Multicultural education in a pluralistic society chapter 1

Donna M. Gollnick Chief Academic Officer, TEACH-NOW

Philip C. Chinn California State University, Los Angeles

Multicultural Education in a Pluralistic Society

T e n T h e d i T i o n

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Gollnick, Donna M. | Chinn, Philip C., 1937- Title: Multicultural education in a pluralistic society / Donna M. Gollnick, National Council for the Accreditation of Teacher Education, Philip C. Chinn, California State University, Los Angeles. Description: Tenth Edition. | Boston : Pearson, [2017] | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2015033057 | ISBN 9780134054674 Subjects: LCSH: Multicultural education--United States. | Social sciences—Study and teaching (Elementary)--United States. | Cultural pluralism—Study and teaching (Elementary)--United States. | Social sciences—Study and teaching (Secondary)--United States. | Cultural pluralism—Study and teaching (Secondary)--United States. Classification: LCC LC1099.3 .G65 2017 | DDC 370.1170973--dc23 LC record available at http://lccn.loc.gov/2015033057

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This book is dedicated to

Dr. Haywood Wyche and Michele Clarke, my best friends and my inspiration

DMG

Dr. Frances Kuwahara Chinn and Dylan Philip Chinn-Gonzalez, my best friend and my newest grandchild

PCC

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About the Authors

Donna M. Gollnick is the Chief Academic Officer of TEACH-NOW, an online teacher education program. She

was previously a senior consultant for the new teacher education accrediting organization,

the Council for Accreditation of Educator Preparation (CAEP), and the Senior Vice Presi-

dent of the National Council for the Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE), where

she managed the accreditation of colleges and universities across the United States. She has

been promoting and writing about multicultural education and equity in teacher education

and schools since the 1970s and is a past president of the National Association for Multicul-

tural Education (NAME). Dr. Gollnick is the coauthor of Introduction to the Foundations of

American Education, Seventeenth Edition, and Introduction to Teaching: Making a Difference in

Student Learning, Second Edition.

Philip C. Chinn is a professor emeritus at California State University, Los Angeles, where he taught multicul-

tural education, special education, and served as Special Education Division chair. He served as

special assistant to the Executive Director for Minority Affairs at the Council for Exceptional

Children (CEC), where he coordinated the first national conferences on the Exceptional Bilin-

gual Child and the Exceptional Black Child. He served as vice president of the National Associa-

tion for Multicultural Education (NAME) and co-editor of Multicultural Perspectives, the NAME

journal. NAME named their Multicultural Book Award in his honor. He has co-authored two

special education texts. He also served on the California State Advisory Commission for Special

Education.

iv

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Brief Contents ChAPter 1

Foundations of Multicultural education 1

ChAPter 2

race and ethnicity 26

ChAPter 3

Class and Socioeconomic Status 57

ChAPter 4

Gender 84

ChAPter 5

Sexual Orientation 109

ChAPter 6

exceptionality 130

ChAPter 7

Language 156

ChAPter 8

religion 180

ChAPter 9

Geography 209

ChAPter 10

the Youth Culture 235

ChAPter 11

education that Is Multicultural 258

v

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Preface xv

ChAPter 1

Foundations of Multicultural education 1

Diversity in the Classroom 2

Culture 4

Critical Incidents in Teaching: Celebrating Ethnic Holidays 5

Characteristics of Culture 5

The Dominant Culture 6

Cultural Identity 8

Pluralism in Society 9

Assimilation 10

Ethnocentrism 11

Cultural Relativism 11

Multiculturalism 12

Equality and Social Justice in a Democracy 12

Meritocracy 13

Equality 14

Social Justice 14

Obstacles to Equality and Social Justice 15

Multicultural Education 18

Evolution of Multicultural Education 19

Focus Your Cultural Lens: Debate/Should Ethnic Studies Be Taught? 21

Multicultural Education Today 22

Multicultural Proficiencies for Teachers 23

Reflecting on Multicultural Teaching 24

Summary 25

ChAPter 2

race and ethnicity 26

Immigration 27

A Brief History of Immigration in the United States 27

The Control of Immigration 29

Unauthorized Immigrants 31

Refugees and Asylees 32

Education of Immigrants 33

vii

Contents

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Ethnicity 33

Ethnic Identity 34

Acculturation 35

Race 35

Critical Incidents in Teaching: Student Conflict between Family and Peer Values 36

Identification of Race 37

Racial Diversity 38

Racial Identity 39

The Struggle for Civil Rights 41

The Civil Rights Movement 41

Brown v. Board of Education 42

Post-Brown Turnaround 43

Racial and Ethnic Discrimination 46

Intergroup Relations 46

Hate Groups 47

School-to-Prison Pipeline 48

Focus Your Cultural Lens: Debate/To Suspend or Not Suspend? 49

Affirming Race and Ethnicity in Classrooms 50

Acknowledging Race and Ethnicity in Schools 51

Confronting Racism in Classrooms 52

Incorporating Race and Ethnicity in the Curriculum 52

Closing the Opportunity Gap 54

Summary 56

ChAPter 3

Class and Socioeconomic Status 57

Class 58

Class Identity 58

Social Stratification 59

Socioeconomic Status 59

Income 59

Critical Incidents in Teaching: Impact of Socioeconomic Status on School Events 61

Wealth 61

Occupation 62

Education 63

Power 64

Class Differences 65

The Unemployed and Homeless 66

The Working Class 68

The Middle Class 69

The Upper Middle Class 70

The Upper Class 71

viii Contents

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Contents ix

Economic Inequality 72

Racial and Ethnic Inequality 72

Gender Inequality 74

Age Inequality 74

Teaching for Equality 76

Teacher Expectations 78

Tracking 78

Focus Your Cultural Lens: Debate/Detracking 80

Curriculum for Equality 81

School Funding 82

Summary 82

ChAPter 4

Gender 84

Male and Female Differences 85

Differences Based on Nature 85

Socially Constructed Differences 86

Gender Identity 88

Masculinity and Femininity 88

Transgender Identity 89

Influence of Ethnicity and Religion 90

Struggles for Gender Equity 90

Early Struggles for Gender Equity 91

The Second Wave 91

Today’s Challenges 92

The Boy Crisis 93

The Cost of Sexism and Gender Discrimination 93

Jobs 94

Income 96

Sexual Harassment 98

Critical Incidents in Teaching: The Boys’ Code 99

Bringing Gender Equality to the Classroom and Beyond 100

Title IX 101

Improving Academic Achievement 102

Nonsexist Education 103

Focus Your Cultural Lens: Debate/Separate Education for Boys and Girls 105

Single-Sex Education 105

Gender Equity: A Universal Issue 106

Summary 108

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x Contents

ChAPter 5

Sexual Orientation 109

Sexual Identity 110

Sexual Differences 110

Diversity of Sexual Orientations 111

Self-Identity 112

Critical Incidents in Teaching: Same-Sex Parents 113

Struggles for Sexual Equity 114

Fighting for Sexual Equity 115

Continuing Challenges for Equity 119

Heterosexism’s Toll on Students and Adults 120

A Targeted Minority 120

The School Climate 121

LGBTQ Teachers 122

Schools That Value Sexual Diversity 124

Queering the Curriculum 124

Conflict About LGBTQ-Inclusive Curriculum 126

Supporting LGBTQ Students 126

Focus Your Cultural Lens: Debate/Sexual Orientation in the Curriculum 127

Summary 129

ChAPter 6

exceptionality 130

Students with Disabilities and Students Who Are Gifted and Talented 131

Labeling 132

Historical Antecedents 133

Litigation 134

Brown v. Board of Education 134

PARC v. The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania 135

Mills v. Board of Education 135

Legislation 136

Section 504 136

Public Law 94-142 136

Americans with Disabilities Act 137

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) 138

Idea Amendments 139

Idea Funding 140

Post–P.L. 94-142 Litigation 140

Laws and Funding for Gifted and Talented Students 141

Exceptional Individuals and Society 142

Exceptional Cultural Groups 143

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Contents xi

Disproportionate Placement in Special Education 145

Reporting of Students with Disabilites 145

Need for Disaggregated Data 148

California Proposition 227 and Special Education 148

Teaching Children with Exceptionalities 149

Communication Needs 150

Acceptance Needs 150

Freedom to Grow 150

Critical Incidents in Teaching: How to Address a Major Student Behavior Issue 151

Normalization and Inclusion 152

Focus Your Cultural Lens: Debate/Is Full Inclusion Feasible for All Children with Disabilities? 154

Summary 154

ChAPter 7

Language 156

Language and Culture 157

Language as a Socializing Agent 158

Language Diversity 159

The Nature of Language 159

Cultural Influences 159

Language Differences 160

Bilingualism 161

Accents 161

Dialects 162

Bidialectalism 163

Perspectives on Standard English 164

Perspectives on African American English 164

Critical Incidents in Teaching: Attitudes toward African American Vernacular English 165

Sign Language 166

Nonverbal Communication 166

Second-Language Acquisition 168

English Language Learner Characteristics 169

The Role of First Language in Second Language Acquisition 169

Official English (English-Only) Controversy 171

Differentiating Instruction for All Language Learners 171

Language and Educational Assessment 172

Bilingual Education 173

English as a Second Language 175

Focus Your Cultural Lens: Debate/Curtailing Bilingual Education 178

Summary 178

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ChAPter 8

religion 180

Religion and Culture 181

Religious Composition of Schools 181

The First Amendment and the Separation of Church and State 182

Religion as a Way of Life 183

The Importance of Religion in Our Lives 183

Freedom of Religious Expression 183

Religious Pluralism in the United States 184

A Changing Religious Landscape 185

The End of Christian America? 187

Protestantism 188

Catholicism 190

Judaism 191

Islam 193

Critical Incidents in Teaching: Ship Them Back to Where They Came From? 194

Buddhism 196

Hinduism 197

Other Denominations and Religious Groups 198

Interaction of Religion with Gender, Gay and Lesbian Issues, and Race 198

Religion and Gender 198

Religion and Gay and Lesbian Issues 200

Religion and Race 201

Separating Church and State and Other Issues 203

School Prayer 204

School Vouchers 204

Censorship 205

Focus Your Cultural Lens: Debate/School Prayer 206

Classroom Implications 207

Summary 208

ChAPter 9

Geography 209

Geography and Culture 210

What Is Geography? 210

Our Place in the World 211

Regional Diversity in the United States 211

Regional Differences in Education 213

Rural, Urban, and Suburban Areas 216

Rural Areas 216

Urban Areas 218

Critical Incidents in Teaching: Moving from the City to a Rural Community 219

Suburban Areas 222

xii Contents

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Migration 223

Migration Worldwide 225

Migration in the United States 225

Globalization 225

Economics 226

Environment 227

Resistance by Indigenous People 228

Incorporating Students’ Cultural and Geographic Differences into the Classroom 229

Teaching Immigrant Students 230

Honoring Family Cultures 231

Incorporating Global Perspectives 231

Working with Families and Communities 231

Focus Your Cultural Lens: Debate/Incorporating Global Perspectives in the Curriculum 232

Summary 233

ChAPter 10

the Youth Culture 235

The Culture of Youth 236

Young Adulthood 236

The Millennials: The Me Generation 237

Childhood 239

Social Class and Poverty 240

Children, Ethnic Awareness, and Prejudice 240

Child Abuse 241

Childhood Obesity 243

Adolescence 244

Relationship with Parents 244

At-Risk Youth and High-Risk Behavior 244

Substance Abuse 245

Adolescent Sexual Behaviors 246

Other High-Risk Behaviors 247

Adolescent Suicide 247

Adolescent Self-Injury 249

Bullying 249

Youth Violence 250

Focus Your Cultural Lens: Debate/Zero Tolerance 252

Street Gangs 253

America’s Youth in Today’s Classrooms 254

Critical Incidents in Teaching: Honor Student and Star Athlete 255

Summary 256

Contents xiii

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ChAPter 11

education that Is Multicultural 258

Making Teaching Multicultural 259

Placing Students at the Center of Teaching and Learning 260

Student Voices 261

Engaging Students 261

Climate That Promotes Human Rights 262

School Climate 263

Hidden Curriculum 264

Messages to Students 264

Student and Teacher Connections 265

Student and Teacher Communications 266

Belief That All Students Can Learn 266

Focus on Learning 267

High Expectations 268

Caring 269

Culturally Responsive Teaching 269

Multicultural Curriculum 269

Critical Incidents in Teaching: Teaching about Thanksgiving 271

Culture in Academic Subjects 271

Multiple Perspectives 272

Inequity and Power 273

Focus Your Cultural Lens: Debate/Teaching “Black Lives Matter” 274

Social Justice and Equality 275

Thinking Critically 275

Fostering Learning Communities 276

Teaching as a Political Activity 276

Preparing to Teach Multiculturally 276

Know Yourself and Others 276

Reflect on Your Practice 277

Summary 278

Glossary 279

References 287

Author index 305

Subject index 309

xiv Contents

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Preface A decade from now, we may look back at the period around 2015 as a turning point in address- ing racism in the United States. As this book went to print, in the summer of 2015, marchers from diverse racial, ethnic, and economic groups across the country were chanting “Black Lives Matter” after nine African Americans had been murdered in the Emanuel African Methodist Episcopal Church in Charleston, South Carolina, and a number of unarmed African American youth and men had been killed by police over the previous year. Calls for the removal of the Confederate f lag as a symbol of hate from public places came from leaders across political parties and racial groups. Times will tell whether these events have led to a public outcry by people of all races that will change policies and practices that are racist and discriminate against people of color.

The tenth edition of Multicultural Education in a Pluralistic Society examines issues of race, diversity and equity in society, how they are ref lected in schools, and their impact on students and teachers. In order to explore these issues, the book introduces future teachers to the dif- ferent cultural groups to which we and our students belong and the importance of building on the cultures and experiences of students to help them learn at high levels.

What Is New in the tenth edition?

NEW! The tenth edition is available as an enhanced Pearson e-text* with the following features:

• Video Margin Notes: Our new digital format allows us to illustrate issues and introduce readers to cultural groups in ways that were unimaginable in the past. Each chapter includes two to five videos to allow readers to listen to experts, watch footage of diverse classrooms, and listen to and watch effective teachers talk about and prac- tice strategies that promote multicultural education.

• Chapter Quizzes: Quiz questions align with learning outcomes and appear as a link at the end of each chapter in the e-text*. Using multiple-choice questions, the quiz- zes allow readers to test their knowledge of the concepts, research, strategies, and practices discussed in each section.

NEW! New opening scenarios in Chapters 1 and 5 introduce issues surrounding language diversity and sexual identity in classrooms. NEW! Chapters 1, 2, and 11 include new Focus Your Cultural Lens features on the politics of teaching ethnic studies, the use of suspensions in schools, and teaching “Black Lives Matter.” NEW! New Critical Incidents are introduced on handling a student behavior issue (Chapter 7), verbal attacks on Muslims in a classroom (Chapter 8), and moving from the city to a rural community (Chapter 9).

xv

*These features are only available in the Pearson eText, available exclusively from www.pearsonhighered.com/etextbooks or by ordering the Pearson eText plus Loose-Leaf Version (ISBN 0134054679) or the Pearson eText Access Code Card (ISBN 013405492X).

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xvi Preface

NEW! With disproportionately large numbers of African American and Latino men incarcerated in the nation’s prisons, Chapter 2 on ethnicity and race explores the school to prison pipeline that contributes to many youth entering the juvenile justice system as a result of actions taken in schools. NEW! Data from the Clinton Foundation and Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation’s No Ceilings, the Full Participation Report informs a Chapter 4 discussion of the dramatic changes that have improved conditions for girls and women in the world since the 1995 United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing. NEW! The growing interest in dual language immersion programs and the softening in some states of their previous opposition to bilingual education programs are introduced in Chapter 7 on language. NEW! New sections on global restrictions on religion, the changes introduced by Pope Francis, and Islamic extremists have been added to Chapter 8 on religion along with a discussion of the rise in the number of Americans and Canadians indicating no religious affiliation. The discussion of the interaction between religion and presidential and congressional elections has been expanded in this edition. NEW! Changing racial and ethnic demographics and significant regional differences related to health and well-being, politics, religion, and education are explored in Chapter 9 on geography. NEW! The impact of the most technologically advanced group of students to appear in our classrooms is examined in Chapter 10 on age. The chapter now includes a section on the Sandy Hook tragedies and chronicles the problems faced by the gunman who instigated the incident. UPDATED! Chapters reflect recent events and research that have impacted the topics addressed throughout the book. UPDATED! All tables, figures, and references reflect the latest data and thinking about the issues explored throughout the book.

Why Study Multicultural education?

The United States is one of the most multicultural nations in the world. The population includes indigenous peoples—American Indians, Aleuts, Inuit, and Hawaiians—and others who themselves or whose ancestors arrived as immigrants from other countries. Our students bring their unique ethnicities, races, socioeconomic statuses, religions, and native languages to the classroom. They differ in gender identity, sexual orientation, age, and physical and mental abilities. They have come from different parts of the world and have different experiences based on the communities in which they have grown up. As we move further into this century, the population will become increasingly more diverse. Children of color comprised just over half of the school-aged population in 2014, and this percentage will continue to grow over time.

The culture and the society of the United States are dynamic and in a continuous state of change. Understanding the impact of race, class, gender, and other group memberships on our students’ lives will make us more effective teachers. Education that is multicultural pro- vides an environment that values diversity and portrays it positively. Students are valued regardless of their gender, sexual orientation, race, ethnicity, native language, religion, socio- economic status, or disability. We should have high expectations for all of our students and both encourage and support them in meeting their educational and vocational potential. To deliver multicultural education, we must develop instructional strategies that build on the cultures of our students and their communities. We must make the curriculum authentic and meaningful to students to engage them in learning. Making the curriculum multicultural helps students and teachers think critically about institutional racism, classism, sexism, ablism, age- ism, and heterosexism.

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Preface xvii

About the tenth edition

Students in undergraduate, graduate, and in-service courses will find this text helpful in examining social and cultural conditions that impact education. It provides the foundation for understanding diversity and using this knowledge effectively in classrooms and schools to help students learn. Other social services professionals will find it helpful in understanding the complexity of cultural backgrounds and experiences as they work with families and children.

As in previous editions, we approach multicultural education with a broad perspective of the concept. Using culture as the basis for understanding multicultural education, we discuss the cultural groups to which we belong and the impact those group memberships have on us and how we are treated in society and in schools.

We also emphasize the importance of an equitable education for all students. Educators should both be aware of and confront racism, sexism, classism, heterosexism, and discrimi- nation based on abilities, age, religion, and geography. Schools can eradicate discrimination in their own policies and practices if educators are willing to confront and eliminate their own racism, sexism, and other biases. To rid our schools of such practices takes a committed and strong faculty. The tenth edition helps readers develop the habit of self-ref lection that will help them become more effective teachers in classrooms that provide equity for all students.

Multicultural Education in a Pluralistic Society provides an overview of the different cultural groups to which students belong. The first chapter examines the pervasive inf luence of culture, the importance of understanding our own and our students’ cultural backgrounds and experi- ences, and the evolution of multicultural education. The next nine chapters examine ethnicity and race, socioeconomic status, gender, sexual orientation, exceptionality, language, religion, geography (that is, the places we live), and age. The final chapter contains recommendations for using culturally responsive and social justice pedagogies in the implementation of education that is multicultural. The chapters in this edition have been revised and reorganized to ref lect current thinking and research in the area. In particular, the first chapter provides the founda- tional framework that supports our thinking about multicultural education. The final chapter integrates critical pedagogy with research on teaching effectively. Each chapter opens with a scenario to place the topic in an educational setting.

We have tried to present different perspectives on a number of issues in the most unbiased manner possible. We are not without strong opinions or passion on some of the issues. How- ever, in our effort to be equitable, we attempt to present different perspectives on the issues and allow the reader to make his or her own decisions. There are some issues related to racism, sexism, ableism, and so on, that are so important to the well-being of society that we do provide our positions, which we recognize to be our biases.

Readers should be aware of several caveats related to the language used in this text. Although we realize that the term American is commonly used to refer to the U.S. popula- tion, we view American as including other North and South Americans as well. Therefore, we have tried to limit the use of this term when referring to the United States. Although we have tried to use the terms black and white sparingly, data about groups often have been categorized by the racial identification, rather than by national origin such as African or European American. In many cases, we were not able to distinguish ethnic identity and have continued to use black, white, or persons of color. We have limited our use of the term minority and have focused more on the power relationships that exist between groups. We use His- panic and Latino interchangeably to refer to persons with Spanish-speaking heritages who have emigrated from countries as diverse as Mexico, Cuba, Argentina, Puerto Rico, Belize, and Colombia.

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xviii Preface

Features in the Tenth Edition

Each chapter includes the following features that illustrate how concepts and events play out in a classroom or school.

Chapter-Opening Classroom Scenarios Each chapter opens with a class- room scenario to place the chap- ter content in an educational setting. Questions at the end of each scenario encourage readers to think about the scenario and ref lect on the decisions they would make.

Critical Incidents in Teaching This feature presents both real-life and hypothetical situations that occur in schools or classrooms, providing read- ers with the opportunity to examine their feelings, attitudes, and possible actions or reactions to each scenario.

Socioeconomic Status 61

better in 1973 than in 1940. Beginning in 1973, however, the cost of living (i.e., the cost of housing, utilities, food, and other essentials) began to increase faster than incomes. Except for the wealthy, all families felt the financial pressure. No longer did they have extra income to purchase nonessentials. No longer was one full-time worker in a family enough to maintain a reasonable standard of living. The 1990s saw another upswing in the economy that resulted in an annual median family income of $68,9311 in 2007. Following the 2008 recession, the median income of a family dropped to $63,152; it had rebounded only to $63,815 by 2013. When both husband and wife worked, the median income of the family increased to $94,299 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2014m).

Income sets limits on the general lifestyle of a family, as well as on their general welfare. It controls the consumption patterns of a family—the amount and quality of material posses- sions, consumer goods, and luxuries—and it influences savings, housing, and diet. It deter- mines whether families are able to afford college educations or new cars. Most low-income and middle-income families are barely able to cover their expenses from one paycheck to the next. If they lose their source of income, they could be homeless within a few months. Higher incomes provide security for families so that they will not need to worry about paying for the essentials and will have access to health care and retirement benefits.

Wealth Although the difference in income among families is great, an examination of income alone does not reveal the vast differences in the way families live. Income figures show the amount of money earned by a family for their labors during one year, but the figures do not include money earned from investments, land, and other holdings. They do not present the net worth of a family after they have paid all of their debts. The wealth of a family includes savings accounts, insurance, corporate stock ownership, and property. Wealth provides a partial guar- antee of future income and has the potential of producing additional income and wealth. However, for most families, the majority of their wealth comes from the equity value of their

1All of the family income numbers in this paragraph are reported as equivalent to 2013 dollars.

Critical Incidents in Teaching

impact of Socioeconomic Status on School events The middle school in a rural community of 9,000 residents has four school-sponsored dances each year. At the Valentine’s Day dance, a coat-and-tie affair, six eighth-grade boys showed up in rented tuxedos. They had planned this together, and their parents, who were among the more affluent in the community, thought it would be “cute” and paid for the rentals. The final dance of the year is scheduled for May, and it too is a coat-and-tie dance. This time, rumors are circulating around school that “everyone” is renting a tux and that the girls are getting new formal dresses. The parents of the six boys are, according to the grapevine, renting a limousine for their sons and their dates. These behaviors and dress standards are far in excess of anything previously observed at the middle school.

Several students, particularly those from lower-income backgrounds, have said they will boycott the dance. They cannot afford the expensive attire, and they claim that the ones behind the dress-up movement have said that only the nerds or geeks would show up in anything less than a tux or a formal gown.

QueStiOnS fOr CLaSSrOOm DiSCuSSiOn

1. How can schools ensure that the cost of attending school affairs is not prohibitive for some of their students? 2. Should school administrators intervene in the plans being made by the more advantaged students? What

could they do to control the situation? 3. Why could the actions of these advantaged students be disruptive to the school climate?

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26

Race and Ethnicity LEaRning OutcOmEs As you read this chapter, you should be able to:

2.1 Identify patterns of immigration and immigration policy and their impact on the education of children of foreign-born families.

2.2 Explain how educational practices support or eliminate ethnic differences among students.

2.3 Analyze the impact that the nation’s growing racial diversity will have on schools and students.

2.4 Describe the impact of the civil rights movement on education.

2.5 Evaluate the results of continuing racial and ethnic discrimination on communities and students.

2.6 Develop strategies for affirming race and ethnicity in the classroom.

Denise Williams was aware of the racial tension in the high school in which she teaches. At the last faculty meeting, the focus of the discussion was on developing more positive interethnic and interracial relations among students. A committee had been created to identify consultants and other resources to guide teachers in this effort.

Ms. Williams, however, thought that neither she nor her students could wait months to receive a report and recommendations from the committee. She was ready to introduce the civil rights movement in her social studies class. It seemed a perfect time to promote better cross-cultural communications. She decided to introduce this unit with a current event. She asked students to read selected articles and videos of events in Ferguson, Missouri, in the summer and fall of 2014, after Michael Brown had been shot by a police officer.

She soon learned that this topic was not an easy one to handle. African American students expressed their anger at the discriminatory practices in the school and the community. Most of the white students did not believe that there was any discrimination. They did not understand the anger of the African American and Latino students. Ms. Williams thought the class was getting nowhere. In fact, at times the anger on both sides was so intense that she worried a physical fight would erupt. She was frustrated because the class discussions and activities were not helping students understand the reasons for their different perspectives about the same event. She felt she was making no progress at addressing stereotypes and prejudices that students held about each other. She was concerned that students were becoming more polarized in their

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Immigration 27

beliefs. She wondered whether she could do anything in her class to improve understanding, empathy, and communications across groups.

REfLEctiOns

1. What racial groups are most likely to see themselves represented in the school curriculum? 2. How can a classroom reflect the diversity of its students so that they all feel valued and

respected? 3. What were the positive and negative outcomes of the steps taken by Ms. Williams to introduce

the civil rights movement?

immigration

As people from all over the world joined American Indians in populating this nation, they brought with them cultural experiences from their native countries. Just because individuals have the same national origins, however, does not mean that they have the same history and experi- ences as other people who have emigrated from the same country. The time of immigration, the places in which groups settled, the reasons for emigrating, their socioeconomic status, and the degree to which their families have been affected by racism and discrimination affect their immigration experiences and acceptance in the United States. You will see these differences in schools as students whose families have been in the United States for several generations do not always warmly welcome new immigrant students.

Most groups have immigrated to the United States voluntarily to seek freedoms not avail- able in their native countries at the time, to escape dismal economic or political conditions, or to join family members already settled in the United States. However, not all people and groups voluntarily immigrate. The ancestors of most African Americans arrived involuntarily on slave ships. Mexicans living in the southwestern part of the country became residents when the United States annexed their lands. The reasons for immigration and the way immigrants were treated after they arrived have had a lasting impact on each group’s assimilation patterns and access to society’s resources.

a Brief History of immigration in the united states The United States was populated by hundreds of American Indian tribes when explorers from other nations arrived on its shores. Early European leaders were convinced that they needed to convert First Americans to Christianity, teach them English, and have them adopt European culture. With the continuing arrival of the European settlers, federal policies led to government takeovers of the land of the indigenous population, who fought against the privatization and selling of their lands. The Indian Removal Act of 1830 led to the forcible removal of First Americans in the Cherokee, Muscogee, Seminole, Chickasaw, and Choctaw nations from their homes in southeastern states in the Trail of Tears that moved them to reservations in the Oklahoma Territory. As many as 1 in 3 of the First Americans who were removed from their homes died on the way to the western territories. In addition, this separation led to a pattern of isolation and inequity that remains for many First Americans today.

By 1879, children on reservations were being removed from their homes and placed in boarding schools to unlearn their traditional ways and languages of their families. The hair of these children was cut, and they were not allowed to use their native languages. They some- times attended school part of the day and worked the other part of the day to support the school. A number of reports in the 1920s chronicled the abuse of these children, who were schooled many miles and sometimes many states away from their families. Although the goal

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Preface xix

Focus Your Cultural Lens: Debate This feature presents a controversial school issue with for and against statements for readers to consider. Questions guide readers to critically analyze both sides of the issue and encourage them to take a side.

232 chapter 9 Geography

are congruent with the home cultures of students. Parents can learn to support their children’s learning at home but may need concrete suggestions, which they will seek from teachers who they believe care about their children.

Educators must know the community to understand the cultures of families. In a school in which a prayer is said every morning, regardless of the Supreme Court’s decision forbidding prayer in public schools, a new teacher in that setting should realize that teaching evolution would need to be done with great care and even then might have some negative consequences. In that school setting, one may not be able to teach sex education in the same way it is taught in many urban and suburban schools. In another school, Islamic parents may be upset with the attire that their daughters are expected to wear in physical education classes and may not approve of coed physical education courses. Jewish and Muslim students often wonder why the school celebrates or at least acknowledges Christian holidays but never their religious holidays.

Because members of the community may object to the content and activities in the cur- riculum does not mean that educators cannot teach multiculturally. It does suggest that they