Effective training systems strategies and practices 5th edition pdf

EFFECTIVE TRAINING SYSTEMS, STRATEGIES, AND PRACTICES

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F i f t h E d i t i o n

P. Nick Blanchard Eastern Michigan University

James W. Thacker University of Windsor

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Blanchard, P. Nick Effective training : systems, strategies, and practices / P. Nick Blanchard, James W. Thacker. — 5th ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-0-13-272904-8 ISBN-10: 0-13-272904-0 1. Employees—Training of. 2. Occupational training. I. Thacker, James W. II. Title. HF5549.5.T7B555 2013 658.3’124—dc23 2012013705

10 9 8 7 5 4 3 2 1

ISBN 10: 0-13-272904-0 ISBN 13: 978-0-13-272904-8

Dedication

This edition is dedicated to my wife, friend, and partner in all things, Claudia. Thanks for all you do, sweet pea ☺

N. B.

This book is dedicated to John from Saturn, proof that the American dream is still possible; to my wife Gabrielle who is responsible for us being able to live that dream,

and to Arnold, an old friend who I really miss.

J. T.

BRIEF CONTENTS

Preface ix

Chapter 1 Training in Organizations 1

Chapter 2 Aligning Training with Strategy 24

Chapter 3 Learning, Motivation, and Performance 56

Chapter 4 Needs Analysis 89

Chapter 5 Training Design 144

Chapter 6 Traditional Training Methods 199

Chapter 7 Electronic Training Methods 251

Chapter 8 Development and Implementation of Training 275

Chapter 9 Evaluation of Training 314

Chapter 10 Key Areas of Organizational Training 356

Chapter 11 Employee and Management Development 399

References 435

Glossary 462

Index 473

iv

CONTENTS

Preface ix

Chapter 1 TRAINING IN ORGANIZATIONS 1 Overview of Training 3

Trends in Training 8

Career Opportunities in Training 15

Important Concepts and Meanings 17

Focus on Small Business 21 Summary 21 Key Terms 22 Case Questions 23 Exercises 23 Questions for Review 23 Web Research 23

Chapter 2 ALIGNING TRAINING WITH STRATEGY 24 Overview 27

Strategic Planning 27

OD, Strategy, and Training 35

Putting It All Together 41

Focus on Small Business 47 Summary 49 Key Terms 50 Case Questions 54 Exercises 54 Questions for Review 55

Chapter 3 LEARNING, MOTIVATION, AND PERFORMANCE 56 A Few Words about Theory 58

Understanding Motivation and Performance 60

Understanding Learning 70

Social Learning Theory 73

Aligning Training Design with Learning Process 75

Motivation to Learn 76

Training That Motivates Adults to Learn 82 Summary 84 Key Terms 84 Questions for Review 85 Exercises 85 Web Research 85 Case Questions 88

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Chapter 4 NEEDS ANALYSIS 89 Why Conduct a Training Needs Analysis? 90

When to Conduct a TNA 91

The TNA Model 92

Where to Look for OPGs 94

The Framework for Conducting a TNA 94

Output of TNA 121

Approaches to TNA 124

Focus on Small Business 129

TNA and Design 131 Summary 133 Key Terms 138 Questions for Review 138 Exercises 138 Fobrics, Inc., Questions 139 Web Research 139 Case Questions 139 Appendix 4.1 140

Chapter 5 TRAINING DESIGN 144 Introduction to the Design of Training 145

Organizational Constraints 146

Developing Objectives 152

Why Use Training Objectives? 157

Facilitation of Learning: Focus on the Trainee 159

Facilitation of Learning: Focus on Training Design 168

Facilitation of Transfer: Focus on Training 180

Facilitation of Transfer: Focus on Organizational Intervention 187

Focus on Small Business 189

Outcomes of Design 191 Summary 193 Key Terms 196 Questions for Review 196 Exercises 196 Web Research 198

Chapter 6 TRADITIONAL TRAINING METHODS 199 Overview of the Chapter 200

Matching Methods with Outcomes 200

Lectures and Demonstrations 200

Games and Simulations 210

On-the-Job Training 225

Summary of Methods and When to Use Them 236

Audiovisual Enhancements to Training 236

Contents vii

Summary 247 Key Terms 247 Questions for Review 248 Exercises 248 Web Research 248 Case Questions 250

Chapter 7 ELECTRONIC TRAINING METHODS 251 Overview of the Chapter 252

Electronic Training (ET) and Its Components 252

ET Design and Development 264

Strengths and Limitations of ET 266 Summary 272 Key Terms 273 Questions for Review 273 Exercises 274 Web Research 274 Case Question 274

Chapter 8 DEVELOPMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION OF TRAINING 275 Development of Training 277

Implementation 291

Transfer of Training 303 Summary 306 Key Terms 311 Questions for Review 311 Exercises 311 Web Research 312 Case Questions 313

Chapter 9 EVALUATION OF TRAINING 314 Rationale for Evaluation 315

Resistance to Training Evaluation 316

So We Must Evaluate 318

Types of Evaluation Data Collected 318

Focus on Small Business 335 Summary 337 Key Terms 344 Questions for Review 345 Exercises 345 Case Questions 346 Web Research 346 Appendix 9.1 347 Appendix 9.2 354

viii Contents

Chapter 10 KEY AREAS OF ORGANIZATIONAL TRAINING 356 Overview 357

Orientation Training (Onboarding) 358

Diversity Training 369

Sexual Harassment Training 375

Team Training 379

Cross-Cultural Training 384

Other Training Programs and Issues 389 Summary 396 Key Terms 396 Questions for Review 397 Exercises 397 Case Questions 398

Chapter 11 EMPLOYEE AND MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT 399 Employee Development 400

Management Development 407

Our Approach to Management Development 409

General Overview of the Managerial Job 409

General Characteristics of Managers 411

Integration: Strategies and Management Characteristics 415

Management Development Implications 418

Sources of Knowledge/Skill Acquisition 420

Training for Executive-Level Management 424

Focus on Small Business 431 Summary 431 Key Terms 432 Questions for Review 432 Exercises 433 Web Research 433 Case Questions 434

References 435

Glossary 462

Index 473

PREFACE

The idea for this book came while fishing on a beautiful lake in northern Manitoba. Both of us were teaching a course about training and were unsatisfied with the texts available at the time. Our main concern was that we really needed two texts for the course: one providing the theory and scholarship surrounding the learning–teaching experience, and the other providing the application and “how-to” part of the experience. This text is still the only one (in our minds at least) that accomplishes this. The fifth edition retains the integration of theory with effective and practical training applications and adds new material while enhancing the ease of reading and understanding.

CHANGES TO THE FIFTH EDITION

CHAPTER 1: TRAINING IN ORGANIZATIONS

• Updated data related to state of the training industry. • Included a discussion of the ADDIE model, its history, and how our “Training Process

Model” is based on it, but providing a more detailed description of the process. • Rewrote the overview of what is involved in each step of the “Training Process Model” to

include more key issues and to clarify how they are related. • Included a section on “Advancements in Technology” to the “Trends in Training” section.

CHAPTER 2: ALIGNING TRAINING WITH STRATEGY

• Updated the Hershey case and demonstrated how training was tied to strategic planning. • Added a section using the Domtar case to show how to get from the strategic plan to the

training requirements. • Discussed the relationship of HRD with other units of HR department. • Included a section on the role of HR when training is outsourced.

CHAPTER 3: LEARNING, MOTIVATION, AND PERFORMANCE

• Rewrote significant portions of the “Social Learning Theory” section to clarify the concepts. • Rewrote (reduced) significant portions of the “Aligning Training Design with Learning

Process” section. The discussion in this chapter was changed to provide an introduction to the concepts and principles that are covered in depth in Chapter 5 . We also clarified and simplified the discussion of how to apply learning and motivation theories to the training process.

• Did a significant re-write of the “Motivation to Learn” section to clarify concepts. • Applied new research findings to each of the sections mentioned earlier.

CHAPTER 4: NEEDS ANALYSIS

• Organizational Analysis: Provided additional explanation of why focusing on employees contributing to the organizational performance gap (OGPs) is not “really a part of the per- son analysis”.

• Operational Analysis: Rewrote and provided more current references for competency- based job analysis.

• Deleted the Northern Telecom example and used the information in a table to show how competencies are applicable across jobs.

• Revised Table 4-8 for clarity and new information.

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• Moved the material on creating knowledge tests from Chapter 9 to Chapter 4 and inte- grated this with the other material on writing good questions.

• Modified questions for the end of chapter case. • Added a section on the connection of the needs analysis to evaluation of training. • Revised or replaced several figures and “Training in Action” examples.

CHAPTER 5: TRAINING DESIGN

• Provided a new opening case. • Added a more difficult objective to Table 5-7 and added an exercise that requires students

to take poorly written objectives and rewrite them in the proper manner. • Added discussion of the retention part of social learning theory for clarity. • Elaborated on what the trainer can do to increase trainee self-efficacy. • Added an exercise where students need to match up the events of learning with actual training • Created two new tables to clarify how to apply instructional design. • Integrated the “Design Theory” into the “Facilitation of Learning: Focus on Training

Design” section of this edition.

CHAPTER 6: TRADITIONAL TRAINING METHODS

• Replaced the opening case. • Created at the start of Chapter 6 , just after the “Matching methods with outcomes” section, a

table showing how well each of the traditional training methods are at achieving the different types of learning objectives. We explain the table and indicate that we are providing it here as a summary preview, but the rationale and explanation for the table occurs throughout the chapter. This should add clarity to the discussion of each method throughout the chapter.

• Added a section on coaching skills and strategies and included a coaching process model in the “Coaching” section.

• Revised many tables to improve readability and understanding.

CHAPTER 7: ELECTRONIC TRAINING METHODS

• Changed the title of the chapter and terminology within the chapter to reflect current usage (e.g., electronic training [ET] rather than computer-based training [CBT]).

• Created a table showing how well each of the electronic training methods is able to achieve the different types of learning objectives. We explained the table and indicated that we are providing it here as a summary preview, but the rationale and explanation for the table occur throughout the chapter.

• Reorganized the content of the chapter to provide a more easily understood explanation of the components of e-training and how e-training is delivered.

• Updated the chapter in terms of statistical information, research, technical developments and usage in practice. We eliminated outdated practices.

• Reviewed all examples for currency and added new examples that illustrate the use of computer based and electronically delivered forms of training.

CHAPTER 8: DEVELOPMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION OF TRAINING

• Discussed the use of different methods in training to address individual differences in trainees, and how you can help assure various individual differences are addressed in a training program.

• Added discussion of the importance of refreshments in training and relating it to motivation.

Preface xi

• Provided a list of what the trainer needs to do both prior to training and the day of training to assure there are no glitches in the training day

• Added information related to the importance of supervisor and peer support in the trans- fer of training.

CHAPTER 9: EVALUATION OF TRAINING

• Moved the section on “Utility Analysis” to an appendix. • Moved the section on developing knowledge tests to the Needs Analysis chapter and

deleted that material from this chapter. • Rewrote some portions in the return on investment section for clarification.

CHAPTER 10: KEY AREAS OF ORGANIZATIONAL TRAINING

• Expanded the section on team training to include how teams are used in the work place and why they are important.

• Updated the statistics related to diversity, sexual harassment, team training, cross cultural training, disability, and safety information.

CHAPTER 11: EMPLOYEE AND MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT

• Changed the header from “Coaching” to “Executive Coaching.” Added a section to execu- tive coaching on establishing expectations for trust and confidentiality. Also added a Train- ing in Action related to this.

• Made minor additions and rewording for clarification. • Explained why in 360 degree performance appraisal the use of peers and friends of trainee

should not be a problem • Discussed the value of HRIS in the development of employees

UNIQUE CHARACTERISTICS OF THIS BOOK

This book differs from others on the same topic in a number of ways. For example, we

• demonstrate how HRD fits into the strategic planning process; • show the important relationships between organizational development (OD) practitioners

and trainers; • provide an overarching model of the training process, with a more detailed model of each

phase of the process, making it easy to see how each phase connects and contributes to achieving training objectives;

• include a small-business perspective to training and its implementation; • provide a step-by-step process for developing learning objectives with many examples of

good and bad objectives; • integrate learning and design theory into the creation of training programs so the reader

can see how these theories help in the design of effective training; • incorporate both micro and macro theories of design perspectives into the design of training; • Use a case (Fabrics, Inc.) to provide an example of how one would develop an actual train-

ing program. The case takes the reader through what actually occurs in the development of a training program, beginning with Chapter 4 on needs analysis and then, step-by-step through design, development, and evaluation. We have provided a lot of detail so that the reader can see what is actually done. Use of this case will help students understand the “how to” aspect of training design and development.

• provide numerous examples of actual training situations (called Training in Action) throughout each chapter to highlight important aspects of the training process;

xii Preface

• use a contingency approach for each training process, rather than a “one best way,” identifying alternative approaches and their associated strengths and limitations; and

• provide comprehensive cases in Chapters 1 and 2 that are applicable throughout the text and are often referred to in the remaining chapters.

Other aspects of the text that we believe are important are as follows:

• Learning objectives at the beginning of each chapter • Key terms identified in each chapter, and a glossary providing their definitions at the end

of the book • A case at the beginning of each chapter • Questions, cases, and exercises at the end of each chapter • An instructor’s manual with sample syllabi, suggested answers to questions at the end of

the chapters, and a “test bank” of questions • PowerPoint slides of all tables and figures

Learning objectives provide trainees with an understanding of what the training is trying to accomplish, and so they are an important part of the training process. Better learning is achieved if, at the beginning of training, people know where they should focus their attention. Therefore, at the beginning of each chapter, we identify its learning objectives, stating what the reader should be capable of doing after completing the chapter. (The value of learning objec- tives and the characteristics of good objectives are discussed in depth in Chapter 5 ).

Following the learning objectives is a case example to stimulate the reader to think about the issues that will be raised in the chapter. Throughout the chapter, we refer back to the case to make specific points, asking the reader relevant questions about the case. Some of the cases are presented in totality at the beginning of the chapter; others are split into two parts: the first part stopping at a critical point and the remainder presented at the end of the chapter. This allows the reader to apply the concepts and principles from the chapter in evaluating the actions taken and how the issues were handled. It also allows the reader to see the resulting consequences.

We continue to differ from other training books in that we place training activities in the con- text of organizational strategy. Whether you are a student or a practitioner, this book will be of both conceptual and practical value for developing training programs that meet strategic and tactical needs. At the same time, an overarching model of the training process will guide you step-by-step through the training procedures, from initial needs analysis through the evaluation of training’s effectiveness. As human resource (HR) competencies become a significant competitive advantage, the pace and intensity of organizational training increases dramatically. Human resource develop- ment (HRD), or “performance improvement,” departments must demonstrate that their programs enhance competencies that are of strategic value. As a company’s strategies change, the types of management competencies and styles also need to change, and HRD is responsible for this align- ment. We address these and related issues, because we believe that effective training practices are determined by the organizational context in which they occur.

At the end of each chapter are discussion questions, cases, and exercises to enhance understanding. The instructor’s manual provides more information about this material and offers additional ideas for teaching. It also includes sample course outlines and a test bank. PowerPoint slides for each chapter are available. You can access these supplements by visiting www.pearsonhighered.com/blanchard and clicking on Instructor Resources.

Another important difference in this book is the overarching model of the training process and its subprocesses. This model provides an understanding of the logical sequencing of train- ing activities, from needs analysis to implementation and evaluation. The model demonstrates training as a system and how its processes are interconnected. Thus each phase of the training process (i.e., needs assessment, design, development, implementation, and evaluation) is cov- ered in its own chapter. These chapters begin with a description of the types of input needed to complete that phase and the types of output produced. The bulk of each chapter provides a

www.pearsonhighered.com/blanchard
Preface xiii

step-by-step description of how the input is transformed into the output. The output from one phase then becomes the input for the next.

As with earlier editions, for ease of reading, we have not used the he/she convention when the context of the material requires a gender reference. Instead, we alternate the use of gender throughout the text. Reviewers were universally appreciative of this aspect of the text.

Most training books focus on large organizations that have access to many resources, ignoring the smaller companies with more limited resources. We address the training issues faced by smaller businesses in two ways. First, the contingency approach provides alternative activities and procedures—some of them compatible with limited resources. Throughout the book, we address the applicability of various approaches to the smaller business. Second, many of the chapters include sections directed specifically at the small business. These sections pro- vide possible alternatives and describe what some small businesses are actually doing in these areas. Unfortunately, the literature on small-business training practices is relatively sparse. If you know of successful small-business practices, we would love to hear about them and include them in subsequent editions.

We are committed to continuously improving this book to enhance learning and make teaching from it a joy. To that end, we ask you to contact us with your thoughts, applications from the research, training techniques, exercises, and so on, so that we can share them with oth- ers. You can reach us at Nick.Blanchard@emich.edu or jwt@uwindsor.ca. Of course, you will be acknowledged for your contribution if it is included in future editions.

ORGANIZATION AND PLAN OF THE BOOK

We begin Chapter 1 with a comprehensive case that is used throughout the text as a reference in discussions. We then provide an overview of training, its roles, and its goals, using an open sys- tems perspective. In this section, we discuss how training fits into the HR function, and how the training function fits into the structure of large and small companies. This section also presents the overarching training process model, which is used to outline the organization of the book and provide an overview of the content of the remaining chapters. This is followed by current trends in HRD. Included is a discussion of the legal issues that affect HRD activities such as equity, required training, and liability. We conclude this chapter by defining the key terms used throughout the text.

Chapter 2 discusses strategic planning and the roles HR and HRD play in this process. Here we show how input from the HR function in general and the HRD function in particular can influence strategic direction. We then proceed to discuss how these functions develop internal strategies to support the overall strategic plan. The case at the start of the chapter pro- vides a discussion point for many of the topics in this and subsequent chapters, allowing the student to walk through a case from the beginning of the strategic plan to the development of training. Throughout the text, we often refer back to this chapter to demonstrate how strategic issues drive HRD decisions. We also provide an important link between OD practitioners and trainers, showing how the competencies of each of these disciplines complement and support the objectives of the other. In the remaining chapters, we use an OD philosophy to address ways in which the training process and outcomes can be integrated into other organizational systems. This integration of the training process into a systems perspective provides the reader with an understanding of where training fits in the organization and how it operates. This is followed by a discussion of how strategies for overcoming resistance to change are applicable to training activities.

Chapter 3 provides the theoretical and conceptual framework for understanding the training process. It begins with a short discussion of the value of theory in leading to new and practical applications. A model of the factors that determine human performance (motivation, knowledge, skills, abilities, and environment) is followed by a review of theories of motiva- tion and learning. These theories are discussed in terms of their application to training. This is

xiv Preface

followed by a discussion of overcoming resistance to learning and designing training that motivates trainees to learn. The concepts and principles developed here are referred to throughout many of the following chapters, tying particular practices to the theoretical ratio- nale for those practices.

Chapter 4 addresses needs analysis, the first phase of the training model presented in Chapter 1 . An expanded graphic of this phase is presented and discussed at the outset so the reader will understand the organization of the chapter. The philosophy of needs analysis is dis- cussed in terms of both its proactive use (as related to the strategic plan) and its reactive use (to deal with immediate concerns and changing conditions). The relationship between these two approaches is also explored. The steps involved in the needs analysis are discussed, along with the sources from which data can be gathered and to set training priorities. The chapter ends with a real example of a training process for Fabrics, Inc., walking the student through the needs analysis as it is actually done for the company.

Chapter 5 begins with the second phase of the training model: training design. The outcomes of the needs assessment phase are shown as inputs to this phase. Another input into the design phase is organizational constraints. We discuss possible constraints and their effects on training. The chapter then identifies the activities conducted in the design phase of training. First is the development of the training/learning objectives. Here a formula for development of learning objectives is provided along with numerous examples of effective objectives. We then provide a table that provides actual first tries at writing objectives and those same objectives after being refined. The rational for using objectives is also discussed.

The discussion then moves to the identification of factors that will facilitate learning. The learning facilitation factors focus separately on the trainee and the training design. We use Social Learning Theory and the Gagne–Briggs instructional process to explain the process of learning so students will better understand why various methods work the way they do. We also demon- strate how the theory and instructional process guides the step-by-step design of a training program. Next, factors that facilitate the transfer of learning back to the trainee’s job are dis- cussed. These factors are broken down into training design factors and organizational systems factors back on the job. At the end of the chapter, Fabrics, Inc., is revisited, and the process of design is examined step-by-step.

Chapter 6 provides information on traditional methods of training, including lectures, cases, games, simulations, and on-the-job training. Using learning theory as a framework, the various methods of training are described, along with their strengths and limitations. Included here are the effectiveness at developing knowledge, skills, or changing attitudes; the relative costs; trainer versus trainee control over what is learned and how; and issues related to training group characteristics. Included in the discussion of each method is the practical application, or how to actually use the method effectively.

Chapter 7 focuses on what we call electronic training (ET) encompassing all training that is created and delivered electronically. Again, using learning theory as a framework, the various forms of this approach are described along with their respective strengths and weaknesses. In addition, the discussion covers the various methods of delivery (the Internet, intranet, DVD, etc.) and learning management systems.

Chapter 8 is divided into two parts: development and implementation of training. It begins with a summary table showing the relative effectiveness of the various methods for enhancing knowledge, skill, and/or attitudes. The development of the training program is discussed in terms of our model of the process. The inputs from previous phases are discussed in terms of their influence on the characteristics of the training program being developed. Here actual forms that you might use, tables that provide step-by-step procedures for developing aspects of training, issues to consider in developing training using different methods, and so

Preface xv

forth, are provided. At the end of this chapter, Fabrics, Inc., is revisited to show some develop- mental outputs.

The model for implementation is then presented, with the outputs from the development phase becoming the inputs for implementation. Here we describe the process of putting on the training and what needs to be done to ensure success. Again the focus is on practical applica- tions, beginning with hints to assist trainers in effective use of the lecture method. Then we pres- ent a practical guide related to things to consider in the implementation of training, including a dry run and pilot program. Finally, we address some of the critical issues related to transfer of training.

Chapter 9 begins with the model for evaluation and addresses the issues and activities involved in the evaluation phase of the overarching training model. While various evaluation issues are discussed in each phase of the training model, we provide the bulk of the information at this point in the book (after development and implementation). However, we stress the importance of incorporating appropriate evaluation activities into each of the other phases of the model. We provide guidance and actual examples of the various types of evaluation that can be used. At the end of the chapter, we again revisit Fabrics, Inc., to provide the process that takes place at this stage of training. Here, we provide actual evaluation forms that are used to test employees from Fabrics, Inc., at the end of training. We also have two appendicies to this chap- ter that provides a more advanced discussion of reliability, validity and utility issues.

Chapter 10 contains two parts. First, the focus is on five special training topics: orientation, diversity, sexual harassment, team training, and cross-cultural training. For these first five top- ics, we provide information on what companies are currently doing and why it is important. Then, for each of the five, we discuss in detail how to develop that type of training, using the training model provided in the previous chapters. For the orientation training (sometimes referred to as “onboarding”), we provide a hypothetical example for readers to follow. Of course, we also provide a detailed discussion on how to develop the training. Finally, several other special training topics are addressed in terms of what organizations are doing and why it is important.

Chapter 11 begins with a focus on employee development and how it can help in retaining employees and keeping them motivated while providing increased organizational flexibility. Different approaches to employee development are discussed, including develop- ment in the current job, job rotation, and special assignments. The responsibilities of the employee, the supervisor, the HR unit, and the organization in terms of employee develop- ment are also discussed.

We then turn to management development with an explanation for why managers are singled out. Managerial competencies, in addition to personal traits or styles, are discussed in terms of effectiveness. We adopt a contingency approach to management development in the sense that we provide a model that allows the training professional to determine what compe- tencies a manager in a particular organization needs. The model integrates the competitive strategy, organizational structure, and technology literature into a continuum that describes the organizational context in which managers must operate. This context then determines the rela- tive value to the company that various managerial competencies and characteristics (such as style) are likely to provide. This chapter also discusses three important areas of managerial knowledge and competency: understanding of the organizational context, self-awareness and diagnostic skills, and adaptability. The chapter also includes a discussion of the special needs of technical managers, and a specific section is provided to highlight the special issues related to the training of top managers and executives.

xvi Preface

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Ever since we conceived of the book on that sunny day on a boat in northern Manitoba while catching our share of walleye, there have been many who have contributed to its success. We are immensely grateful to all of them. Of course, any errors, omissions, or other mistakes can be attributed to us.

We hope you find this book useful and easy to understand. Many have contributed to this goal. The people at Prentice Hall, as always, were very helpful. Special thanks to Sarah Holle, who has worked with us from the start of this edition. We are very appreciative of the hard work put in by our production editor, Holly Shufeldt, and the team at Aptara, whose diligence and skill in copyediting and production created the final images, text, and layout for this edi- tion. They have made the book better than it otherwise would have been.

We would like to acknowledge the contributions of both the academics and practitioners who have shared their insights with us. Specifically, we would like to thank Mitchell Fields, University of Windsor, whose examples and suggestions have stood the test of time. Special thanks also go out to Greg Huszczo, Rick Camp, and Mary Vielhaber (who has provided us with a new coaching example) all of Eastern Michigan University. Each has made valuable con- tributions that are incorporated in this book. Finally, but most importantly, a very big thank-you to the reviewers of the fourth edition of this book, whose feedback helped us along the road of continuous improvement.