Why the breakfast club is important

Essay (The Film Response Of The Breakfast Club)

This page intentionally left blank

This page intentionally left blank

A FIRST LOOK AT

COMMUNICATION THEORY

EIGHTH EDITION

EM GRIFFIN

gri34307_fm_i-xviii.indd Page i 1/29/11 3:39 PM user-f470gri34307_fm_i-xviii.indd Page i 1/29/11 3:39 PM user-f470 /Volumes/208/MHSF234/gri34307_disk1of1/0073534307/gri34307_pagefiles/Volumes/208/MHSF234/gri34307_disk1of1/0073534307/gri34307_pagefile

This page intentionally left blank

A FIRST LOOK AT

COMMUNICATION THEORY

EIGHTH EDITION

EM GRIFFIN Wheaton College

Special Consultants:

Glenn G. Sparks Purdue University

Andrew M. Ledbetter Texas Christian University

TM

gri34307_fm_i-xviii.indd Page iii 1/29/11 3:39 PM user-f470gri34307_fm_i-xviii.indd Page iii 1/29/11 3:39 PM user-f470 /Volumes/208/MHSF234/gri34307_disk1of1/0073534307/gri34307_pagefiles/Volumes/208/MHSF234/gri34307_disk1of1/0073534307/gri34307_pagefile

TM

Published by McGraw-Hill, an imprint of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020. Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006, 2003, 2000, 1997, 1994, 1991. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning.

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 QDB/QDB 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

ISBN: 978-0-07-353430-5 MHID: 0-07-353430-7

Executive Vice President, Editorial: Michael Ryan Publisher: David Patterson Executive Editor: Susan Gouijnstook Executive Marketing Manager: Leslie Oberhuber Director of Development: Rhona Robbin Senior Developmental Editor: Jennie Katsaros Senior Project Manager: Holly Irish Production Service: Merrill Peterson, Matrix Productions, Inc. Media Project Manager: Jabez Bethuel Manuscript Editor: Toni Zuccarini Ackley Cover Designer: Preston Thomas Buyer II: Tandra Jorgensen Composition: 10/12 Palatino by Aptara,® Inc. Printing: 45# New Era Matte Plus, Quad/Graphics

Credits: The credits section for this book begins on page C-1 and is considered an extension of the copyright page.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Griffi n, Emory A. A fi rst look at communication theory / Em Griffi n.—8th ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-07-353430-5 1. Communication—Philosophy. I. Title. P90.G725 2011 302.201—dc22 2011001159

The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a website does not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill, and McGraw-Hill does not guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at these sites.

www.mhhe.com

gri34307_fm_i-xviii.indd Page iv 2/2/11 1:38 PM user-f470gri34307_fm_i-xviii.indd Page iv 2/2/11 1:38 PM user-f470 /Users/Volumes/208/MHSF234/gri34307_disk1of1/0073534307/gri34307_pagefiles/Users/Volumes/208/MHSF234/gri34307_disk1of1/0073534307/gri34307_pagefil

www.mhhe.com
ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Em Griffin is Professor Emeritus of Communication at Wheaton College in Illinois, where he has taught for more than 35 years and has been chosen Teacher of the Year. He received his bachelor’s degree in political science from the Univer- sity of Michigan, and his M.A. and Ph.D. in communication from Northwestern University. His research interest centers on the development of close friendships.

Em is the author of three applied communication books: The Mind Changers analyzes practical techniques of persuasion; Getting Together offers research-based suggestions for effective group leadership; and Making Friends describes the way quality interpersonal communication can create and sustain close relationships.

In addition to teaching and writing, Em serves with Opportunity Interna- tional, a microfi nance development organization that provides opportunities for people in chronic poverty around the world to transform their lives. He is also an active mediator at the Center for Confl ict Resolution in Chicago and runs his own mediation service, Communication First.

Em’s wife, Jeanie, is an artist; they recently celebrated 50 years of marriage. They have two married, adult children, Jim and Sharon, and six grandchildren, Joshua, Amy, Sam, Kyle, Alison, and Dan.

v

gri34307_fm_i-xviii.indd Page v 1/29/11 3:39 PM user-f470gri34307_fm_i-xviii.indd Page v 1/29/11 3:39 PM user-f470 /Volumes/208/MHSF234/gri34307_disk1of1/0073534307/gri34307_pagefiles/Volumes/208/MHSF234/gri34307_disk1of1/0073534307/gri34307_pagefile

This page intentionally left blank

vii

CONTENTS

Preface for Instructors x

DIVISION ONE OVERVIEW

CHAPTER 1 Launching Your Study of Communication Theory 2

CHAPTER 2 Talk About Theory 13

CHAPTER 3 Weighing the Words 25

CHAPTER 4 Mapping the Territory (Seven Traditions in the Field of Communication Theory) 37

DIVISION TWO INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

Interpersonal Messages 52

CHAPTER 5 Symbolic Interactionism of George Herbert Mead 54

CHAPTER 6 Coordinated Management of Meaning (CMM) of W. Barnett Pearce & Vernon Cronen 67

CHAPTER 7 Expectancy Violations Theory of Judee Burgoon 84

CHAPTER 8 Constructivism of Jesse Delia 98

Relationship Development 111

CHAPTER 9 Social Penetration Theory of Irwin Altman & Dalmas Taylor 113

CHAPTER 10 Uncertainty Reduction Theory of Charles Berger 125

CHAPTER 11 Social Information Processing Theory of Joseph Walther 138

Relationship Maintenance 151

CHAPTER 12 Relational Dialectics of Leslie Baxter & Barbara Montgomery 153

CHAPTER 13 Communication Privacy Management Theory of Sandra Petronio 168

CHAPTER 14 The Interactional View of Paul Watzlawick 181

gri34307_fm_i-xviii.indd Page vii 1/29/11 3:39 PM user-f470gri34307_fm_i-xviii.indd Page vii 1/29/11 3:39 PM user-f470 /Volumes/208/MHSF234/gri34307_disk1of1/0073534307/gri34307_pagefiles/Volumes/208/MHSF234/gri34307_disk1of1/0073534307/gri34307_pagefile

viii CONTENTS

Infl uence 192

CHAPTER 15 Social Judgment Theory of Muzafer Sherif 194

CHAPTER 16 Elaboration Likelihood Model of Richard Petty & John Cacioppo 205

CHAPTER 17 Cognitive Dissonance Theory of Leon Festinger 217

DIVISION THREE GROUP AND PUBLIC COMMUNICATION

Group Communication 231

CHAPTER 18 Functional Perspective on Group Decision Making of Randy Hirokawa & Dennis Gouran 233

CHAPTER 19 Symbolic Convergence Theory of Ernest Bormann 247

Organizational Communication 259

CHAPTER 20 Cultural Approach to Organizations of Clifford Geertz & Michael Pacanowsky 261

CHAPTER 21 Critical Theory of Communication in Organizations of Stanley Deetz 272

Public Rhetoric 287

CHAPTER 22 The Rhetoric of Aristotle 289

CHAPTER 23 Dramatism of Kenneth Burke 299

CHAPTER 24 Narrative Paradigm of Walter Fisher 308

DIVISION FOUR MASS COMMUNICATION

Media and Culture 319

CHAPTER 25 Media Ecology of Marshall McLuhan 321

CHAPTER 26 Semiotics of Roland Barthes 332

CHAPTER 27 Cultural Studies of Stuart Hall 344

Media Effects 355

CHAPTER 28 Uses and Gratifi cations of Elihu Katz 357

CHAPTER 29 Cultivation Theory of George Gerbner 366

CHAPTER 30 Agenda-Setting Theory of Maxwell McCombs & Donald Shaw 378

DIVISION FIVE CULTURAL CONTEXT

Intercultural Communication 392

CHAPTER 31 Communication Accommodation Theory of Howard Giles 394

gri34307_fm_i-xviii.indd Page viii 1/29/11 3:39 PM user-f470gri34307_fm_i-xviii.indd Page viii 1/29/11 3:39 PM user-f470 /Volumes/208/MHSF234/gri34307_disk1of1/0073534307/gri34307_pagefiles/Volumes/208/MHSF234/gri34307_disk1of1/0073534307/gri34307_pagefile

CONTENTS ix

CHAPTER 32 Face-Negotiation Theory of Stella Ting-Toomey 407

CHAPTER 33 Speech Codes Theory of Gerry Philipsen 421

Gender and Communication 433

CHAPTER 34 Genderlect Styles of Deborah Tannen 435

CHAPTER 35 Standpoint Theory of Sandra Harding & Julia Wood 447

CHAPTER 36 Muted Group Theory of Cheris Kramarae 460

DIVISION SIX INTEGRATION

CHAPTER 37 Common Threads in Comm Theories 473

Appendix A: Abstracts of Theories A-1

Appendix B: Feature Films that Illustrate Communication Theories A-6

Appendix C: NCA Credo for Ethical Communication A-8

Endnotes E-1

Credits and Acknowledgments C-1

Index I-1

gri34307_fm_i-xviii.indd Page ix 2/2/11 1:23 PM user-f470gri34307_fm_i-xviii.indd Page ix 2/2/11 1:23 PM user-f470 /Users/Volumes/208/MHSF234/gri34307_disk1of1/0073534307/gri34307_pagefiles/Users/Volumes/208/MHSF234/gri34307_disk1of1/0073534307/gri34307_pagefil

x

PREFACE FOR INSTRUCTORS

If you’re already familiar with A First Look at Communication Theory and under- stand the approach, organization, and main features of the book, you may want to jump ahead to the “Major Changes in the Eighth Edition” section. For those who are new to the text, reading the entire preface will give you a good grasp of what you and your students can expect.

A Balanced Approach to Theory Selection. I’ve written A First Look for students who have no background in communication theory. It’s designed for undergraduates enrolled in an entry-level course, regardless of the students’ clas- sifi cation. The trend in the fi eld is to offer students a broad introduction to theory relatively early in their program. But if a department chooses to offer its fi rst theory course on the junior or senior level, the course will still be the students’ fi rst comprehensive look at theory, so the book will meet them where they are.

The aim of the text is to present 32 specifi c theories in a way that makes them interesting and understandable. By the time readers complete the book, they should have a working knowledge of theories that explain a broad range of com- munication phenomena. Of course, my ultimate goal is for students to understand the relationships among the leading ideas in our fi eld, but before they can make those connections, they need to have a good grasp of what the theorists are saying. The bulk of the book provides that raw material.

With the help of journal and yearbook editors, and the feedback of 200 instructors, I’ve selected a range of theories that refl ect the diversity within the discipline. Some theories are proven candidates for a Communication Theory Hall of Fame. For example, Aristotle’s analysis of logical, emotional, and ethical appeals continues to set the agenda for many public-speaking courses. Mead’s symbolic interactionism is formative for interpretive theorists who are dealing with language, thought, self-concept, or the effect of society upon the individual. Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory was the fi rst objective theory to be crafted by a social scientist trained in the fi eld. The axioms of Watzlawick’s interactional view continue to be debated by interpersonal scholars. And no student of medi- ated communication should be ignorant of Gerbner’s cultivation theory, which explains why heavy television viewing cultivates fear of a mean and scary world.

It would be shortsighted, however, to limit the selection to the classics of communication. Some of the discipline’s most creative approaches are its newest. For example, Leslie Baxter and Barbara Montgomery’s theory of relational dia- lectics offers insight into the ongoing tensions inherent in personal relationships.

gri34307_fm_i-xviii.indd Page x 1/29/11 3:39 PM user-f470gri34307_fm_i-xviii.indd Page x 1/29/11 3:39 PM user-f470 /Volumes/208/MHSF234/gri34307_disk1of1/0073534307/gri34307_pagefiles/Volumes/208/MHSF234/gri34307_disk1of1/0073534307/gri34307_pagefile

PREFACE FOR INSTRUCTORS xi

Joe Walther’s social information processing is one of the few fully developed and well-researched theories of computer-mediated communication. And Gerry Philipsen’s speech codes theory upgrades the ethnography of communication from a methodology to a theory that can be used to explain, predict, and control discourse about discourse.

Organizational Plan of the Book. Each chapter introduces a single theory in 10–15 pages. I’ve found that most undergraduates think in terms of discrete packets of information, so the concentrated coverage gives them a chance to focus their thoughts while reading a single chapter. In this way, students can gain an in-depth understanding of important theories rather than acquire only a vague familiarity with a jumble of related ideas. The one-chapter–one-theory arrange- ment also gives teachers the opportunity to drop theories or rearrange the order of presentation without tearing apart the fabric of the text.

The fi rst four chapters provide a framework for understanding the theo- ries to come. The opening chapter, “Launching Your Study of Communication Theory,” presents working defi nitions of both theory and communication, and also prepares students for the arrangement of the chapters and the features within them. Chapter 2, “Talk About Theory,” lays the groundwork for understanding the differences between objective and interpretive theories. Chapter 3, “Weigh- ing the Words,” presents two sets of criteria for determining a good objective or interpretive theory. Based on Robert Craig’s (University of Colorado) conception, Chapter 4, “Mapping the Territory,” introduces seven traditions within the fi eld of communication theory.

Following this integrative framework, I present the 32 theories in 32 self- contained chapters. Each theory is discussed within the context of a commu- nication topic: interpersonal messages, relationship development, relationship maintenance, infl uence, group communication, organizational communication, public rhetoric, media and culture, media effects, intercultural communication, and gender and communication. These communication context sections usually contain two or three theories. Each section’s two-page introduction outlines a cru- cial issue that theorists working in this area address. The placement of theories in familiar contexts helps students recognize that theories are answers to questions they’ve been asking all along. The fi nal chapter, “Common Threads in Comm Theories,” offers students a novel form of integration that will help them discern order in the tapestry of communication theory that might otherwise seem chaotic.

Because all theory and practice has value implications, I briefl y explore a dozen ethical principles throughout the book. Consistent with the focus of this text, each principle is the central tenet of a specifi c ethical theory. Other disciplines may ignore these thorny issues, but to discuss communication as a process that is untouched by questions of good and bad, right and wrong, or virtue and vice would be to disregard an ongoing concern in our fi eld.

Features of Each Chapter. Most people think in pictures. Students will have a rough time understanding a theory unless they apply its explanations and inter- pretations to concrete situations. The typical chapter uses an extended example to illustrate the “truth” a theory proposes. I encourage readers to try out ideas by visualizing a fi rst meeting of freshman roommates, responding to confl ict in a dysfunctional family, trying to persuade other students to support a zero-tolerance policy on driving after drinking, and many others. I also use Toni Morrison’s book Beloved, speeches of Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X, and the fi lms Bend It Like Beckham, Thank You for Smoking, Erin Brockovich, and When Harry Met

gri34307_fm_i-xviii.indd Page xi 1/29/11 3:39 PM user-f470gri34307_fm_i-xviii.indd Page xi 1/29/11 3:39 PM user-f470 /Volumes/208/MHSF234/gri34307_disk1of1/0073534307/gri34307_pagefiles/Volumes/208/MHSF234/gri34307_disk1of1/0073534307/gri34307_pagefile

xii PREFACE FOR INSTRUCTORS

Sally to illustrate principles of the theories. The case study in each chapter follows the pedagogical principle of explaining what students don’t yet know in terms of ideas and images already within their experience.

Some theories are tightly linked with an extensive research project. For exam- ple, the impact of cognitive dissonance theory was greatly spurred by Festinger’s surprising fi nding in his now classic $1/$20 experiment. Philipsen’s speech codes theory began with a three-year ethnographic study of what it means to speak like a man in “Teamsterville.” And Delia’s constructivist research continues to be de- pendent on Crockett’s Role Category Questionnaire. When such exemplars exist, I describe the research in detail so that students can learn from and appreciate the benefi ts of grounding theory in systematic observation. Thus, readers of A First Look are led through a variety of research designs and data analyses.

Students will encounter the names of Baxter, Berger, Bormann, Burgoon, Burke, Deetz, Fisher, Giles, Kramarae, Pacanowsky, Pearce, Philipsen, Ting- Toomey, Walther, Wood, and many others in later communication courses. I therefore make a concerted effort to link theory and theorist. By pairing a particu- lar theory with its originator, I try to promote both recall and respect for a given scholar’s effort.

The text of each chapter concludes with a section that critiques the theory. This represents a hard look at the ideas presented in light of the criteria for a good theory outlined in Chapter 3. Some theorists have told me that I am a “friend” of their theory. I appreciate that. I want to present all of them in a constructive way, but after I provide a summary of the theory’s strengths, I then discuss the weaknesses, unanswered questions, and possible errors that remain. I try to stimu- late a “That makes sense, and yet I wonder . . .” response among students.

I include a short list of thought questions at the end of each chapter. Labeled “Questions to Sharpen Your Focus,” these probes encourage students to make connections among ideas in the chapter and also to apply the theory to their everyday communication experience. As part of this feature, words printed in italics remind students of the key terms of a given theory.

Each chapter ends with a short list of annotated readings entitled “A Second Look.” The heading refers to resources for students who are interested in a theory and want to go further than a 10- to 15-page introduction allows. The top item is the resource I recommend as the starting point for further study. The other list- ings identify places to look for material about each of the major issues raised in the chapter. The format is designed to offer practical encouragement and guidance for further study without overwhelming the novice with multiple citations. The sources of quotations and citations of evidence are listed in an “Endnotes” section at the end of the book.

I believe professors and students alike will get a good chuckle out of the cartoons I’ve selected for each chapter and section introduction. The art’s main function, however, is to illustrate signifi cant points in the text. As in other editions, I’m committed to using quality cartoon art from The New Yorker and Punch maga- zines, as well as comic strips such as “Calvin and Hobbes,” “Dilbert,” “Cathy,” and “Zits.” Perceptive cartoonists are modern-day prophets—their humor serves the education process well when it slips through mental barriers or attitudinal defenses that didactic prose can’t penetrate.

While no author considers his or her style ponderous or dull, I believe I’ve presented the theories in a clear and lively fashion. Accuracy alone does not com- municate. I’ve tried to remain faithful to the vocabulary each theorist uses so that

gri34307_fm_i-xviii.indd Page xii 1/29/11 3:39 PM user-f470gri34307_fm_i-xviii.indd Page xii 1/29/11 3:39 PM user-f470 /Volumes/208/MHSF234/gri34307_disk1of1/0073534307/gri34307_pagefiles/Volumes/208/MHSF234/gri34307_disk1of1/0073534307/gri34307_pagefile

PREFACE FOR INSTRUCTORS xiii

the student can consider the theory in the author’s own terms, but I also translate technical language into more familiar words. Students and reviewers cite read- ability and interest as particular strengths of the text. I encourage you to sample a chapter so you can decide for yourself.

In 12 of the chapters, you’ll see photographs of the theorists who appear in my “Conversations with Communication Theorists,” eight-minute video clips of our discussions together. The text that accompanies each picture previews a few intriguing comments the theorists made so students can watch the interview with a specifi c purpose in mind. You can fi nd these videos on the book’s website, www. afi rstlook.com.

I encourage you to check out the website for other features that can equip you to make theory exciting for your students. Features include information on movie clips that illustrate specifi c theories, student application log entries that show Kurt Lewin was right when he said that there’s nothing as practical as a good theory, and a comparison of all major comm theory texts to fi nd out what theories are cov- ered in each book. Many of you will appreciate the theory archive, which contains more than 20 complete chapters from previous editions. This way you can assign one of your favorites if it isn’t in the current edition. The most popular resource on the site is the world-class instructor’s manual prepared by Emily Langan, which accounts for the vast majority of the 40,000 log-ins per month. In the password- protected, instructors-only section of the site, you’ll fi nd suggestions for discus- sions, classroom exercises and activities, and short-answer quizzes for each chapter.

Major Changes in the Eighth Edition. With the strong encouragement of a focus group and the results of an extensive online survey, I’ve added three new theories to this edition. Sandra Petronio’s communication privacy management theory has garnered great interest in the last decade. Though applicable whenever private information is disclosed, CPM’s relevance in the expanding fi eld of health com- munication makes its inclusion in the text particularly appropriate. In previous editions I’ve used an abbreviated version of Ernest Bormann’s symbolic convergence theory to illustrate the different criteria for evaluating scientifi c and interpretive theories. I now devote an entire chapter to this important group theory that com- bines rhetorical criticism with the desire for universal principles. And because the uses and gratifi cations approach of Elihu Katz changed the direction of media-effects theory and research, I’m pleased to introduce his work in this edition. In order to make room for those last two theories, I’ve moved my coverage of adaptive struc- turation theory and spiral of silence to the theory archive at www.afi rstlook.com.

I’ve streamlined all of the integration chapters. I’ve transferred my discussion of research from Chapter 2, “Talk About Theory” to Chapter 3, “Weighing the Words,” where quantitative or qualitative research becomes a sixth standard for a good objective or interpretive theory. Because I’ve moved my description of sym- bolic convergence theory to a stand-alone chapter, Chapter 2 and Chapter 3 are shorter and more focused. In the previous edition, Chapter 4 illustrated the seven traditions of communication theory with a potpourri of early theories, research programs, and quotations that could confuse or overwhelm beginning students. In this edition, I describe how each tradition studies friendship, a topic near and dear to most college students. The end result is that these three integrative chap- ters are clearer and briefer, and do more to demonstrate the relationship between theory and research.

For the last 15 years in my communication theory course, I’ve given an “application log” assignment in which students write a paragraph or two applying

gri34307_fm_i-xviii.indd Page xiii 1/29/11 3:39 PM user-f470gri34307_fm_i-xviii.indd Page xiii 1/29/11 3:39 PM user-f470 /Volumes/208/MHSF234/gri34307_disk1of1/0073534307/gri34307_pagefiles/Volumes/208/MHSF234/gri34307_disk1of1/0073534307/gri34307_pagefile

www.afirstlook.com
www.afirstlook.com
www.afirstlook.com
xiv PREFACE FOR INSTRUCTORS

each theory to some aspect of their own lives or the world around them. When I read some exemplars in class, they are fascinated with the way their peers put theory into practice. I’ve inserted an application log entry into most chapters where I think it will not only spark interest, but also reinforce the specifi c feature of the theory I’m describing. In each case, the writer has given me explicit permis- sion to do so.

I’ve made at least one signifi cant change in two-thirds of the theory chapters. This may be a research update, a shift in the theorist’s thinking, a new example that runs throughout the theory, or a complete reorganization of the chapter. Here are a few examples: In the chapter on social judgment theory, I describe a media campaign at a Big Ten university that changed students’ perception and behavior by placing messages on binge drinking within students’ latitude of noncommit- ment. The treatment of social information processing (SIP) now addresses impres- sion formation on social networking sites like Facebook. Instead of illustrating the functional perspective on group decision making with an example of a faculty search committee (most students couldn’t care less), I now describe how two groups of students in similar off-campus courses made quite different decisions on how they would live together. And the entire chapter on cultivation theory has been restructured.

Acknowledgments. Working closely with three former students and friends has made crafting this edition an exciting and enjoyable project. Emily Langan, my colleague at Wheaton, has written an instructor’s manual that is recognized as the gold standard by others in our fi eld. Instructors tell me they walk into class with confi dence after reading Emily’s insights regarding a theory and her account of best practices on how to help students grasp and appreciate it.

On the title page of the book, Glenn Sparks (Purdue University) and Andrew Ledbetter (Texas Christian University) are listed as “Special Consultants.” What does this ambiguous title mean? For me, it signifi es that they’ve been involved in every major decision I’ve made for this edition. They were partners in creat- ing questions and interpreting the answers for a focus group and online survey of instructors teaching a communication theory course. They counseled me on changes that needed to be made and how best to make them. They read and made detailed comments on my drafts of new material. And they gladly took owner- ship of a few chapters in the book. Andrew did the rewrites of the chapters on social penetration, social information processing, and muted group theory. Glenn authored the new chapter on uses and gratifi cations and did a major rewrite of the chapter on cultivation theory. Emily, Andrew, and Glenn have contributed in ways that are above and beyond what any author has a right to expect. It’s been a delight working with them.

I gratefully acknowledge the wisdom and counsel of many other generous scholars whose intellectual capital is embedded in every page you’ll read. Over the last 24 years, hundreds of communication scholars have gone out of their way to make the book better. People who have made direct contributions to this edition include Ron Adler, Santa Barbara City College; Ron Arnett, Duquesne University; Julie Borkin, Oakland University; Brant Burleson, Purdue University; Stan Deetz, University of Colorado; Linda Desidero, University of Maryland; Thomas Discenna, Oakland University; Steve Duck, University of Iowa; Belle Edson, Arizona State University; Darin Garard, Santa Barbara City College; Howard Giles, University of California, Santa Barbara; Donna Gotch, California State University, San Bernardino; John Harrigan, Erie Community College; Cheris

gri34307_fm_i-xviii.indd Page xiv 1/29/11 3:39 PM user-f470gri34307_fm_i-xviii.indd Page xiv 1/29/11 3:39 PM user-f470 /Volumes/208/MHSF234/gri34307_disk1of1/0073534307/gri34307_pagefiles/Volumes/208/MHSF234/gri34307_disk1of1/0073534307/gri34307_pagefile

PREFACE FOR INSTRUCTORS xv

Kramarae, University of Oregon; Erina MacGeorge, Purdue University; Glen McClish, San Diego State University; Max McCombs, University of Texas; Marty Medhurst, Baylor University; Melanie Mills, Eastern Illinois University; Barnett Pearce, Fielding Graduate Institute; Russ Proctor, Northern Kentucky University; Read Schuchardt, Wheaton College; Paul Stob, Vanderbilt University; Stella Ting- Toomey, California State University, Fullerton; Scott Turcott, Indiana Wesleyan University; Robert Woods Jr., Spring Arbor University. Without their help, this edition would be less accurate and certainly less interesting.

My relationships with the professionals at McGraw-Hill have been highly satisfactory. I am grateful for Susan Gouijnstook, Executive Editor; Erika Lake, Editorial Coordinator; Leslie Oberhuber, Executive Marketing Manager; and Holly Irish, one of two Production Editors on the project. Jennie Katsaros, Senior Development Editor, Merrill Peterson, Production Editor from Matrix Produc- tions, and Penny Smith, Assistant Production Editor at Matrix are the three people with whom I’ve gladly worked most closely. Jennie has been my go-to person at McGraw-Hill for the last fi ve editions of the text—we’ve seen it all together. Merrill’s and Penny’s competence instills confi dence that the job will be done right; in a crisis they are unfl appable. When McGraw-Hill confi rmed that Merrill and Penny would shepherd the production process, I knew I could relax.

I’ve also been well-served by three outside contractors: Jenn Meyer, a com- mercial computer artist, created and revised fi gures on 24-hours notice; Judy Brody achieved the impossible by making the extensive permissions process en- joyable; Robyn Tellefsen was my student research assistant for the fourth edition of the book and is now a freelance writer and editor. When I wanted to work with someone who was familiar with the content and who I trusted implicitly, Robyn enthusiastically agreed to edit new material before I submitted it and proofread the entire text before it went to the printer. Other authors are envious when they hear of my good fortune to work with these nine people.

My research assistants for this edition have been Elizabeth Wilhoit and Ben Robertson. Elizabeth saw me through the fi rst half of the project before she en- tered a graduate program in rhetoric at Purdue. Ben, a media-studies honor stu- dent at Wheaton, picked up where Elizabeth left off. His work included the daunt- ing task of constructing the book’s extensive index while the publishing deadline loomed. I’m grateful for Elizabeth’s and Ben’s cheerful and helpful can-do attitude throughout the process. Colleagues at other schools are amazed when they hear of the dedicated and sophisticated help I receive from Wheaton undergraduates.

Finally, I gratefully recognize the continued encouragement, understanding, and loving support of my wife, Jean—not just on this project, but throughout 50 years of marriage. Her love, sense of humor, and parallel passion to create art and glorious music for others has made it possible for me to throw myself into this project.

Em Griffi n

gri34307_fm_i-xviii.indd Page xv 1/29/11 7:36 PM user-f470gri34307_fm_i-xviii.indd Page xv 1/29/11 7:36 PM user-f470 /Volumes/208/MHSF234/gri34307_disk1of1/0073534307/gri34307_pagefiles/Volumes/208/MHSF234/gri34307_disk1of1/0073534307/gri34307_pagefile

This page intentionally left blank

A FIRST LOOK AT

COMMUNICATION THEORY

EIGHTH EDITION

EM GRIFFIN

gri34307_fm_i-xviii.indd Page xvii 03/02/11 3:38 PM user-f494gri34307_fm_i-xviii.indd Page xvii 03/02/11 3:38 PM user-f494 /208/MHBR213/gib12664_disk1of1/0078112664/gib12664_pagefiles/208/MHBR213/gib12664_disk1of1/0078112664/gib12664_pagefiles

This page intentionally left blank

DIVISION ONE

Overview

CHAPTER 1. Launching Your Study of Communication Theory CHAPTER 2. Talk About Theory CHAPTER 3. Weighing the Words CHAPTER 4. Mapping the Territory (Seven Traditions in the Field of Communication Theory)

gri34307_ch01_001-012.indd Page 1 1/3/11 8:14 AM user-f469gri34307_ch01_001-012.indd Page 1 1/3/11 8:14 AM user-f469 /Volumes/208/MHSF234/gri34307_disk1of1/0073534307/gri34307_pagefiles/Volumes/208/MHSF234/gri34307_disk1of1/0073534307/gri34307_pagefile

1 CHAPTER

Launching Your Study of Communication Theory

This is a book about theories—communication theories. After that statement you may already be stifl ing a yawn. Many college students, after all, regard theory as obscure, dull, and irrelevant. People outside the classroom are even less char- itable. An aircraft mechanic once chided a professor: “You academic types are all alike. Your heads are crammed so full of theory, you wouldn’t know which end of a socket wrench to grab. Any plane you touched would crash and burn. All Ph.D. stands for is ‘piled higher and deeper.’” The mechanic could be right. Yet it’s ironic that even in the process of knock- ing theory, he resorts to his own theory of cognitive overload to explain what he sees as the mechanical stupidity of scholars. I appreciate his desire to make sense of his world. Here’s a man who spends a big hunk of his life making sure that planes stay safely in the air until pilots are ready to land. When we really care about something, we should seek to answer the why and what if questions that always emerge. That was the message I heard from University of Arizona communication theorist Judee Burgoon when I talked with her in my series of interviews, Conversations with Communication Theorists. 1 If we care about the fas- cinating subject of communication, she suggested, we’ve got to “do theory.”

WHAT IS A THEORY AND WHAT DOES IT DO?

In earlier editions I’ve used theory as “an umbrella term for all careful, sys- tematic, and self-conscious discussion and analysis of communication phenom- ena,” a defi nition offered by University of Minnesota communication professor Ernest Bormann. 2 I like this defi nition because it’s general enough to cover the diverse theories presented in this book. Yet the description is so broad that it doesn’t give us any direction on how we might construct a theory, nor does it offer a way to fi gure out when thoughts or statements about communication haven’t attained that status. If I call any idea a “theory,” does saying it’s so make it so? In my discussion with Judee Burgoon, she suggested that a theory is nothing more than a “set of systematic hunches about the way things operate.” 3 Since Burgoon is the most frequently cited female scholar in the fi eld of communica-

2

gri34307_ch01_001-012.indd Page 2 1/3/11 8:14 AM user-f469gri34307_ch01_001-012.indd Page 2 1/3/11 8:14 AM user-f469 /Volumes/208/MHSF234/gri34307_disk1of1/0073534307/gri34307_pagefiles/Volumes/208/MHSF234/gri34307_disk1of1/0073534307/gri34307_pagefile

CHAPTER 1: LAUNCHING YOUR STUDY OF COMMUNICATION THEORY 3

tion, I was intrigued by her unexpected use of the nontechnical term hunch . Would it therefore be legitimate to entitle the book you’re reading Communication Hunches ? She assured me that it would, quickly adding that they should be “informed hunches.” So for Burgoon, a theory consists of a set of systematic, informed hunches about the way things work. In the rest of this section, I’ll examine the three key features of Burgoon’s notion of a theory. First, I’ll focus on the idea that theory consists of a set of hunches. But a set of hunches is only a starting point. Second, I’ll discuss what it means to say that those hunches have to be

From The Big Book of Hell © 1990 by Matt Groening. All rights reserved. Reprinted by permission of Pantheon Books, a division of Random House, NY. Courtesy of Acme Features Syndicate.

gri34307_ch01_001-012.indd Page 3 1/3/11 8:14 AM user-f469gri34307_ch01_001-012.indd Page 3 1/3/11 8:14 AM user-f469 /Volumes/208/MHSF234/gri34307_disk1of1/0073534307/gri34307_pagefiles/Volumes/208/MHSF234/gri34307_disk1of1/0073534307/gri34307_pagefile

4 OVERVIEW

informed. Last, I’ll highlight the notion that the hunches have to be systematic. Let’s look briefl y at the meaning of each of these core concepts of theory.

A Set of Hunches

If a theory is a set of hunches, it means we aren’t yet sure we have the answer. When there’s no puzzle to be solved or the explanation is obvious, there’s no need to develop a theory. Theories always involve an element of speculation, or conjecture. Being a theorist is risky business because theories go beyond accepted wisdom. Once you become a theorist you probably hope that all thinking people will eventually embrace the trial balloon that you’ve launched, but when you fi rst fl oat your theory, it’s defi nitely in the hunch category. By referring to a plural “set of hunches” rather than a single “hunch,” Bur- goon makes it clear that a theory is not just one inspired thought or an isolated idea. The young theorist in the cartoon may be quite sure that dogs and bees can smell fear, but that isolated conviction isn’t a theory. A developed theory offers some sort of explanation. For example, how are bees and dogs able to sniff out fright? Perhaps the scent of sweaty palms that comes from high anxiety is qualitatively different than the odor of people perspiring from hard work. A theory will also give some indication of scope. Do only dogs and bees possess this keen sense of smell, or do butterfl ies and kittens have it as well? Theory construction involves multiple hunches.

Informed Hunches

Bormann’s description of creating communication theory calls for a careful, self-conscious analysis of communication phenomena, but Burgoon’s defi nition asks for more. It’s not enough simply to think carefully about an idea; a theo- rist’s hunches should be informed . Working on a hunch that a penny thrown from the Empire State Building will become deeply embedded in the sidewalk, the young theorist has a responsibility to check it out. Before developing a theory, there are articles to read, people to talk to, actions to observe, or exper- iments to run, all of which can cast light on the subject. At the very least, a communication theorist should be familiar with alternative explanations and interpretations of the type of communication they are studying. (Young Theo- rist, have you heard the story of Galileo dropping an apple from the Leaning Tower of Pisa?) Pepperdine University communication professor Fred Casmir’s description of theory parallels Burgoon’s call for multiple informed hunches:

Theories are sometimes defi ned as guesses—but signifi cantly as “educated” guesses. Theories are not merely based on vague impressions nor are they acciden- tal by-products of life. Theories tend to result when their creators have prepared themselves to discover something in their environment, which triggers the process of theory construction. 4

Hunches That Are Systematic

Most scholars reserve the term theory for an integrated system of concepts. A theory not only lays out multiple ideas, but also specifi es the relationships among

Theory A set of systematic, in- formed hunches about the way things work.

gri34307_ch01_001-012.indd Page 4 1/3/11 8:14 AM user-f469gri34307_ch01_001-012.indd Page 4 1/3/11 8:14 AM user-f469 /Volumes/208/MHSF234/gri34307_disk1of1/0073534307/gri34307_pagefiles/Volumes/208/MHSF234/gri34307_disk1of1/0073534307/gri34307_pagefile

CHAPTER 1: LAUNCHING YOUR STUDY OF COMMUNICATION THEORY 5

them. In common parlance, it connects the dots. The links among the informed hunches are clearly drawn so that a whole pattern emerges. None of the young theories in the cartoon rise to this standard. Since most of the nine are presented as one-shot claims, they aren’t part of a conceptual framework. One possible exception is the dual speculation that “adults are really Martians, and they’re up to no good.” But the connecting word and doesn’t really show the relationship of grown-ups’ unsavory activity and their hypothesized other-world origin. To do that, the young theorist could speculate about the basic character of Martians, how they got here, why their behavior is suspicious, and whether today’s youth will turn into aliens when they become parents. A theory would then tie together all of these ideas into a unifi ed whole. As you read about any theory covered in this book, you have a right to expect a set of systematic , informed hunches.

Images of Theory

In response to the question, What is a theory? I’ve presented a verbal defi nition. Many of us are visual learners as well and would appreciate a concrete image that helps us understand what a theory is and does. I’ll therefore present three metaphors that I fi nd helpful, but will also note how an over-reliance on these representations of theory might lead us astray.

Theories as Nets: Philosopher of science Karl Popper says that “theories are nets cast to catch what we call ‘the world’ . . . . We endeavor to make the mesh ever fi ner and fi ner.” 5 I appreciate this metaphor because it highlights the ongoing labor of the theorist as a type of deep-sea angler. For serious scholars, theories are the tools of the trade. The term the world can be interpreted as everything that goes on under the sun—thus requiring a grand theory that applies to all communication, all the time. Conversely, catching the world could be construed as calling for numerous special theories—different kinds of small nets to capture distinct types of commu- nication in local situations. Yet either way, the quest for fi ner-meshed nets is some- what disturbing because the study of communication is about people rather than schools of fi sh. The idea that theories could be woven so tightly that they’d snag everything that humans think, say, or do strikes me as naive. The possibility also raises questions about our freedom to choose some actions and reject others.

Theories as Lenses: Many scholars see their theoretical constructions as similar to the lens of a camera or a pair of glasses as opposed to a mirror that accurately refl ects the world out there. The lens imagery highlights the idea that theories shape our perception by focusing attention on some features of communication while ignoring other features, or at least pushing them into the background. Two theorists could analyze the same communication event—an argument, perhaps—and depending on the lens each uses, one theorist may view this speech act as a break- down of communication or the breakup of a relationship, while the other theorist will see it as democracy in action. For me, the danger of the lens metaphor is that we might regard what is seen through the glass as so dependent on the theoretical stance of the viewer that we abandon any attempt to discern what is real or true.

Theories as Maps: I use this image when I describe the First Look text to others. Within this analogy, communication theories are maps of the way communica- tion works. The truth they depict may have to do with objective behaviors “out there” or subjective meanings inside our heads. Either way we need to have

gri34307_ch01_001-012.indd Page 5 1/3/11 8:14 AM user-f469gri34307_ch01_001-012.indd Page 5 1/3/11 8:14 AM user-f469 /Volumes/208/MHSF234/gri34307_disk1of1/0073534307/gri34307_pagefiles/Volumes/208/MHSF234/gri34307_disk1of1/0073534307/gri34307_pagefile

6 OVERVIEW

WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?

To ask this question is to invite controversy and raise expectations that can’t be met. Frank Dance, the University of Denver scholar credited for publishing the fi rst comprehensive book on communication theory, cataloged more than 120 def- initions of communication —and that was more than 40 years ago. 7 Communication scholars have suggested many more since then, yet no single defi nition has risen to the top and become the standard within the fi eld of communication. When it comes to defi ning what it is we study, there’s little discipline in the discipline. At the conclusion of his study, Dance suggested that we’re “trying to make the concept of communication do too much work for us.” 8 Other communication theorists agree, noting that when the term is used to describe almost every kind of human interaction, it’s seriously overburdened. Michigan Tech University communication professor Jennifer Slack brings a splash of reality to attempts to draw defi nitive lines around what it is that our theories and research cover. She declares that “there is no single, absolute essence of communication that ade- quately explains the phenomena we study. Such a defi nition does not exist; nei- ther is it merely awaiting the next brightest communication scholar to nail it down once and for all.” 9 Despite the pitfalls of trying to defi ne communication in an all-inclusive way, it seems to me that students who are willing to spend a big chunk of their col- lege education studying communication deserve a description of what it is they’re looking at. Rather than giving the fi nal word on what human activities can be legitimately referred to as communication , this designation would highlight the essential features of communication that shouldn’t be missed. So for starters I offer this working defi nition:

Communication is the relational process of creating and interpreting messages that elicit a response.

To the extent that there is redeeming value in this statement, it lies in drawing your attention to fi ve features of communication that you’ll run across repeatedly as you read about the theories in the fi eld. In the rest of this section I’ll fl esh out these concepts.

1. Messages

Messages are at the very core of communication study. University of Colorado communication professor Robert Craig says that communication involves “talking and listening, writing and reading, performing and witnessing, or, more generally, doing anything that involves ‘messages’ in any medium or situation.” 10

Communication The relational process of creating and interpreting messages that elicit a re- sponse.

theory to guide us through unfamiliar territory. In that sense this book of theories is like a scenic atlas that pulls together 32 must-see locations. It’s the kind of travel guide that presents a close-up view of each site. I would caution, however, that the map is not the territory. 6 A static theory, like a still photograph, can never fully portray the richness of interaction between people that is constantly chang- ing, always more varied, and inevitably more complicated than what any theory can chart. As a person intrigued with communication, aren’t you glad it’s this way?

gri34307_ch01_001-012.indd Page 6 1/3/11 8:14 AM user-f469gri34307_ch01_001-012.indd Page 6 1/3/11 8:14 AM user-f469 /Volumes/208/MHSF234/gri34307_disk1of1/0073534307/gri34307_pagefiles/Volumes/208/MHSF234/gri34307_disk1of1/0073534307/gri34307_pagefile

CHAPTER 1: LAUNCHING YOUR STUDY OF COMMUNICATION THEORY 7

When academic areas such as psychology, sociology, anthropology, political science, literature, and philosophy deal with human symbolic activity, they inter- sect with the study of communication. The visual image of this intersection of interests has prompted some to refer to communication as a crossroads discipline . The difference is that communication scholars are parked at the junction focusing on messages, whereas other disciplines are just passing through on their way to other destinations. All of the theories covered in this book deal specifi cally with messages. Communication theorists use the word text as a synonym for a message that can be studied, regardless of the medium. This book is a text. So is a verbatim transcript of a conversation with your instructor, a recorded presidential news conference, a silent YouTube video, or a Kelly Clarkson song on your iPod. To illustrate the following four parts of the defi nition, suppose you received this cryptic text message from a close, same-sex friend: “Pat and I spent the night together.” You immediately know that the name Pat refers to the person with whom you have an ongoing romantic relationship. An analysis of this text and the context surrounding its transmission provides a useful case study for exam- ining the essential features of communication.

2. Creation of Messages

This phrase in the working defi nition indicates that the content and form of a text are usually constructed, invented, planned, crafted, constituted, selected , or adopted by the communicator. Each of these terms is used in one or more of the theories I describe, and they all imply that the communicator is usually making a conscious choice of message form and substance. For whatever reason, your friend sent a text message rather than meeting face-to-face, calling you on the phone, sending an email, or writing a note. Your friend also chose the seven words that were transmitted to your cell phone. There is a long history of textual analysis in the fi eld of communication, wherein the rhetorical critic looks for clues in the message to discern the motivation and strategy of the person who created the message. There are, of course, many times when we speak, write, or gesture in seem- ingly mindless ways—activities that are like driving on cruise control. These are preprogrammed responses that were selected earlier and stored for later use. In like manner, our repertoire of stock phrases such as thank you, no prob- lem, whatever , or a string of swear words were chosen sometime in the past to express our feelings, and over time have become habitual responses. Only when we become more mindful of the nature and impact of our messages will we have the ability to alter them. That’s why consciousness-raising is a goal of fi ve or six of the theories I’ll present—each one seeks to increase our commu- nication choices.

3. Interpretation of Messages

Messages do not interpret themselves. The meaning that a message holds for both the creators and receivers doesn’t reside in the words that are spoken, writ- ten, or acted out. A truism among communication scholars is that words don’t mean things, people mean things . Symbolic interactionist Herbert Blumer states its

Text A record of a message that can be analyzed by others; for example, a book, film, photograph, or any transcript or re- cording of a speech or broadcast.

gri34307_ch01_001-012.indd Page 7 1/3/11 8:14 AM user-f469gri34307_ch01_001-012.indd Page 7 1/3/11 8:14 AM user-f469 /Volumes/208/MHSF234/gri34307_disk1of1/0073534307/gri34307_pagefiles/Volumes/208/MHSF234/gri34307_disk1of1/0073534307/gri34307_pagefile

8 OVERVIEW

implication: “Humans act toward people or things on the basis of the meanings they assign to those people or things.” 11 What is the meaning of your friend’s text message? Does “spent the night together” mean talking until all hours? Pulling an all-night study session? Sleeping on the sofa ? Making love? If it’s the latter, was Pat a willing or unwilling partner (perhaps drunk or the victim of acquaintance rape)? How would your friend characterize their sexual liaison? Recreational sex? A chance hookup? Friends with benefi ts? Developing a close relationship? Falling in love? The start of a long-term com- mitment? Perhaps of more importance to you, how does Pat view it? What emo- tional meaning is behind the message for each of them? Satisfaction? Disappointment? Surprise? The morning-after-the-night-before blahs? Gratefulness? Guilt? Ecstasy? And fi nally, what does receiving this message through a digital channel mean for you, your friendship, and your relationship with Pat? None of these answers are in the message. Words and other symbols are polysemic— they’re open to multiple interpretations.

4. A Relational Process

The Greek philosopher Heraclites observed that “one cannot step into the same river twice.” 12 These words illustrate the widespread acceptance among com- munication scholars that communication is a process . Much like a river, the fl ow of communication is always in fl ux, never completely the same, and can only be described with reference to what went before and what is yet to come. This means that the text message “Pat and I spent the night together” is not the whole story. You’ll probably contact both your friend and Pat to ask the clarifying ques- tions raised earlier. As they are answered or avoided, you’ll interpret the message in a different way. That’s because communication is a process, not a freeze-frame snapshot. In the opening lines of her essay “Communication as Relationality,” Univer- sity of Georgia rhetorical theorist Celeste Condit suggests that the communica- tion process is more about relationships than it is about content.

Communication is a process of relating. This means it is not primarily or essen- tially a process of transferring information or of disseminating or circulating signs (though these things can be identifi ed as happening within the process of relating). 13

Communication is a relational process not only because it takes place between two or more persons, but also because it affects the nature of the connections among those people. It’s obvious that the text message you received will infl u- ence the triangle of relationships among you, Pat, and your (former?) friend. But this is true in other forms of mediated communication as well. Television view- ers and moviegoers have emotional responses to people they see on the screen. And as businesses are discovering, even the impersonal recorded announcement that “this call may be monitored for the purpose of quality control” has an impact on how we regard their corporate persona.

5. Messages That Elicit a Response

This fi nal component of communication deals with the effect of the message upon people who receive it. For whatever reason, if the message fails to stimulate

gri34307_ch01_001-012.indd Page 8 1/3/11 8:14 AM user-f469gri34307_ch01_001-012.indd Page 8 1/3/11 8:14 AM user-f469 /Volumes/208/MHSF234/gri34307_disk1of1/0073534307/gri34307_pagefiles/Volumes/208/MHSF234/gri34307_disk1of1/0073534307/gri34307_pagefile

CHAPTER 1: LAUNCHING YOUR STUDY OF COMMUNICATION THEORY 9

any cognitive, emotional, or behavioral reaction, it seems pointless to refer to it as communication . We often refer to such situations as a message “falling on deaf ears” or the other person “turning a blind eye.” That nonresponse is different than the prison warden’s oft-quoted line in Paul Newman’s classic fi lm Cool Hand Luke . 14 When Luke repeatedly breaks the rules laid down by the warden, this man who insists on being called Boss drawls, “Luke, what we have here is a failure to communicate.” He’s wrong. Luke understands and actively resists the clearly stated rules; the Boss responds violently to Luke’s insubordination and his attempts to escape. Both men respond to the message of the other. In like manner, surely you would respond to your friend’s cryptic message— one way or another. In fact, the text seems to be crafted and sent in a way to provoke a response. How closely your thoughts, feelings, words, or other reac- tions would match what your friend expected or intended is another matter. But whether successful or not, the whole situation surrounding the text and context of the message fi ts the working defi nition of communication that I hope will help you frame your study of communication theory: Communication is the relational process of creating and interpreting messages that elicit a response.

AN ARRANGEMENT OF IDEAS TO AID COMPREHENSION

Now that you have a basic understanding of what a communication theory is, knowing how I’ve structured the book and arranged the theories can help you grasp their content. That’s because I’ve organized the text to place a given theory in a conceptual framework and situational context before I present it. After this chapter, there are three more integrative chapters in the “Overview” division. For Chapter 2 , I’ve asked two leading communication scholars to analyze a highly acclaimed TV ad in order to illustrate how half the theories in the book are based on objective assumptions, while the other half are constructed using an interpretive set of principles. Chapter 3 presents criteria for judging both kinds of theory so you can make an informed evaluation of a theory’s worth rather than relying solely on your gut reaction. Finally, Chapter 4 describes seven tradi- tions of communication theory and research. When you know the family tree of a theory, you can explain why it has a strong affi nity with some theories but doesn’t speak the same language as others. Following this overview, there are 32 chapters that run 10–15 pages apiece, each concentrating on a single theory. I think you’ll fi nd that the one-chapter, one-theory format is user-friendly because it gives you a chance to focus on a single theory at a time. This way they won’t all blur together in your mind. These chapters are arranged into four major divisions according to the primary communication context that they address. The theories in Division Two, “Interpersonal Communication,” consider one-on-one interaction. Division Three, “Group and Public Communica- tion,” deals with face-to-face involvement in collective settings. Division Four, “Mass Communication,” pulls together theories that explore electronic and print media. Division Five, “Cultural Context,” explores systems of shared meaning that are so all-encompassing that we often fail to realize their impact upon us. These four divisions are based on the fact that theories are tentative answers to questions that occur to people as they mull over practical problems in specifi c situations. It therefore makes sense to group them according to the different communication settings that usually prompt those questions. The organizational

gri34307_ch01_001-012.indd Page 9 1/3/11 8:14 AM user-f469gri34307_ch01_001-012.indd Page 9 1/3/11 8:14 AM user-f469 /Volumes/208/MHSF234/gri34307_disk1of1/0073534307/gri34307_pagefiles/Volumes/208/MHSF234/gri34307_disk1of1/0073534307/gri34307_pagefile

10 OVERVIEW

plan I’ve described is like having four separately indexed fi le cabinets. Although there is no natural progression from one division to another, the plan provides a convenient way to classify and retrieve the 32 theories. Finally, Division Six, “Integration,” seeks to distill core ideas that are com- mon to a number of theories. Ideas have power, and each theory is driven by one or more ideas that may be shared by other theories from different commu- nication contexts. For example, there’s at least one theory in each of the four context divisions committed to the force of narrative. They each declare that people respond to stories and dramatic imagery with which they can identify. Reading about key concepts that cut across multiple theories wouldn’t mean much to you now, but after you become familiar with a number of communica- tion theories, it can be an eye-opening experience that also helps you review what you’ve learned.

CHAPTER FEATURES TO ENLIVEN THEORY

In many of the chapters ahead, I use an extended example from life on a college campus, a well-known communication event, or the conversations of characters in movies, books, or TV shows. The main purpose of these illustrations is to provide a mind’s-eye picture of how the theory works. The imagery will also make the basic thrust of the theory easier to recall. But if you can think of a situation in your own life where the theory is relevant, that personal application will make it doubly interesting and memorable for you. You might also want to see how others put the theories into practice. With my students’ permission, I’ve weaved in their accounts of application for almost all the theories featured in the text. I’m intrigued by the rich connections these students make—ones I wouldn’t have thought of on my own. Some students draw on scenes from short stories, novels, or movies. To see an annotated list of feature fi lm scenes that illustrate the theories, go to the book’s website, www. afi rstlook.com, and under Theory Resources, click on Suggested Movie Clips. I make a consistent effort to link each theory with its author. It takes both wisdom and courage to successfully plant a theoretical fl ag. In a process similar to the childhood game king-of-the-hill, as soon as a theorist constructs a theory of communication, critics try to pull it down. That’s OK, because the value of a theory is discerned by survival in the rough-and-tumble world of competitive ideas. For this reason I always include a section in theory chapters labeled “Critique.” Theorists who prevail deserve to have their names associated with their creations. There is a second reason for tying a theory to its author. Many of you will do further study in communication, and a mastery of names like Deetz, Giles, Walther, Baxter, Berger, and Burke will allow you to enter into the dialogue without being at a disadvantage. Ignoring the names of theorists could prove to be false economy in the long run. Don’t overlook the three features at the end of each chapter. The queries under the title “Questions to Sharpen Your Focus” will help you mull over key points of the theory. They can be answered by pulling together information from this text and from the text of your life. The italicized words in each question highlight terms you need to know in order to understand the theory. Whenever you see a picture of the theorist, it’s captured from one of my Conversations with

gri34307_ch01_001-012.indd Page 10 1/3/11 8:14 AM user-f469gri34307_ch01_001-012.indd Page 10 1/3/11 8:14 AM user-f469 /Volumes/208/MHSF234/gri34307_disk1of1/0073534307/gri34307_pagefiles/Volumes/208/MHSF234/gri34307_disk1of1/0073534307/gri34307_pagefile

www.afirstlook.com
www.afirstlook.com
CHAPTER 1: LAUNCHING YOUR STUDY OF COMMUNICATION THEORY 11

Communication Theorists and shown alongside a brief description of what we talked about. You can view these 6- to 8-minute interviews at www.afi rstlook .com . And the feature entitled “ A Second Look ” offers an annotated bibliography of resources should you desire to know more about the theory. You’ll fi nd it a good place to start if you are writing a research paper on the theory or are intrigued with a particular aspect of it. You’ve already seen the last feature I’ll mention. In every chapter and section introduction I include a cartoon for your learning and enjoyment. Cartoonists are often modern-day prophets. Their incisive wit can illustrate a feature of the theory in a way that’s more instructive and memorable than a few extra para- graphs would be. In addition to enjoying their humor, you can use the cartoons as minitests of comprehension. Unlike my comments on “Young Theories” ear- lier in this chapter, I usually don’t refer to the art or the caption that goes with it. So if you can’t fi gure out why a particular cartoon appears where it does, make a renewed effort to grasp the theorist’s ideas. Some students are afraid to try. Like travelers whose eyes glaze over at the sight of a road map, they have a phobia about theories that seek to explain human intentions and behavior. I sympathize with their qualms and misgivings, but I fi nd that the theories in this book haven’t dehydrated my life or made it more confusing. On the contrary, they add clarity and provide a sense of com- petence as I communicate with others. I hope they do that for you as well. Every so often a student will ask me, “Do you really think about communi- cation theory when you’re talking to someone?” My answer is “Yes, but not all the time.” Like everyone else, I often say things while speaking on automatic pilot—words, phrases, sentences, descriptions rolling off my tongue without con- scious thought. Old habits die hard. But when I’m in a new setting or the con- versational stakes are high, I start to think strategically. And that’s when the applied wisdom of theories that fi t the situation comes to mind. By midterm, many of my students discover they’re thinking that way as well. That’s my wish for you as you launch your study of communication theory.

1. Suppose you share the aircraft mechanic’s suspicion that scholars who create theories would be all thumbs working on a plane’s ailerons or engine. What would it take to transform your hunch into a theory ? 2. Which metaphor offered to capture the meaning of theory do you fi nd most helpful—theory as a net , a lens , or a map ? Can you think of another image that you could use to explain to a friend what this course is about? 3. Suppose you want to study the effects of yawns during intimate conversa- tions. Would your research fall under communication as defi ned as the relational process of creating and interpreting messages to elicit a response ? If not, how would you change the defi nition to make it include your interest? 4. You come to this course with a vast array of communication experiences in interpersonal, group and public, mass media, and intercultural contexts . What are the communication questions you want to answer, puzzles you want to solve, problems you want to fi x?

QUESTIONS TO SHARPEN YOUR FOCUS

gri34307_ch01_001-012.indd Page 11 12/01/11 7:10 AM user-f469gri34307_ch01_001-012.indd Page 11 12/01/11 7:10 AM user-f469 /Volumes/208/MHSF234/gri34307_disk1of1/0073534307/gri34307_pagefiles/Volumes/208/MHSF234/gri34307_disk1of1/0073534307/gri34307_pagefiles

www.afirstlook.com
www.afirstlook.com
12 OVERVIEW

A SECOND LOOK Recommended resource: Gregory Shepherd, Jeffrey St. John, and Ted Striphas (eds.), Com- munication as . . . Perspectives on Theory , Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA, 2006.

Diverse defi nitions of communication: Frank E.X. Dance, “The Concept of Communica- tion,” Journal of Communication, Vol. 20, 1970, pp. 201–210.

Focus on messages: George Gerbner, “Mass Media and Human Communication Theory,” in Frank E.X. Dance, Human Communication Theory: Original Essays, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York, 1967, pp. 40–60.

Communication as human symbolic interaction: Gary Cronkhite, “On the Focus, Scope and Coherence of the Study of Human Communication,” Quarterly Journal of Speech, Vol. 72, No. 3, 1986, pp. 231–246.

Theories of communication as practical: J. Kevin Barge, “Practical Theory as Mapping, Engaged Refl ection, and Transformative Practice,” Communication Theory, Vol. 11, 2001, pp. 5–13.

Integration of scientifi c and humanistic theories: Karl Erik Rosengren, “From Field to Frog Ponds,” Journal of Communication, Vol. 43, No. 3, 1993, pp. 6–17.

Multidimensional view of theory: James A. Anderson and Geoffrey Baym, “Philosophies and Philosophic Issues in Communication, 1995–2004,” Journal of Communication, Vol. 54, 2004, pp. 589–615.

Differences in theoretical scope: Ernest Bormann, Communication Theory, Sheffi eld, Salem, WI, 1989, pp. 81–101.

gri34307_ch01_001-012.indd Page 12 1/3/11 8:14 AM user-f469gri34307_ch01_001-012.indd Page 12 1/3/11 8:14 AM user-f469 /Volumes/208/MHSF234/gri34307_disk1of1/0073534307/gri34307_pagefiles/Volumes/208/MHSF234/gri34307_disk1of1/0073534307/gri34307_pagefile

Talk About Theory

I met Glenn Sparks and Marty Medhurst my fi rst year teaching at Wheaton Col- lege. Glenn and Marty were friends who signed up for my undergraduate per- suasion course. As students, both men were interested in broadcast media. After graduating from Wheaton, each went on for a master’s degree at Northern Illi- nois University. Each then earned a doctorate at a different university, and both are now nationally recognized communication scholars. Glenn is on the faculty at Purdue University; Marty is at Baylor University. Despite their similar backgrounds and interests, Glenn and Marty are quite different in their approaches to communication. Glenn calls himself a behavioral scientist , while Marty refers to himself as a rhetorician . Glenn’s training was in empirical research; Marty was schooled in rhetorical theory and criticism. Glenn conducts experiments; Marty interprets texts. To understand the theories ahead, you need to fi rst grasp the crucial differ- ences between the objective and interpretive approaches to communication. As a way to introduce the distinctions, I asked Glenn and Marty to bring their scholarship to bear on a television commercial that was fi rst aired a few months before Super Bowl XLI. Both the commercial and the game featured football star Peyton Manning.