Pericles lewis's cambridge introduction to modernism

Modernism From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Modernism is a philosophical movement that, along with cultural trends and changes, arose from wide-scale and far-reaching transformations in Western society during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Among the factors that shaped modernism were the development of modern industrial societies and the rapid growth of cities, followed then by reactions of horror to World War I. Modernism also rejected the certainty of Enlightenment thinking, and many modernists rejected religious belief.[2][3]

Modernism, in general, includes the activities and creations of those who felt the traditional forms of art, architecture, literature, religious faith, philosophy, social organization, activities of daily life, and even the sciences, were becoming ill-fitted to their tasks and outdated in the new economic, social, and political environment of an emerging fully industrialized world. The poet Ezra Pound's 1934 injunction to "Make it new!" was the touchstone of the movement's approach towards what it saw as the now obsolete culture of the past. In this spirit, its innovations, like the stream-of-consciousness novel, atonal (or pantonal) and twelve-tone music, divisionist painting and abstract art, all had precursors in the 19th century.

A notable characteristic of modernism is self-consciousness and irony concerning literary and social traditions, which often led to experiments with form, along with the use of techniques that drew attention to the processes and materials used in creating a painting, poem, building, etc.[4] Modernism explicitly rejected the ideology of realism[5][6][7] and makes use of the works of the past by the employment of reprise, incorporation, rewriting, recapitulation, revision and parody.[8][9][10]

Some commentators define modernism as a mode of thinking—one or more philosophically defined characteristics, like self-consciousness or self-reference, that run across all the novelties in the arts and the disciplines.[11] More common, especially in the West, are those who see it as a socially progressive trend of thought that affirms the power of human beings to create, improve and reshape their environment with the aid of practical experimentation, scientific knowledge, or technology.[12] From this perspective, modernism encouraged the re-examination of every aspect of existence, from commerce to philosophy, with the goal of finding that which was 'holding back' progress, and replacing it with new ways of reaching the same end. Others focus on modernism as an aesthetic introspection. This facilitates consideration of specific reactions to the use of technology in the First World War, and anti-technological and nihilistic aspects of the works of diverse thinkers and artists spanning the period from Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900) to Samuel Beckett (1906–1989).[13][14][15][16][17]

Contents

1 History 1.1 Beginnings: the 19th century

1.1.1 The beginnings of modernism in France 1.2 Explosion, early 20th century to 1930 1.3 Modernism continues: 1930–1945

2 After World War II (mainly the visual and performing arts)

Hans Hofmann, The Gate, 1959–60, Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum. Hofmann was renowned not only as an artist but also as a teacher of art and a modernist theorist both in his native Germany and later in the U.S. During the 1930s in New York and California he introduced Modernism and modernist theories to a new generation of American artists. Through his teaching and his lectures at his art schools in Greenwich Village and Provincetown, Massachusetts, he widened the scope of Modernism in the United States.[1]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_world
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_society
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ezra_Pound
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stream_of_consciousness_(narrative_mode)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atonal
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twelve-tone
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divisionist
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_art
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realism_(arts)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reprise
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incorporation_(linguistics)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recapitulation_(music)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parody
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progress_(history)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Beckett
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hans_Hofmann%27s_painting_%27The_Gate%27,_1959%E2%80%9360.jpg
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Hofmann
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solomon_R._Guggenheim_Museum
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenwich_Village
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provincetown,_Massachusetts
2.1 Introduction 2.2 Theatre of the Absurd 2.3 Pollock and abstract influences 2.4 International figures from British art 2.5 In the 1960s after abstract expressionism 2.6 Pop art 2.7 Minimalism

2.7.1 Postminimalism 2.7.2 Collage, assemblage, installations 2.7.3 Neo-Dada 2.7.4 Performance and happenings 2.7.5 Intermedia, multi-media 2.7.6 Fluxus

2.8 Late period 2.9 Differences between modernism and postmodernism 2.10 Criticism and hostility to modernism

3 See also 4 Notes 5 References 6 Further reading 7 External links

History

Beginnings: the 19th century

According to one critic, modernism developed out of Romanticism's revolt against the effects of the Industrial Revolution and bourgeois values: "The ground motive of modernism, Graff asserts, was criticism of the nineteenth-century bourgeois social order and its world view [...] the modernists, carrying the torch of romanticism."[5][6][7] While J. M. W. Turner (1775–1851), one of the greatest landscape painters of the 19th century, was a member of the Romantic movement, as "a pioneer in the study of light, colour, and atmosphere", he "anticipated the French Impressionists" and therefore modernism "in breaking down conventional formulas of representation; [though] unlike them, he believed that his works should always express significant historical, mythological, literary, or other narrative themes."[18]

The dominant trends of industrial Victorian England were opposed, from about 1850, by the English poets and painters that constituted the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, because of their "opposition to technical skill without inspiration."[19]:815 They were influenced by the writings of the art critic John Ruskin (1819–1900), who had strong feelings about the role of art in helping to improve the lives of the urban working classes, in the rapidly expanding industrial cities of Britain.[19]:816 Art critic Clement Greenberg describes the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood as proto-Modernists: "There the proto-Modernists were, of all people, the pre-Raphaelites (and even before them, as proto-proto-Modernists, the German Nazarenes). The Pre-Raphaelites actually foreshadowed Manet (1832–83), with whom Modernist painting most definitely begins. They acted on a dissatisfaction with painting as practiced in their time, holding that its realism wasn't truthful enough."[20] Rationalism has also had opponents in the philosophers Søren Kierkegaard (1813–55)[21]

and later Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900), both of whom had significant influence on existentialism.[22]:120

However, the Industrial Revolution continued. Influential innovations included steam-powered industrialization, and especially the development of railways, starting in Britain in the 1830s,[23] and the subsequent advancements in physics, engineering, and architecture associated with this. A major 19th-century

Eugène Delacroix's Liberty Leading the People, 1830, a Romantic work of art

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_Revolution
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bourgeois
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerald_Graff
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._M._W._Turner
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantic_movement
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Impressionists
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victorian_England
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Raphaelite_Brotherhood
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ruskin
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clement_Greenberg
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazarene_movement
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manet
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationalism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existentialism
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberty_Leading_the_People
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism
engineering achievement was The Crystal Palace, the huge cast-iron and plate glass exhibition hall built for The Great Exhibition of 1851 in London. Glass and iron were used in a similar monumental style in the construction of major railway terminals in London, such as Paddington Station (1854)[24] and King's Cross station (1852).[25] These technological advances led to the building of later structures like the Brooklyn Bridge (1883) and the Eiffel Tower (1889). The latter broke all previous limitations on how tall man-made objects could be. These engineering marvels radically altered the 19th-century urban environment and the daily lives of people. The human experience of time itself was altered, with the development of the electric telegraph from 1837,[26] and the adoption of standard time by British railway companies from 1845, and in the rest of the world over the next fifty years.[27]

But despite continuing technological advances, from the 1870s onward, the idea that history and civilization were inherently progressive, and that progress was always good, came under increasing attack. Arguments arose

that the values of the artist and those of society were not merely different, but that Society was antithetical to Progress, and could not move forward in its present form. The philosopher Schopenhauer (1788–1860) (The World as Will and Representation, 1819) called into question the previous optimism, and his ideas had an important influence on later thinkers, including Nietzsche.[21] Two of the most significant thinkers of the period were biologist Charles Darwin (1809–82), author of On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection (1859), and political scientist Karl Marx (1818–83), author of Das Kapital (1867). Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection undermined religious certainty and the idea of human uniqueness. In particular, the notion that human beings were driven by the same impulses as "lower animals" proved to be difficult to reconcile with the idea of an ennobling spirituality.[28] Karl Marx argued that there were fundamental contradictions within the capitalist system, and that the workers were anything but free.[29]

The beginnings of modernism in France

Historians, and writers in different disciplines, have suggested various dates as starting points for modernism. Historian William Everdell, for example, has argued that modernism began in the 1870s, when metaphorical (or ontological) continuity began to yield to the discrete with mathematician Richard Dedekind's (1831–1916) Dedekind cut, and Ludwig Boltzmann's (1844–1906) statistical thermodynamics.[11] Everdell also thinks modernism in painting began in 1885–86 with Seurat's Divisionism, the "dots" used to paint A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte. On the other hand, visual art critic Clement Greenberg called Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) "the first real Modernist",[30] though he also wrote, "What can be safely called Modernism emerged in the middle of the last century—and rather locally, in France, with Baudelaire in literature and Manet in painting, and perhaps with Flaubert, too, in prose fiction. (It was a while later, and not so locally, that Modernism appeared in music and architecture)."[20] The poet Baudelaire's Les Fleurs du mal (The Flowers of Evil), and Flaubert's novel Madame Bovary were both published in 1857.

In the arts and letters, two important approaches developed separately in France. The first was Impressionism, a school of painting that initially focused on work done, not in studios, but outdoors (en plein air). Impressionist paintings demonstrated that human beings do not see objects, but instead see light itself. The school gathered adherents despite internal divisions among its leading practitioners, and became increasingly influential. Initially rejected from the most important commercial show of the time, the government-sponsored Paris Salon, the Impressionists organized yearly group exhibitions in commercial venues during the 1870s and 1880s,

A Realist portrait of Otto von Bismarck

Odilon Redon, Guardian Spirit of the Waters, 1878, charcoal on paper, Art Institute of Chicago

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eiffel_Tower
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telegraph
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schopenhauer
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_World_as_Will_and_Representation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Darwin
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Marx
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Das_Kapital
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_selection
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capitalist
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Everdell
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontological
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Dedekind
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dedekind_cut
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Boltzmann
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_thermodynamics
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seurat
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divisionism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Sunday_Afternoon_on_the_Island_of_La_Grande_Jatte
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clement_Greenberg
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Baudelaire
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89douard_Manet
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustave_Flaubert
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernism_(music)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_architecture
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Les_Fleurs_du_mal
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madame_Bovary
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impressionism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/En_plein_air
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris_Salon
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Franz_von_Lenbach_Bismarck.jpg
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realism_(arts)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Redon_spirit-waters.jpg
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odilon_Redon
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_Institute_of_Chicago
timing them to coincide with the official Salon. A significant event of 1863 was the Salon des Refusés, created by Emperor Napoleon III to display all of the paintings rejected by the Paris Salon. While most were in standard styles, but by inferior artists, the work of Manet attracted tremendous attention, and opened commercial doors to the movement. The second French school was Symbolism, which literary historians see beginning with Charles Baudelaire (1821–67), and including the later poets, Arthur Rimbaud (1854–91) Une Saison en Enfer (A Season in Hell, 1873), Paul Verlaine (1844–96), Stéphane Mallarmé (1842–98), and Paul Valéry (1871–1945). The symbolists "stressed the priority of suggestion and evocation over direct description and explicit analogy," and were especially interested in "the musical properties of language."[31] Cabaret, which gave birth to so many of the arts of modernism, including the immediate precursors of film, may be said to have begun in France in 1881 with the opening of the Black Cat in Montmartre, the beginning of the ironic monologue, and the founding of the Society of Incoherent Arts.[32]

Influential in the early days of modernism were the theories of Sigmund Freud (1856–1939). Freud's first major work was Studies on Hysteria (with Josef Breuer, 1895). Central to Freud's thinking is the idea "of the primacy of the unconscious mind in mental life," so that all subjective reality was based on the play of basic drives and instincts, through which the outside world was perceived. Freud's description of subjective

states involved an unconscious mind full of primal impulses, and counterbalancing self-imposed restrictions derived from social values.[19]:538

Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900) was another major precursor of modernism,[33] with a philosophy in which psychological drives, specifically the "will to power" (Wille zur Macht), was of central importance: "Nietzsche often identified life itself with 'will to power', that is, with an instinct for growth and durability."[34][35] Henri Bergson (1859–1941), on the other hand, emphasized the difference between scientific, clock time and the direct, subjective, human experience of time.[22]:131 His work on time and consciousness "had a great influence on twentieth-century novelists," especially those Modernists who used the stream of consciousness technique, such as Dorothy Richardson, James Joyce, and Virginia Woolf (1882–1941).[36] Also important in Bergson's philosophy was the idea of élan vital, the life force, which "brings about the creative evolution of everything."[22]:132 His philosophy also placed a high value on intuition, though without rejecting the importance of the intellect.[22]:132

Important literary precursors of modernism were Fyodor Dostoyevsky (1821–81), who wrote the novels Crime and Punishment (1866) and The Brothers Karamazov (1880);[37] Walt Whitman (1819–92), who published the poetry collection Leaves of Grass (1855–91); and August Strindberg (1849–1912), especially his later plays, including the trilogy To Damascus 1898–1901, A Dream Play (1902) and The Ghost Sonata (1907). Henry James has also been suggested as a significant precursor, in a work as early as The Portrait of a Lady (1881).[38]

Out of the collision of ideals derived from Romanticism, and an attempt to find a way for knowledge to explain that which was as yet unknown, came the first wave of works in the first decade of the 20th century, which, while their authors considered them extensions of existing trends in art, broke the implicit contract with the general public that artists were the interpreters and representatives of bourgeois culture and ideas. These "Modernist" landmarks include the atonal ending of Arnold Schoenberg's Second String Quartet in 1908, the expressionist paintings of Wassily Kandinsky starting in 1903, and culminating with his first abstract painting

Henri Matisse, Le bonheur de vivre, 1905-6, Barnes Foundation, Merion, PA. An early Fauvist masterpiece.

Pablo Picasso, Les Demoiselles d'Avignon (1907). Picasso is considered to have re-invented the art of painting. Many of his friends and colleagues, even fellow painters Henri Matisse and Georges Braque, were upset when they saw this painting.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Rimbaud
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Verlaine
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%C3%A9phane_Mallarm%C3%A9
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Val%C3%A9ry
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabaret
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Chat_Noir
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montmartre
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmund_Freud
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Studies_on_Hysteria
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josef_Breuer
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Will_to_power
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Bergson
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stream_of_consciousness_(narrative_mode)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorothy_Richardson
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Joyce
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virginia_Woolf
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intuition
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fyodor_Dostoyevsky
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crime_and_Punishment
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Brothers_Karamazov
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walt_Whitman
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leaves_of_Grass
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_Strindberg
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_James
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Portrait_of_a_Lady
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atonality
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arnold_Schoenberg
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_quartets_(Schoenberg)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expressionism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wassily_Kandinsky
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Matisse
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merion,_PA
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pablo_Picasso
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Les_Demoiselles_d%27Avignon
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Braque
and the founding of the Blue Rider group in Munich in 1911, and the rise of fauvism and the inventions of cubism from the studios of Henri Matisse, Pablo Picasso, Georges Braque, and others, in the years between 1900 and 1910.

Explosion, early 20th century to 1930

An important aspect of modernism is how it relates to tradition through its adoption of techniques like reprise, incorporation, rewriting, recapitulation, revision and parody in new forms.[8][9]

T. S. Eliot made significant comments on the relation of the artist to tradition, including: "[W]e shall often find that not only the best, but the most individual parts of [a poet's] work, may be those in which the dead poets, his ancestors, assert their immortality most vigorously."[39] However, the relationship of Modernism with tradition was complex, as literary scholar Peter Childs indicates: "There were paradoxical if not opposed trends towards revolutionary and reactionary positions, fear of the new and delight at the disappearance of

the old, nihilism and fanatical enthusiasm, creativity and despair."[10]

An example of how Modernist art can be both revolutionary and yet be related to past tradition, is the music of the composer Arnold Schoenberg. On the one hand Schoenberg rejected traditional tonal harmony, the hierarchical system of organizing works of music that had guided music making for at least a century and a half. He believed he had discovered a wholly new way of organizing sound, based in the use of twelve-note rows. Yet while this was indeed wholly new, its origins can be traced back in the work of earlier composers, such as Franz Liszt,[40] Richard Wagner, Gustav Mahler, Richard Strauss and Max Reger.[41][42] Furthermore, it must be noted that Schoenberg also wrote tonal music throughout his career.

In the world of art, in the first decade of the 20th century, young painters such as Pablo Picasso and Henri Matisse were causing a shock with their rejection of traditional perspective as the means of structuring paintings,[43][44] though the impressionist Monet had already been innovative in his use of perspective.[45] In 1907, as Picasso was painting Les Demoiselles d'Avignon, Oskar Kokoschka was writing Mörder, Hoffnung der Frauen (Murderer, Hope of Women), the first Expressionist play (produced with scandal in 1909), and Arnold Schoenberg was composing his String Quartet No.2 in F sharp minor (1908), his first composition without a tonal centre.

A primary influence that led to Cubism was the representation of three-dimensional form in the late works of Paul Cézanne, which were displayed in a retrospective at the 1907 Salon d'Automne.[46] In Cubist artwork, objects are analyzed, broken up and reassembled in an abstracted form; instead of depicting objects from one viewpoint, the artist depicts the subject from a multitude of viewpoints to represent the subject in a greater context.[47] Cubism was brought to the attention of the general public for the first time in 1911 at the Salon des

Pablo Picasso, Portrait of Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler, 1910, Art Institute of Chicago

Piet Mondrian, View from the Dunes with Beach and Piers, Domburg, 1909, oil and pencil on cardboard, Museum of Modern Art, New York City

The Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía (MNCARS) is Spain's national museum of 20th-century art, located in Madrid. The photo shows the old building with the addition of one of the contemporary glass towers to the exterior by Ian Ritchie Architects with the closeup of the modern art tower.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustav_Mahler
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Indépendants in Paris (held 21 April – 13 June). Jean Metzinger, Albert Gleizes, Henri Le Fauconnier, Robert Delaunay, Fernand Léger and Roger de La Fresnaye were shown together in Room 41, provoking a 'scandal' out of which Cubism emerged and spread throughout Paris and beyond. Also in 1911, Kandinsky painted Bild mit Kreis (Picture with a Circle), which he later called the first abstract painting.[48]:167 In 1912, Metzinger and Gleizes wrote the first (and only) major Cubist manifesto, Du "Cubisme", published in time for the Salon de la Section d'Or, the largest Cubist exhibition to date. In 1912 Metzinger painted and exhibited his enchanting La Femme au Cheval (Woman with a Horse) and Danseuse au Café (Dancer in a Café). Albert Gleizes painted and exhibited his Les Baigneuses (The Bathers) and his monumental Le Dépiquage des Moissons (Harvest Threshing). This work, along with La Ville de Paris (City of Paris) by Robert Delaunay, was the largest and most ambitious Cubist painting undertaken during the pre-War Cubist period.[49]

In 1905, a group of four German artists, led by Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, formed Die Brücke (the Bridge) in the city of Dresden. This was arguably the founding organization for the German Expressionist movement, though they did not use the word itself. A few years later, in 1911, a like-minded group of young artists formed Der Blaue Reiter (The Blue Rider) in Munich. The name came from Wassily Kandinsky's Der Blaue Reiter painting of 1903. Among their members were Kandinsky, Franz Marc, Paul Klee, and August Macke. However, the term "Expressionism" did not firmly establish itself until 1913.[48]:274 Though initially mainly a German artistic movement,[50] most predominant in painting, poetry and the theatre between 1910 and 1930, most precursors of the movement were not German. Furthermore, there have been expressionist writers of prose fiction, as well as non-German speaking expressionist writers, and, while the movement had declined in Germany with the rise of Adolf Hitler in the 1930s, there were subsequent expressionist works.

Expressionism is notoriously difficult to define, in part because it "overlapped with other major 'isms' of the modernist period: with Futurism, Vorticism, Cubism, Surrealism and Dada."[51] Richard Murphy also comments: "the search for an all-inclusive definition is problematic to the extent that the most challenging expressionists" such as the novelist Franz Kafka, poet Gottfried Benn, and novelist Alfred Döblin were simultaneously the most vociferous anti- expressionists.[52]:43 What, however, can be said, is that it was a movement that developed in the early 20th century mainly in Germany in reaction to the dehumanizing effect of industrialization and the growth of cities, and that "one of the central means by which expressionism identifies itself as an avant-garde movement, and by which it marks its distance to traditions and the cultural institution as a whole is through its relationship to realism and the dominant conventions of representation."[52]:43 More explicitly: that the expressionists rejected the ideology of realism.[52]:43–48 [53]

There was a concentrated Expressionist movement in early 20th century German theatre, of which Georg Kaiser and Ernst Toller were the most famous playwrights. Other notable Expressionist dramatists included Reinhard Sorge, Walter Hasenclever, Hans Henny Jahnn, and Arnolt Bronnen. They looked back to Swedish playwright August Strindberg and German actor and dramatist Frank Wedekind as precursors of their dramaturgical experiments. Oskar Kokoschka's Murderer, the Hope of Women was the first fully Expressionist work for the theatre, which opened on 4 July 1909 in Vienna.[54] The extreme simplification of characters to mythic types, choral effects, declamatory dialogue and heightened intensity would become characteristic of later Expressionist plays. The first full-length Expressionist play was The Son by Walter Hasenclever, which was published in 1914 and first performed in 1916.[55]

Futurism is yet another modernist movement. In 1909, the Parisian newspaper Le Figaro published F. T. Marinetti's first manifesto. Soon afterwards a group of painters (Giacomo Balla, Umberto Boccioni, Carlo Carrà, Luigi Russolo, and Gino Severini) co-signed the Futurist Manifesto. Modeled on Marx and Engels' famous "Communist Manifesto" (1848), such manifestoes put forward ideas that were meant to provoke and to gather followers. However, arguments in favor of geometric or purely abstract painting were, at this time, largely confined to "little magazines" which had only tiny circulations. Modernist primitivism and pessimism

Portrait of Eduard Kosmack by Egon Schiele

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9_des_Artistes_Ind%C3%A9pendants
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Metzinger
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Gleizes
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Le_Fauconnier
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Delaunay
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fernand_L%C3%A9ger
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_de_La_Fresnaye
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wassily_Kandinsky
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Du_%22Cubisme%22
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Section_d%27Or
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Femme_au_Cheval
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dancer_in_a_Caf%C3%A9
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Les_Baigneuses_(Gleizes)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvest_Threshing
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Delaunay
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Ludwig_Kirchner
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Die_Br%C3%BCcke
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dresden
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Expressionist
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Der_Blaue_Reiter
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wassily_Kandinsky
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz_Marc
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Klee
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_Macke
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolf_Hitler
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Futurism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vorticism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surrealism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dada
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz_Kafka
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Benn
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_D%C3%B6blin
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avant-garde
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realism_(arts)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Kaiser
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Toller
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinhard_Sorge
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Hasenclever
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Henny_Jahnn
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arnolt_Bronnen
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_Strindberg
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Wedekind
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dramaturgy
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oskar_Kokoschka
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murderer,_the_Hope_of_Women
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archetype
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Son_(play)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Futurism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Figaro
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filippo_Tommaso_Marinetti
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giacomo_Balla
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umberto_Boccioni
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlo_Carr%C3%A0
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luigi_Russolo
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gino_Severini
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Futurist_Manifesto
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Marx
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Engels
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist_Manifesto
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Egon_Schiele_061.jpg
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egon_Schiele
were controversial, and the mainstream in the first decade of the 20th century was still inclined towards a faith in progress and liberal optimism.

Abstract artists, taking as their examples the impressionists, as well as Paul Cézanne (1839–1906) and Edvard Munch (1863–1944), began with the assumption that color and shape, not the depiction of the natural world, formed the essential characteristics of art.[57] Western art had been, from the Renaissance up to the middle of the 19th century, underpinned by the logic of perspective and an attempt to reproduce an illusion of visible reality. The arts of cultures other than the European had become accessible and showed alternative ways of describing visual experience to the artist. By the end of the 19th century many artists felt a need to create a new kind of art which would encompass the fundamental changes taking place in technology, science and philosophy. The sources from which individual artists drew their theoretical arguments were diverse, and reflected the social and intellectual preoccupations in all areas of Western culture at that time.[58] Wassily Kandinsky, Piet Mondrian, and Kazimir Malevich all believed in redefining art as the arrangement of pure color. The use of photography, which had rendered much of the representational function of visual art obsolete, strongly affected this aspect of modernism.[59]

Modernist architects and designers, such as Frank Lloyd Wright and Le Corbusier, believed that new technology rendered old styles of building obsolete. Le Corbusier thought that buildings should function as "machines for living in", analogous to cars, which he saw as machines for traveling in.[60] Just as cars had replaced the horse, so modernist design should reject the old styles and structures inherited from Ancient Greece or from the Middle Ages. Following this machine aesthetic, modernist designers typically rejected decorative motifs in design, preferring to emphasize the materials used and pure geometrical forms.[61] The skyscraper is the archetypal modernist building, and the Wainwright Building, a 10-story office building built 1890-91, in St. Louis, Missouri, United States, is among the first skyscrapers in the world.[62] Ludwig Mies van der Rohe's Seagram Building in New York (1956–1958) is often regarded as the pinnacle of this modernist high- rise architecture.[63] Many aspects of modernist design still persist within the mainstream of contemporary architecture, though previous dogmatism has given way to a more playful use of decoration, historical quotation, and spatial drama.

In 1913—which was the year of philosopher Edmund Husserl's Ideas, physicist Niels Bohr's quantized atom, Ezra Pound's founding of imagism, the Armory Show in New York, and in Saint Petersburg the "first futurist opera", Mikhail Matyushin's Victory over the Sun— another Russian composer, Igor Stravinsky, composed The Rite of Spring, a ballet that depicts human sacrifice, and has a musical score

full of dissonance and primitive rhythm. This caused uproar on its first performance in Paris. At this time though modernism was still "progressive", increasingly it saw traditional forms and traditional social arrangements as hindering progress, and was recasting the artist as a revolutionary, engaged in overthrowing rather than enlightening society. Also in 1913 a less violent event occurred in France with the publication of the first volume of Marcel Proust's important novel sequence À la recherche du temps perdu (1913–1927) (In Search of Lost Time). This often presented as an early example of a writer using the stream-of-consciousness technique, but Robert Humphrey comments that Proust "is concerned only with the reminiscent aspect of