This was such an unusual entry that the judges came up with a new name to categorize it—they called it A fête galante (amorous festival or party) as opposed to a Fête Champêtre (country party) Since that time, the fête galante can be defined as a painting featuring amorous figures in an outdoor setting. This painting, Pilgrimage to Cythera or Return from Cythera is a fusion of mythology and the fête galante. Cythera was the island of youth and love presided over by Aphrodite, the Goddess of Love. The painting is filled with a sense of sweetness and sensuality and the landscape enhances this feeling. The elegant figures move with a dancelike grace. On the far right we see the statue of Aphrodite presiding over the couples.

*

This is Watteau’s final work before he died of tuberculosis at the age of 36 in 1721. Although more somewhat subdued in color, Watteau popularized the use of bright color and subjects that depict leisure and we will see his influence on subsequent painters. This work was painted for a friend who was an art dealer and was literally meant to be a sign for the shop. But it also contains a great deal of humorous commentary. Some of the paintings in the background depict sensual subjects which are contrasted against the formal attire of the patrons in the shop. Most telling is the detail in the left foreground. The couple are standing in an elegant pose in which the man extends his hand to the woman with her graceful back to us. Watteau worked his figures over and over until he found the most elegant way of presenting them. They both look down at a shop attendant who is boxing a painting of Louis XIV signifying the end of his autocratic reign and the end of the restraint and tyranny that characterized his era.

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Although Watteau died very young his influence is undeniable. This painter was the next to gain great favor in France. François Boucher was patronized by Madame de Pompadour, the mistress of Louis XV and became the court painter. Like Watteau’s Cythera, he used mythological imagery to depict sensual, cavorting females and angels, using a palette inspired by Rubens. However, Boucher did not depict contemporary activities in Paris, preferring to show cute young men and women involved in flirtation or images from mythology. Boucher’s works were like fantasies that reflected a time when the wealthy were preoccupied with pleasure and sensual pursuits which they were able to indulge following the repressive era of Louis XIV. Although the subject matter and composition of Boucher’s work is hard for the modern art lover to appreciate, his beautifully painted fantasy landscapes and luscious skin tones mirrored the beauty aesthetic of his time.

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Boucher’s student, Jean-Honoré Fragonard utilized many of Boucher’s ideas but also was clearly influenced by Watteau in terms of his landscapes and elegant aristocrats indulging in their pleasurable lives. He used a predominantly pastel colored palette, and reflected a lighthearted view of the world which pleased the aristocrats who patronized his work. In this work, The Swing, a relatively small work was painted in 1766, we see the playful, and slightly naughty subject matter favored at this time. The man pictured on the lower left is probably looking up the skirt of his mistress while urging a clueless older man identified as a bishop to swing her higher. The woman kicks off her dainty slipper towards the statue of Cupid while the abundant garden seems to swirl around them, making a kind of frame. The female in a coral dress is highlighted as is the face of her lover which the bishop stand in the shade of the trees, seemingly unaware of what is going on.

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This relatively small table sculpture epitomizes the delicacy, and the sensuality that runs through most of the most popular works of the Rococo era. Clodion borrows from Italian Mannerist work, which is an exaggerated revival of Hellenistic era statues. This depicts a mythological scene featuring a satyr, a legendary creature with a voracious libido, and a nude female nymph who is pouring wine from a cup into his open mouth alluding to Bacchus, the god of wine. Clodion lived and worked in Rome for awhile where he was probably inspired by statues from antiquity before returning to France where his work was widely collected.

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While many of the Rococo paintings we have seen are small and delicate, for example Watteau’s L’Indifferent (10 inches in height), and Fragonard’s The Swing was (3 feet in height), some Rococo paintings were massive as seen in this ceiling fresco by Giambattista Tiepolo in the Villa Pisani in Italy. Featuring masses of putti, the cupid like figures so prominent in Rococo work, this fresco depicts the Apotheosis of the Pisani family, apotheosis meaning their ascent into heaven. They have commissioned Tiepolo to present themselves as near deities. The color palette features pastel and glowing shades of blue and pink. Aside from ceiling frescos, Tiepolo was also known for his Rococo era painting with themes that were primarily mythological or religious.

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Many people from the wealthy to the middle class developed a fascination for science. Aside from cavorting around in gardens and flirting which was portrayed by artists like Watteau, Boucher, and Fragonard, many people of the upper and middle classes were absorbed in the study of Enlightenment philosophy and scientific innovations. The English painter Joseph Wright of Darby captures that sense of scientific discovery in this painting. Utilizing dramatic lighting he depicts a scientist (in red) accompanied by an observer or assistant (the man taking notes on the left) in the process of considering a model of the solar system. On the far right is the man who commissioned this work surrounded by his children. Two of Joseph Wrights greatest patrons were Josiah Wedgewood who pioneered the process for making mass produced pottery and Richard Arkwright whose invention of a spinning frame modernized the textile industry.

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This is the first use of iron in a bridge design. Bridges like this were able to bear the weight of steam powered trains as transportations systems developed in England and France, transporting people and goods more efficiently. This kind of cast-iron construction echoes the Roman aqueducts but more importantly become very influential in terms of the future of architecture, allowing greater strength in structures which resulted in large scale buildings like the Crystal Palace in England and the Eiffel Tower in France.

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