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Who were scalawags and carpetbaggers apex

12/11/2021 Client: muhammad11 Deadline: 2 Day

Chapter 15

Consolidating a Triumphant Union, 1865–1877

CREATED EQUAL A History of the United States

Combined Volume | Fifth Edition

Children at School, Charleston, South Carolina

An illustration in Harper’s Weekly, from December 15, 1866, shows African American pupils in a schoolroom in Charleston, South Carolina. After the Civil War, many southern black communities created, or enlarged and solidified, their own institutions, including schools and churches. At the same time, these communities pressed for full and equal citizenship rights.

The Library of Congress [LC-USZ62-117666]

Journal Prompt 15.1

Was there a conflict between freedpeople’s goals of cultural and economic autonomy, on the one hand, and integration into the American body politic, on the other? Why or why not?

Answer: At the end of the war, many, if not most, former slaves wanted to set themselves up as small, independent farmers. Having lived their whole lives under the control and for the benefit of their former owners, they wanted to use their farming skills and knowledge to support themselves and to make freedom a genuine reality. This desire was in direct conflict with the needs of white landowners. Slavery may have come to an end, but white landowners still required a large, stable, and inexpensive labor force. It was also in conflict with the expectations of white Northerners, many of whom assumed that newly freed blacks would become wage laborers, an assumption that was consistent with free-labor ideology.

Focus Questions (1 of 2)

15.1 The Struggle over the South

How did various groups of Northerners and Southerners differ in their vision of the postwar South?

15.2 Claiming Territory for the Union

What human and environmental forces impeded the Republican goal of western expansion?

Focus Questions (2 of 2)

15.3 The Republican Vision and Its Limits

What were some of the inconsistencies in, and unanticipated consequences of, Republican notions of equality and federal power?

15.1 The Struggle over the South (1 of 2)

Wartime Preludes to Postwar Policies

Presidential Reconstruction, 1865–1867

The Postbellum South’s Labor Problem

Building Free Communities

Congressional Reconstruction: The Radicals’ Plan

Focus Question:

How did various groups of Northerners and Southerners differ in their vision of the postwar South?

15.1 The Struggle over the South (2 of 2)

A ruined South

260,000 fatalities among soldiers

Lost $2 billion investment in slaves

Countryside in ruins

Freed slaves

Lacked resources to be self-sufficient

Travelled far to find families

Republicans

How do deal with the South

Lecture Outline:

A ruined South

260,000 fatalities among soldiers

Lost $2 billion investment in slaves

Whites resisted citizenship rights for blacks

Countryside in ruins

Freed slaves

Lacked resources to be self-sufficient

Travelled far to find families

Republicans

How do deal with the South

Lincoln wanted reconciliation quickly

Johnson wanted southern elite humiliated, but not full freedom for former slaves

Radical Republicans argued with moderate Republicans

Key Terms:

Reconstruction era: The twelve years after the Civil War when the U.S. government took steps to integrate the eleven states of the Confederacy back into the Union.

15.1.1 Wartime Preludes to Postwar Policies

Wartime experiments with free labor

Freed slaves work on plantations for wages

Or be self-sufficient through barter system

Lincoln proposed Ten Percent Plan

Allow former Confederate states to form new governments

Vetoed the Wade-Davis Bill

Freedmen’s Bureau

Relief efforts for blacks and poor whites

Lecture Outline:

Wartime experiments with free labor

Freed slaves work on plantations for wages

Northern merchants wanted a return to staple-crop system with cotton funneled to northern textile mills

Some in military thought blacks belonged on plantations and should be forced to work if they resisted

Or be self-sufficient through barter system

Wanted to break free of white landlords, suppliers, and cotton merchants

Lincoln proposed Ten Percent Plan

Allow former Confederate states to form new governments

Must have 10 percent of men who voted in 1860 pledge allegiance to the Union and renounce slavery

Vetoed the Wade-Davis Bill

Alternative plan by Congress

Required a majority of southern voters to take a loyalty oath

Lincoln used a pocket veto to kill the bill

Freedmen’s Bureau

Relief efforts for blacks and poor whites

Sponsoring schools

Implementing a labor contract system on southern plantations

Key Terms:

Pocket veto: An indirect veto of a legislative bill made when an executive (such as a president or governor) simply leaves the bill unsigned, so that it dies after the adjournment of the legislature.

Freedmen’s Bureau: Federal agency created by Congress in March 1865 and disbanded in 1869. Its purposes were to provide relief for Southerners who had remained loyal to the Union during the Civil War, to support black elementary schools, and to oversee annual labor contracts between landowners and field hands.

15.1.2 Presidential Reconstruction, 1865–1867 (1 of 2)

President Johnson’s agenda for South

Modify Lincoln’s Ten Percent Plan

South quickly passed the Black Codes

An attempt to institute a system of near-slavery

Republicans divided

Radicals

Moderates

Both outraged

Lecture Outline:

President Johnson’s agenda for South

Modify Lincoln’s Ten Percent Plan

Deny vote to wealthy Confederates

Individuals could beg for pardons

Lenient plan for readmittance to Union

States renounce secession and accept Thirteenth Amendment abolishing slavery

Repudiate all Confederate debts

Opposed vote for freedmen

South quickly passed the Black Codes

An attempt to institute a system of near-slavery

Penalties for “vagrant” blacks

Denied blacks the right to vote

Blacks could not serve on juries

In some cases, could not own land

Mississippi: cannot quit jobs until expiration of contract

Blacks must be working under supervision of whites at any given moment

Arrested people faced imprisonment or forced labor

Republicans divided

Radicals

Federal participation in blacks’ civil rights and economic independence

Moderates

Hands-off approach to blacks’ rights and economic situation

More concerned with free market and private property rights

Both outraged

Black Codes

Former Confederate generals and leaders in Congress in December 1865

Included vice president of Confederacy Alexander Stephens, under indictment for treason

Key Terms:

Black Codes: Southern state laws passed after the Civil War to limit the rights and actions of newly liberated African Americans.

15.1.2 Presidential Reconstruction, 1865–1867 (2 of 2)

Congress moves to expand rights

Thirteenth Amendment

Civil Rights Bill of 1866

Fourteenth Amendment

Northerners move south

Teachers

Carpetbaggers

Scalawags

White vigilantes: Ku Klux Klan

Lecture Outline:

Congress moves to expand rights

Thirteenth Amendment

Abolished slavery

Ratified by states by the end of the year

Civil Rights Bill of 1866

Federal protection of individual rights

Passed, vetoed; Congress overrode veto

Johnson was becoming defiant of aggressive federal protection of black civil rights

Also vetoed expansion of Freedmen’s Bureau, but Congress also overrode that veto

Fourteenth Amendment

Freed peoples given citizenship rights

States punished for denying these rights

Former rebels could not hold offices (except local)

Voided Confederate debts

Vetoed by Johnson, finally adopted in 1868

Johnson believed states should decide issues of black suffrage

Northerners move south

Teachers

Black and white teachers volunteer to teach former slaves to read and write

Carpetbaggers

Investors wanted to become planters in the staple-crop economy

Southerners saw them as taking advantage of the South’s devastation

Scalawags

Reluctant secessionists ally with Republicans

Former white southern Whigs

Some humbled planter class and less wealthy men

White vigilantes: Ku Klux Klan

Began as a group of Tennessee war veterans

White supremacist terrorist group

Led to violence and murder of both blacks and their white allies

Showed how far ex-Confederates would go to reassert their authority and defy the federal government

Key Terms:

carpetbaggers: A negative term applied by Southerners to Northerners who moved to the South after the Civil War to pursue political or economic opportunities.

scalawags: A negative term applied by southern Democrats after the Civil War to any white Southerner who allied with the Republican party.

Freedmen’s Bureau, Beaufort, South Carolina

Freedmen's Bureau agents distributed rations to former slaves and southern whites who had remained loyal to the Union. Agents also sponsored schools, legalized marriages formed under slavery, arbitrated domestic disputes, and oversaw labor contracts between workers and landowners. The bureau faced many challenges; it was chronically understaffed, and many freedpeople lived on isolated plantations, far from the scrutiny of bureau agents. But by 1869 the bureau had ceased to exist.

Historical/Corbis

Journal Prompt 15.2

Can you speculate about the way that the building in the photograph above was used before and during the war? How do you think southern whites reacted to the various roles and responsibilities of Freedmen’s Bureau’s agents?

Answer: It is difficult to say with certainty how this building was used before the war, but its size and sophisticated construction suggest that it might have been the home of a relatively well-to-do person. If so, the occupation of such a building by the Freedmen’s Bureau would have been particularly galling. From the point of view of many white Southerners, the Freedmen’s Bureau epitomized northern interference in southern social, political, and economic affairs. Thus, the Bureau’s use of the home of a member of the white social elite as a base of operations may have been seen as adding insult to injury.

15.1.3 The Postbellum South’s Labor Problem

Labor contracts

Freedmen’s Bureau would help negotiate

Contract options

Benefits of contract

Sherman’s Field Order Number 15

“Forty acres and a mule” (later revoked)

Commissioners from Edisto Island

Sharecropping option

Troubling for freedmen

Lecture Outline:

Labor contracts

Freedmen’s Bureau would help negotiate

Mixed record

Agents were a diverse group

Some bureau offices havens for blacks seeking help but others had little impact

Contract options

Monthly wage

Share of crop

Combination

Benefits of contract

Incentive to treat workers fairly

Workers could leave at the end of the year

Sherman’s Field Order Number 15

“Forty acres and a mule” (later revoked)

20,000 former slaves worked the land

Commissioners from Edisto Island

Group of black men protested

Sharecropping option

Troubling for freedmen

Received advance supplies from landlord, worked all year, remained indebted to landlord and obliged to work another year

Could be easily evicted if landlord desired

Sharecroppers at Work

After the Civil War, many rural southern blacks, such as those shown here, continued to toil in cotton fields owned by whites. As sharecroppers, these workers made very little in cash wages, and even when they did accumulate some money, many learned that whites would not sell them land.

Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division [LC-USZ62-45067]

Journal Prompt 15.3

What were the limits of Reconstruction as a federal program designed to assist freed slaves to become truly free?

Answer: True freedom for former slaves required a social and economic revolution, something the federal government was unwilling to facilitate. It was not enough that slaves were legally free, that laws were passed protecting their rights, or that the federal government sometimes intervened to prevent the violent acts of white supremacists. So long as southern blacks were economically dependent on southern whites, their freedom was limited and conditional. As soon as the federal government withdrew from the South, white Southerners moved quickly to reestablish the prewar racial order.

Interpreting History: M. C. Fulton: An Appeal of a Georgia Planter to a Freedmen’s Bureau Officer (1866) (1 of 2)

How does Fulton define “idleness”? Why does he believe that women who stay home and care for their families are not really working?

Is Fulton making a race-based or a class-based argument in his appeal to Tillson? Explain.

Interpreting History: M. C. Fulton: An Appeal of a Georgia Planter to a Freedmen’s Bureau Officer (1866) (2 of 2)

Does Fulton have good reason for assuming—or hoping—that Tillson will be responsive to this letter?

15.1.4 Building Free Communities

Blacks strove to be political force

Often divided by class

Uniting principle: full citizenship rights

Self-help organizations

Efforts to sponsor schools

Family cooperation

Built own churches

Whites felt threatened

Lecture Outline:

Blacks strove to be political force

Often divided by class

Slaves free before war might be skilled and literate

Would assume leadership positions over field hands

Light-skinned people

Uniting principle: full citizenship rights

Ability to vote, own land, and educate children

Should be enforced by the federal government, using force, if necessray

Self-help organizations

Efforts to sponsor schools

Hire teachers and construct school buildings

Expensive – personal and group sacrifice required

Family cooperation

Help neighbors, elderly, orphans

Valued family ties over employers and landlords

Built own churches

Whites felt threatened

KKK resulted

15.1.5 Congressional Reconstruction: The Radicals’ Plan (1 of 2)

Reconstruction Act of 1867

Purge the South of disloyalty

Five military districts

Tenure of Office Act

Prevent the president from dismissing Secretary of War Stanton

1868: Johnson impeached for violation of Tenure Act

Lecture Outline:

Reconstruction Act of 1867

Purge the South of disloyalty

Stripped former Confederates of voting rights

Former Confederate states not readmitted until they ratified the Fourteenth Amendment and wrote new constitutions that guaranteed black men the right to vote

Five military districts

Federal troops stationed throughout territory

Protecting Union personnel and supporters

Restoring order

Tenure of Office Act

Prevent the president from dismissing Secretary of War Stanton

Was a supporter of radicals

1868: Johnson impeached for violation of Tenure Act

One vote short of impeachment

Johnson no longer attempted policymaking

Key Terms:

Reconstruction Act of 1867: An act that prevented the former Confederate states from entering the Union until they had ratified the Fourteenth Amendment and written new constitutions that guaranteed black men the right to vote. It also divided the South (with the exception of Tennessee, which had ratified the Fourteenth Amendment) into five military districts and stationed federal troops throughout the region.

15.1.5 Congressional Reconstruction: The Radicals’ Plan (2 of 2)

Command of the Army Act

The president must seek approval for military orders from General Grant

Reconstruction governments

2,000 black men – Republican leaders

Passed laws to improve equality

Fifteenth Amendment

Voting rights for black men

Ku Klux Klan Act

Lecture Outline:

Command of the Army Act

The president must seek approval for military orders from General Grant

Grant also a supporter of Republicans

Reconstruction governments

2,000 black men – Republican leaders

Locally elected sheriffs, justices of the peace, tax collectors, and city councilors

Also elected to state legislatures, U.S. Congress

Many were of mixed ancestry and free before the war

Mostly literate and skilled

Majority of voting public were black men

Passed laws to improve equality

Wanted to promote economic development and economic equality

Later claims of corruption and kickbacks

Fifteenth Amendment

Voting rights for black men

Ku Klux Klan Act

Punishes acts to deny rights to citizens

Key Terms:

kickbacks: Money paid illegally in return for favors (for example, to a politician by a person or business that has received government contracts).

Map 15.1: Radical Reconstruction

Four of the former Confederate states, Louisiana, Arkansas, Tennessee, and Virginia, were reorganized under President Lincoln's Ten Percent Plan in 1864. Neither this plan nor the proposals of Lincoln’s successor, Andrew Johnson, provided for the enfranchisement of the former slaves. In 1867 Congress established five military districts in the South and demanded that newly reconstituted state governments implement universal manhood suffrage. By 1870, all of the former Confederate states had rejoined the Union, and by 1877, all of those states had installed conservative (i.e., Democratic) governments.

Table 15.1: The Election of 1868

Candidate Political Party Popular Vote (%) Electoral Vote
Ulysses S. Grant Republican 52.7 214
Horatio Seymour Democratic 47.3 80
Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

SOURCE: Historical Election Results, Electoral College, National Archives and Records Administration

Shared Writing Andrew Johnson

What were President Andrew Johnson’s views of the best way to implement the reconstruction of the southern states? Was he successful in implementing his views while he was president? Why or why not?

To answer these questions, review section 15.1, “The Struggle over the South,” paying particular attention to section 15.1.2, “Presidential Reconstruction, 1865–1867.”

Answer: President Johnson wanted to bring the southern states back into the Union as quickly as possible. While he had considerable antipathy toward the planter elite, he had no particular interest in the fate of newly freed slaves. Congress initially gave Johnson a free hand, but when his intentions became clear and he rebuffed moderate efforts at compromise, relations between the president and Congress broke down. From that point on, Congress took the lead in Reconstruction, successfully turning aside all of Johnson’s efforts to regain control.

15.2 Claiming Territory for the Union (1 of 2)

Federal Military Campaigns Against Western Indians

The Postwar Western Labor Problem

Land Use in an Expanding Nation

Buying Territory for the Union

Focus Question:

What human and environmental forces impeded the Republican goal of western expansion?

15.2 Claiming Territory for the Union (2 of 2)

Postbellum migration

Railroads assisted in expansion

Native Americans battled U.S. cavalry

In Plains, Northwest, Southwest

Lecture Outline:

Postbellum migration

Railroads assisted in expansion

Native Americans battled U.S. cavalry

In Plains, Northwest, Southwest

15.2.1 Federal Military Campaigns Against Western Indians

Clashes on the Plains

1867: Medicine Lodge Creek Treaty

1868: Custer attacks Washita River Cheyenne

1874: Custer in Black Hills

1875: Crook captures Geronimo

1876: Custer killed and troops defeated at Little Big Horn

Indians maintained their culture

Lecture Outline:

Clashes on the Plains

1867: Medicine Lodge Creek Treaty

Comanche, Kiowa, Cheyenne, Arapaho, and Apache

Indians continued to attack workers associated with railroad

Surveyors, supply caravans, military escorts

1868: Custer attacks Washita River Cheyenne

Seventh Calvary formed to ward off Indian attacks

Murdered women and children, burned tipis, and destroyed 800 horses

1874: Custer in Black Hills

Land supposedly off limits to whites from treaty

Offer support to surveyors of railroad and force Indians onto reservation

Land rush after gold reported in Black Hills

15,000 gold miners within two years

Government tried to buy the land

1875: Crook captures Geronimo

Apache leader offered religious and military guidance to his people

1876: Custer killed and troops defeated at Little Big Horn

Attacks gathering of 2,500 Sioux and Cheyenne

Custer had a force of 264 soldiers

U.S. military reduced Lakota and Cheyenne to wardship status, ending their autonomy

Indians maintained their culture

Horses

Trading system

Railroad Taxidermist’s Buffalo Trophy Heads

With this 1870 photograph, the Kansas Pacific Railroad advertised the opportunity for western travelers to shoot buffalo from the comfort and safety of their railroad car. The company’s official taxidermist shows off his handiwork. Railroad expansion facilitated the exploitation of natural resources while promoting tourism.

Art Resource, NY

Journal Prompt 15.4

What groups of people might have been eager to take advantage of the buffalo-hunting services offered by the Kansas Pacific Railroad?

Answer: Buffalo hunting may have appealed to Easterners with little experience of the “Wild West.” The opportunity to hunt such an iconic animal, albeit from the safety of a train, might have seemed to some well-to-do Easterners like a chance to participate in a grand western adventure before the West disappeared.

15.2.2 The Postwar Western Labor Problem

Railroad labor force

Irish labor force began rail line in California

Chinese laborers brought to work railroads

Chinese sought work elsewhere when railroad complete

Burlingame Treaty

White workers felt competition unfair

California Native Americans

Population decimated

Lecture Outline:

Railroad labor force

Irish labor force began rail line in California

Irish struck for better pay

Gold was enticement to leave

Chinese laborers brought to work railroads

Proved to be very skillful workers

Railroad work was hard and dangerous

Chinese sought work elsewhere when railroad complete

Burlingame Treaty

Protection for Chinese immigrants

Did not prevent discrimination

White workers felt competition unfair

Most Chinese immigrants were men

Worked in many areas: factories, gold mining towns as laundry operators, agricultural laborers

California Native Americans

Population decimated

Land taken

Often forced to work as wage earners for large landowners

Reduced from 100,000 to 30,000 by 1870

Chinese Immigrant Railroad Laborers, Secret Town, California

Chinese construction workers labor on the Central Pacific Railroad, around 1868. Many Chinese immigrants toiled as indentured laborers, indebted to Chinese merchant creditors who paid for their passage to California. Isolated in all-male work camps, crews of railroad workers retained their traditional dress, language, and diet. After the completion of the Transcontinental Railroad in 1869, some immigrants returned to China, and others dispersed to small towns and cities throughout the West.

Picture History/Newscom

Journal Prompt 15.5

From the photo above, can you speculate about the engineering challenges faced by builders of western railroads?

Answer: The construction of western railroads required laying tracks over mountains, across valleys and rivers, and through inhospitable deserts. Overcoming these challenges required sophisticated engineering skills, as well as a labor force willing to take on the tough, dangerous work.

15.2.3 Land Use in an Expanding Nation (1 of 2)

Use of land in the South

Moved to mining and forest for commodities

Complementary labor patterns

Use of land in the West and Southwest

Courts favor European American land claims

Boom towns: minerals and timber

Railroads facilitated mining and ranching

Cattle drives

Lecture Outline:

Use of land in the South

Moved to mining and forest for commodities

Phosphate, timber, coal, and turpentine

Complementary labor patterns

Spring tilling, fall harvesting, sawmills/coal mines in winter and summer

Use of land in the West and Southwest

Courts favor European American land claims

Santa Fe Ring: 80 percent of land from Hispanics

Boom towns: minerals and timber

Southern Arizona, Virginia City, Rocky Mountains, and Black Hills of South Dakota

Railroads facilitated mining and ranching

Cattle drives

Cowboys drove herds to railroad for shipment to stockyards in Chicago or St. Louis

Abilene, Wichita, Dodge City, Ellsworth

Cowboys: African Americans made up about 25 percent and Hispanos about 15 percent

15.2.3 Land Use in an Expanding Nation (2 of 2)

Apex Mining Act of 1872

Legalized traditional mining practices

John Muir

Explored California

Painters and geologists came west to explore the landscape

National Park System

Congress set aside beautiful areas

Lecture Outline:

Apex Mining Act of 1872

Legalized traditional mining practices

Validated titles approved by local courts

Locate apex of vein could lay claim to whole vein beneath the surface

Destruction of whole areas as mining companies blasted through mountains

John Muir

Explored California

Painters and geologists came west to explore the landscape

National Park System

Congress set aside beautiful areas

Could not be commercially developed

March 1872: Yellowstone National Park

Table 15.2: Estimates of Railroad Crossties Used and Acres of Forest Cleared, 1870–1910

Year Miles of Track Ties Renewed Annually (millions) Ties Used on New Construction (millions) Total Ties Annually (millions) Acres of Forest Cleared (thousands)
1870 60,000 21 18 39 195
1880 107,000 37 21 58 290
1890 200,000 70 19 89 445
1900 259,000 91 455
1910 357,000 124 620
Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

SOURCE: Michael Williams, American and Their Forests (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 352.

15.2.4 Buying Territory for the Union

Alaska

Purchased from Russians for $7.2 million

Attempt to acquire the Dominican Republic

Would provide naval base and investment, refuge for southern freedmen

Senator Sumner: consider will of Dominican people

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