Henry assael consumer behavior model with example

Consumer Behavior

7th Edition

Wayne D. Hoyer University of Texas, Austin

Deborah J. MacInnis University of Southern California

Rik Pieters Tilburg University

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Consumer Behavior, 7e Wayne D. Hoyer, Deborah J. MacInnis, Rik Pieters

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To my wonderful family, Shirley, David, Stephanie, and Lindsey and to my parents Louis and Doris for their tremendous support

and love. To all of you, I dedicate this book.

Wayne D. Hoyer Austin, Texas

September 2016

To my loving husband, my beautiful children, and my devoted family. You are my life-spring of energy and my center of gravity.

Deborah J. MacInnis Los Angeles, California

September 2016

To Trees who loves me and �omas who knew everything.

Rik Pieters Tilburg

September 2016

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iv

About the Authors

Wayne D. Hoyer Wayne D. Hoyer is the James L. Bayless/William S. Farish Fund Chair for Free Enterprise in the McCombs School of Business at the University of Texas at Austin. He received his Ph.D. in Consumer Psychology from Purdue University in 1980. He also holds an honorary doctorate from the University of Bern in Switzerland and was recently given a Humboldt Research Award in Germany. His major area of study is Consumer Psychology and his research interests include consumer information processing and decision-making, customer relationship management, consumer brand sabotage, and advertising information processing (including miscomprehension, humor, and brand personality). Wayne has published over 100 articles in various publications including the Journal of Consumer Research, Journal of Marketing, Journal of Marketing Research, Journal of Advertising Research, and Journal of Retailing. A 1998 article in the Journal of Marketing Research (with Susan Broniarczyk and Leigh McAlister) won the O’Dell Award in 2003 for having the most impact in the marketing field over that five-year period. In addition to Consumer Behavior, he has co-authored two books on the topic of advertising miscomprehension. He is a current area editor for the Journal of Marketing, a Marketing, a Marketing Senior Editor for the International Journal of Research in Marketing, a former associate editor for the Journal of Consumer Research and serves on eight editorial review boards including the Journal of Marketing Research, Journal of Consumer Research, and Journal of Consumer Psychology. His major areas of teaching include consumer behavior, customer strategy, and marketing communications. He has also taught internationally at the University of Mannheim, the University of Muenster, and the Otto Beisheim School of Management (all in Germany), the University of Bern in Switzerland, the University of Cambridge (UK), and Thammasat University in Thailand. He has also been the Montezemolo Visiting Research Fellow in the Judge School of Business and is a Visiting Fellow of Sidney Sussex College at the University of Cambridge (UK).

Deborah J. MacInnis Debbie MacInnis (Ph.D., University of Pittsburgh 1986) is the Charles L. and Ramona I. Hilliard Professor of Business Administration and Professor of Marketing at the University of Southern California in Los Angeles, CA. She has previously held positions as Chairperson of the Marketing Department, Vice Dean for Research and Strategy and Dean of the Undergraduate Programs at Marshall. Debbie has published papers in the Journal of Consumer Research, Journal of Marketing Research, Journal of Marketing, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Psychology and Marketing, and others in the areas of Personality and Social Psychology, Psychology and Marketing, and others in the areas of Personality and Social Psychology, Psychology and Marketing marketing communications, information processing, imagery, emotions, and branding. She has also published two co-edited volumes and a book on branding and consumer-brand relationships. She is former co-editor of the Journal of Consumer Research, and served as an Associate Editor for the Journal of Consumer Research, the Journal of Consumer Psychology, and the Journal of Marketing and has won outstanding reviewer awards from the Journal of Marketing and has won outstanding reviewer awards from the Journal of Marketing these journals. Debbie has served as Conference Co-Chair, Treasurer, and President of the Association for Consumer Research. She has also served as Vice President of Conferences and Research for the Academic Council of the American Marketing Association. She has received major awards for her research, including the Alpha Kappa Psi and Maynard awards, given to the best practice- and theory-based articles, respectively, published in the Journal of Marketing. Debbie’s research has also been named as a finalist for the Practice Prize Competition for contributions to marketing, and the Converse Award for significant

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long-term contributions to marketing. She has been named recipient of the Marshall Teaching Innovation Award, the Dean’s Award for Community, and the Dean’s Award for Research from the Marshall School of Business. She has also received the USC mentoring work for her mentoring of faculty. Her classes have won national awards through the SAA National Advertising Competition. Debbie enjoys travel, reading, and being in nature.

Rik Pieters Rik Pieters is Professor of Marketing at the Tilburg School of Economics and Management (TISEM) of Tilburg University, the Netherlands. He received his Ph.D. in Social Psychology from the University of Leiden in 1989. Rik believes in interdisciplinary work, and that imagination, persistence, and openness to surprise are a person’s biggest assets. He has published over 100 articles in marketing, psychology, economics, and statistics. His work has appeared in Journal of Consumer Psychology, Journal of Consumer Research, Journal of Marketing, Journal of Marketing Research, Marketing Science, Management Science, and International Journal of Research in Marketing. He has published in the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, European Journal of Social Psychology, Emotion, Psychological Science, and Journal of Economic Literature. Currently, Rik is an Associate Editor of the Journal of Marketing Research. His research concerns attention and memory processes in marketing communication, and the role of emotions in consumer decision-making. He has served as Co-Chair of the Association for Consumer Research annual conference, and has co-organized special conferences on visual marketing, social communication, and service marketing and management. He has taught internationally at Pennsylvania State University; University of Innsbruck, Austria; Koc University, Turkey; and the University of Auckland, New Zealand. He has won best teaching awards at the school and university levels. He has been Strategy Director for National and International clients at the Publicis/FCB advertising agency, Amsterdam office. He bakes bread, rides bikes, plays the bass, and drinks hoppy, fermented barley beverages, all except the first in moderation. In his spare time, he works.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS v

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vi

Part 1 An Introduction to Consumer Behavior 3 1 Understanding Consumer Behavior 4

Appendix Developing Information About Consumer Behavior 28

Part 2 �e Psychological Core 43 2 Motivation, Ability, and Opportunity 44

3 From Exposure to Comprehension 72

4 Memory and Knowledge 100

5 Attitudes Based on High Effort 127

6 Attitudes Based on Low Effort 154

Part 3 �e Process of Making Decisions 179 7 Problem Recognition and Information Search 180

8 Judgment and Decision-Making Based on High Effort 206

9 Judgment and Decision-Making Based on Low Effort 234

10 Post-Decision Processes 258

Part 4 �e Consumer’s Culture 291 11 Social In�uences on Consumer Behavior 292

12 Consumer Diversity 321

13 Household and Social Class In�uences 346

14 Psychographics: Values, Personality, and Lifestyles 373

Part 5 Consumer Behavior Outcomes and Issues 403

15 Innovations: Adoption, Resistance, and Diffusion 404

16 Symbolic Consumer Behavior 429

17 Marketing, Ethics, and Social Responsibility in Today’s Consumer Society 457

Brief Contents

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vii

1-1 Defining Consumer Behavior 5 1-1a Consumer Behavior Involves Goods, Services,

Activities, Experiences, People, and Ideas 5 1-1b Consumer Behavior Involves More than Buying 5 1-1c Consumer Behavior Is a Dynamic Process 7 1-1d Consumer Behavior Can Involve Many People 7 1-1e Consumer Behavior Involves Many Decisions 7 1-1f Consumer Behavior Involves Emotions and Coping 11

1-2 What Affects Consumer Behavior? 11 1-2a The Psychological Core: Internal Consumer Processes 11 1-2b The Process of Making Decisions 12 1-2c The Consumer’s Culture: External Processes 13 1-2d Consumer Behavior Outcomes and Issues 14

1-3 Who Benefits from the Study of Consumer Behavior? 15 1-3a Marketing Managers 15 1-3b Ethicists and Advocacy Groups 15 1-3c Public Policy Makers and Regulators 16

1-3d Academics 16 1-3e Consumers and Society 16

1-4 Making Business Decisions Based on the Marketing Implications of Consumer Behavior 16

1-4a Developing and Implementing Customer-Oriented Strategy 16

1-4b Selecting the Target Market 17 1-4c Developing Products 17 1-4d Positioning 18 1-4e Making Promotion and Marketing Communications

Decisions 18 1-4f Making Pricing Decisions 19 1-4g Making Distribution Decisions 20

Summary 22

Endnotes 22

Consumer Behavior Research Methods 28 Surveys 28 Focus Groups 29 Interviews 30 Storytelling 30 Photography and Pictures 31 Diaries 31 Experiments 31 Field Experiments 32 Conjoint Analysis 32 Observations and Ethnographic Research 32 Purchase Panels 33 Database Marketing and Big Data 33 Netnography 33 Psychophysiological Reactions and Neuroscience 34

Types of Consumer Researchers 34 In-House Marketing Research Departments 34

External Marketing Research Firms 35 Advertising Agencies and Media Planning Firms 36 Syndicated Data Services 36 Retailers 36 Research Foundations and Trade Groups 37 Government 37 Consumer Organizations 37 Academics and Academic Research Centers 37

Ethical Issues in Consumer Research 38 The Positive Aspects of Consumer Research 38 The Negative Aspects of Consumer Research 38

Summary 39

Endnotes 39

Part 1 An Introduction to Consumer BehaviorPart 1 An Introduction to Consumer Behavior 3

Chapter 1 Understanding Consumer Behavior 4

Appendix Developing Information About Consumer Behavior 28

Contents About the Authors iv

Preface xiv

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CONTENTSviii

2-1 Consumer Motivation and Its Effects 45 2-1a High-Effort Behavior 45 2-1b High-Effort Information Processing and

Decision-Making 45 2-1c Felt Involvement 45

2-2 What Determines Motivation? 47 2-2a Personal Relevance 48 2-2b Consistency with Self-Concept 48 2-2c Values 48 2-2d Needs 48 2-2e Goals 52 2-2f Goals and Emotions 55 2-2g Self-Control and Goal Conflict 55 2-2h Perceived Risk 58 2-2i Inconsistency with Attitudes 60

2-3 Consumer Ability: Resources to Act 60 2-3a Financial Resources 61 2-3b Cognitive Resources 61 2-3c Emotional Resources 61 2-3d Physical Resources 61 2-3e Social and Cultural Resources 62 2-3f Education and Age 62

2-4 Consumer Opportunity 63 2-4a Time 63 2-4b Distraction 63 2-4c Complexity, Amount, Repetition, and Control

of Information 63

Summary 65

Endnotes 65

Part 2 �e Psychological CorePart 2 �e Psychological Core 43

Chapter 2 Motivation, Ability, and Opportunity 44

3-1 Exposure and Consumer Behavior 73 3-1a Factors Influencing Exposure 73 3-1b Selective Exposure 73

3-2 Attention and Consumer Behavior 76 3-2a Characteristics of Attention 76 3-2b Focal and Nonfocal Attention 76 3-2c Customer Segments Defined by Attention 80 3-2d Habituation 80

3-3 Perception and Consumer Behavior 80 3-3a Perceiving Through Vision 80 3-3b Perceiving Through Hearing 81

3-3c Perceiving Through Taste 81 3-3d Perceiving Through Smell 81 3-3e Perceiving Through Touch 82 3-3f When Do We Perceive Stimuli? 84 3-3g How Do Consumers Perceive a Stimulus? 86

3-4 Comprehension and Consumer Behavior 87 3-4a Source Identification 87 3-4b Message Comprehension 87 3-4c Consumer Inferences 89

Summary 92

Endnotes 92

Chapter 3 From Exposure to Comprehension 72

4-1 What Is Memory? 102 4-1a Sensory Memory 102 4-1b Working Memory 102 4-1c Long-Term Memory 103 4-1d Explicit Memory, Implicit Memory, and Processing

Fluency 104 4-1e How Memory Is Enhanced 104

4-2 Knowledge Content, Structure, and Flexibility 105

4-2a Knowledge Content: Schemas and Scripts 105 4-2b Knowledge Structure: Categories 111

4-2c Knowledge Flexibility 114 4-2d Why Consumers Differ in Knowledge Content and

Structure 115

4-3 Memory and Retrieval 116 4-3a Retrieval Failures 116 4-3b Retrieval Errors 117 4-3c Enhancing Retrieval 118 4-3d Characteristics of the Stimulus 118

Summary 120

Endnotes 120

Chapter 4 Memory and Knowledge 100

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CONTENTS ix

5-1 What Are Attitudes? 128 5-1a The Importance of Attitudes 128 5-1b The Characteristics of Attitudes 128 5-1c Forming and Changing Attitudes 128

5-2 The Cognitive Foundations of Attitudes 129

5-2a Direct or Imagined Experience 131 5-2b Reasoning by Analogy or Category 131 5-2c Values-Driven Attitudes 131 5-2d Social Identity-Based Attitude

Generation 131 5-2e Analytical Processes of Attitude

Formation 131

5-3 How Cognitively Based Attitudes are Influenced 135 5-3a Communication Source 135 5-3b The Message 137

5-4 The Affective (Emotional) Foundations of Attitudes 139

5-5 How Affectively Based Attitudes Are Influenced 141 5-5a The Source 141 5-5b The Message 142

5-6 Attitude Toward the AD 144

5-7 When Do Attitudes Predict Behavior? 144

Summary 147

Endnotes 147

Chapter 5 Attitudes Based on High Effort 127

6-1 High-Effort Versus Low-Effort Routes to Persuasion 155

6-2 Unconscious Influences on Attitudes When Consumer Effort Is Low 155

6-2a Thin-Slice Judgments 155 6-2b Body Feedback 155

6-3 Cognitive Bases of Attitudes When Consumer Effort Is Low 157

6-4 How Cognitive Attitudes Are Influenced 158 6-4a Communication Source 158 6-4b The Message 158 6-4c Message Context and Repetition 160

6-5 Affective Bases of Attitudes When Consumer Effort Is Low 160

6-5a The Mere Exposure Effect 160 6-5b Classical and Evaluative Conditioning 161 6-5c Attitude Toward the Ad 163 6-5d Mood 164

6-6 How Affective Attitudes Are Influenced 165 6-6a Communication Source 165 6-6b The Message 166

Summary 171

Endnotes 171

Chapter 6 Attitudes Based on Low Effort 154

7-1 Problem Recognition 182 7-1a The Ideal State: Where We Want to Be 182 7-1b The Actual State: Where We Are Now 182

7-2 Internal Search: Searching for Information from Memory 183

7-2a How Much Do We Engage in Internal Search? 183 7-2b What Kind of Information Is Retrieved from Internal

Search? 184 7-2c Is Internal Search Always Accurate? 188

7-3 External Search: Searching for Information from the Environment 189

7-3a Where Can We Search for Information? 189

7-3b How Much Do We Engage in External Search? 192 7-3c What Kind of Information Is Acquired in External

Search? 197 7-3d Is External Search Always Accurate? 198 7-3e How Do We Engage in External Search? 198

Summary 200

Endnotes 200

Part 3 �e Process of Making DecisionsPart 3 �e Process of Making Decisions 179

Chapter 7 Problem Recognition and Information Search 180

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CONTENTSx

8-1 High-Effort Judgment Processes 208 8-1a Judgments of Likelihood and Goodness/

Badness 208 8-1b Mental and Emotional Accounting 209 8-1c Biases in Judgment Processes 209

8-2 High-Effort Decisions and High-Effort Decision-Making Processes 210

8-2a Deciding Which Brands to Consider 211 8-2b Deciding Which Criteria Are Important to the

Choice 212

8-3 Deciding What Brand to Choose: Thought-Based Decisions 214

8-3a Decisions Based on Brands 216 8-3b Decisions Based on Product Attributes 217 8-3c Decisions Based on Gains and

Losses 218

8-4 Deciding What Brand to Choose: High-Effort Feeling-Based Decisions 219

8-4a Appraisals and Feelings 220 8-4b Affective Forecasts and Choices 220 8-4c Imagery 221

8-5 Additional High-Effort Decisions 222 8-5a Decision Delay 222 8-5b Decision-Making When Alternatives Cannot

Be Compared 222

8-6 What Affects High-Effort Decisions? 223 8-6a Consumer Characteristics 223 8-6b Characteristics of the Decision 224 8-6c Group Context 225

Summary 227

Endnotes 228

Chapter 8 Judgment and Decision-Making Based on High Effort 206

9-1 Low-Effort Judgment Processes 236 9-1a The Representativeness Heuristic 236 9-1b The Availability Heuristic 236

9-2 Low-Effort Decision-Making Processes 237 9-2a Unconscious Low-Effort Decision-Making 237 9-2b Conscious Low-Effort Decision-Making 238 9-2c Using Simplifying Strategies When Consumer

Effort Is Low 238

9-3 Learning Choice Tactics 239 9-3a Reinforcement 239 9-3b Punishment 239 9-3c Repeat Purchase 240 9-3d Choice Tactics Depend on the Product 240

9-4 Low-Effort Thought-Based Decision-Making 240 9-4a Performance as a Simplifying Strategy 241

9-4b Habit as a Simplifying Strategy 241 9-4c Brand Loyalty as a Simplifying Strategy 243 9-4d Price as a Simplifying Strategy 245 9-4e Normative Influences as a Simplifying Strategy 247

9-5 Low-Effort Feeling-Based Decision-Making 247 9-5a Feelings as a Simplifying Strategy 247 9-5b Brand Familiarity 248 9-5c Decision-Making Based on Variety-Seeking Needs 249 9-5d Buying on Impulse 250

Summary 252

Endnotes 252

Chapter 9 Judgment and Decision-Making Based on Low Effort 234

10-1 Post-Decision Dissonance and Regret 260 10-1a Dissonance 260 10-1b Regret 260

10-2 Learning from Consumer Experience* 261 10-2a A Model of Learning from Consumer Experience 261 10-2b What Affects Learning? 262

10-3 How Do Consumers Make Satisfaction or Dissatisfaction Judgments? 264

10-3a Satisfaction/Dissatisfaction Based on Thoughts 266 10-3b Satisfaction/Dissatisfaction Based on Feelings 270

10-4 Responses to Dissatisfaction 272 10-4a Complaints 272

10-4b Responding to Service Recovery 274 10-4c Responding by Negative Word of Mouth 274

10-5 Is Customer Satisfaction Enough? 275 10-5a Customer Retention 275 10-5b Product-Harm Crises 275

10-6 Disposition 276 10-6a Disposing of Meaningful Objects 278 10-6b Recycling 279

Summary 282

Endnotes 282

Chapter 10 Post-Decision Processes 258

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CONTENTS xi

11-1 Sources of Influence 294 11-1a Marketing and Nonmarketing Sources 294 11-1b How Do These General Sources Differ? 295 11-1c Opinion Leaders 297

11-2 Reference Groups as Sources of Influence 298 11-2a Types of Reference Groups 298 11-2b Characteristics of Reference Groups 300 11-2c Reference Groups Affect Consumer Socialization 303

11-3 Normative Influence 303 11-3a How Normative Influence Can Affect Consumer

Behavior 304

11-3b What Affects Normative Influence Strength 305

11-4 Informational Influence 309 11-4a Factors Affecting Informational Influence Strength 309 11-4b Descriptive Dimensions of Information 310 11-4c The Pervasive and Persuasive Influence

of Word of Mouth 311

Summary 314

Endnotes 315

Part 4 �e Consumer’s CulturePart 4 �e Consumer’s Culture 291

Chapter 11 Social In�uences on Consumer Behavior 292

12-1 How Age Affects Consumer Behavior 323 12-1a Age Trends in the United States 323 12-1b Teens and Millennials 323 12-1c Generation X 326 12-1d Boomers 326 12-1e Seniors 327

12-2 How Gender and Sexual Orientation Affect Consumer Behavior 329

12-2a Sex Roles 329 12-2b Differences in Acquisition and Consumption

Behaviors 329 12-2c Gender and Sexual Orientation 331

12-3 How Regional Influences Affect Consumer Behavior 331

12-3a Regions Within the United States 332 12-3b Regions Across the World 333

12-4 How Ethnic and Religious Influences Affect Consumer Behavior 334

12-4a Ethnic Groups Within the United States 334 12-4b Ethnic Groups Around the World 338 12-4c The Influence of Religion 339

Summary 340

Endnotes 340

Chapter 12 Consumer Diversity 321

13-1 How the Household Influences Consumer Behavior 348

13-1a Types of Households 348 13-1b Households and Family Life Cycle 348 13-1c Changing Trends in Household

Structure 349

13-2 Roles that Household Members Play 351 13-2a The Roles of Spouses 352 13-2b The Role of Children 353

13-3 Social Class 355 13-3a Types of Social Class Systems 356 13-3b Social Class Influences 356 13-3c How Social Class Is Determined 356 13-3d How Social Class Changes Over Time 359

13-4 How Does Social Class Affect Consumption? 361 13-4a Conspicuous Consumption and Voluntary

Simplicity 361 13-4b Status Symbols and Judging Others 361 13-4c Compensatory Consumption 361 13-4d The Meaning of Money 362

13-5 The Consumption Patterns of Specific Social Classes 363

13-5a The Upper Class 364 13-5b The Middle Class 364 13-5c The Working Class 364 13-5d The Homeless 365

Summary 367

Endnotes 368

Chapter 13 Household and Social Class In�uences 346

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CONTENTSxii

14-1 Values 375 14-1a How Values Can Be Described 375 14-1b The Values That Characterize Western Cultures 376 14-1c Why Values Change 381 14-1d Influences on Values 381 14-1e How Values Can Be Measured 384

14-2 Personality 386 14-2a Research Approaches to Personality 386 14-2b Determining Whether Personality Characteristics

Affect Consumer Behavior 388

14-3 Lifestyles 391 14-3a Lifestyle and Behavior Patterns 391 14-3b Voluntary Simplicity 392

14-4 Psychographics: Combining Values, Personality, And Lifestyles 394

14-4a VALSTM 394 14-4b Other Applied Psychographic Research 394

Summary 396

Endnotes 396

Chapter 14 Psychographics: Values, Personality, and Lifestyles 373

15-1 Innovations 404 15-1a Defining an Innovation 406 15-1b Innovations Characterized by Degree

of Novelty 406 15-1c Innovations Characterized by Benefits

Offered 406 15-1d Innovations Characterized by Breadth 407 15-1e Innovations and Cocreation 407 15-1f The Consequences of Innovations 408

15-2 Resistance Versus Adoption 409 15-2a Whether Consumers Adopt

an Innovation 409 15-2b How Consumers Adopt an Innovation 410 15-2c When Consumers Adopt Innovations 411

15-3 Diffusion 414 15-3a How Offerings Diffuse Through a Market 414 15-3b Factors Affecting the Shape of the Diffusion Curve 414 15-3c How Diffusion Relates to the Product Life Cycle 415

15-4 Influences on Adoption, Resistance, and Diffusion 416 15-4a Characteristics of the Innovation 416 15-4b Uncertainty 418 15-4c Consumer Learning Requirements 418 15-4d Social Relevance 421 15-4e Legitimacy and Adaptability 422 15-4f Characteristics of the Social System 423

Summary 424

Endnotes 425

Part 5 Consumer Behavior Outcomes and IssuesPart 5 Consumer Behavior Outcomes and Issues 403

Chapter 15 Innovations: Adoption, Resistance, and Diffusion 404

16-1 Sources and Functions of Symbolic Meaning 431 16-1a Meaning Derived from Culture 431 16-1b Meaning Derived from the Consumer 432 16-1c The Emblematic Function 432 16-1d The Role Acquisition Function 435 16-1e The Connectedness Function 438 16-1f The Expressiveness Function 438 16-1g Multiple Functions 438 16-1h Symbols and Self-Concept 439

16-2 Special Possessions and Brands 440 16-2a Special Brands 441 16-2b Types of Special Possessions 441 16-2c The Characteristics That Describe Special Possessions 442

16-2d Why Some Products Are Special 443 16-2e Consumer Characteristics Affect What Is Special 443 16-2f Rituals Used with Special Possessions 443 16-2g Disposing of Special Possessions 445

16-3 Sacred Meaning 445

16-4 The Transfer of Symbolic Meaning Through Gift Giving 446

16-4a The Timing of Gifts 447 16-4b Three Stages of Gift Giving 447

Summary 451

Endnotes 451

Chapter 16 Symbolic Consumer Behavior 429

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CONTENTS xiii

17-1 In Search of Balance 459 17-1a Self-interest Versus the Interests of Others 459 17-1b Immediate Versus Long-Term Interests 459 17-1c “Dark Side” Versus