Worksheet 6.12 imperfect tense answer key

Psychology: The Human Puzzle

Guy R. Lefrançois University of Alberta

Guy R. Lefrançois Psychology: The Human Puzzle

Associate Vice President, Editor in Chief: Erik Evans

Sponsoring Editor: Steven Wainwright

Development Editor: Dan Moneypenny

Assistant Editor: Nick Devine

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Composition/Illustration: Lachina Publishing Services

Illustration: Maury Aaseng

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ISBN-10: 1-9359662-4-3

ISBN-13: 978-1-9359662-4-1

Copyright © 2011 Bridgepoint Education, Inc.

All rights reserved.

GRANT OF PERMISSION TO PRINT: Bridgepoint Education Inc., the copyright owner of this material, hereby grants the holder of this publication the right to print these materials for personal use. The holder of this material may print the materials herein for personal use only. Any print, reprint, reproduction, or distribution of these materials for commercial use without the express written consent of the copyright owner constitutes a violation of the U.S. Copyright Act, 17 U.S.C. §§ 101-810, as amended.

To Elizabeth, Liam, Zachary, Nathan, and Michael, who are still finding new pieces of the puzzle for me.

Brief Contents

Chapter 1: The Science of Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

Chapter 2: The Brain and Consciousness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31

Chapter 3: Sensation and Perception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65

Chapter 4: Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103

Chapter 5: Memory and Intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .135

Chapter 6: Motivation and Emotion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .169

Chapter 7: Human Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .207

Chapter 8: Personality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .247

Chapter 9: Psychological Disorders and Therapies . . . . . . .279

Chapter 10: Social Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .315

Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .349

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .373

Photo Credits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .409

Contents

About the Author xix Preface xxi Acknowledgments xxiii

chapter 1 The Science of Psychology 1

1.1 What Is Psychology? 3 What Psychologists Do 3

Clinical Psychologists 4 Counseling Psychologists 4 Industrial/Organizational Psychologists 4 School Psychologists 4 Educational Psychologists 5 Developmental Psychologists 5 Experimental Psychologists 5 Other Divisions 5

1.2 The Beginnings of Psychology 6 Recent Origins of Psychology 7

Structuralism 8 Functionalism 8 Behaviorism 8 Psychodynamic Theory 9 Cognitivism 9 Humanism 9 Other Orientations 10

1.3 Principles of Science 10 The Scientific Method 11

CONTENTS

1.4 Sources of Psychological Information 12 Descriptive Research 12

Naturalistic and Nonnaturalistic Observation 12 Case Studies 13 Surveys 14 Correlational Research 15

Experiments 17 Experimental and Control Groups 17

Ex Post Facto Studies 19 1.5 Cautions in Interpreting Psychological Research 20

Experimenter Bias 20 Subject Bias 22 Sampling Bias 22 Other Problems of Psychological Research 24

Research Ethics 24 Avoiding the Pitfalls 25

1.6 Philosophical Issues and Psychological Controversy 25

1.7 Psychology’s Relevance 26

1.8 This Book 27

Main Points 28 Study Terms 29

chapter 2 The Brain and Consciousness 31

2.1 Evolution 33 Early Homo Sapiens 33

Brains, Language, and Thinking 35 Evolution and the Nervous System 36

2.2 The Neuron 38 Neural Transmission 39

Dopamine 41 Norepinephrine 41 Acetylcholine 42 Serotonin 42

2.3 Organization of the Nervous System 42 The Endocrine System 44

2.4 The Brain 44 Studying Brain Functions 44

Brain Ablations 45 Brain Stimulation 45 Brain Imaging 46

CONTENTS

Structures of the Brain 46 Hindbrain 48 The Midbrain 49 The Forebrain 49 The Hemispheres 50

2.5 Biology and Behavior 51 Consciousness 53

2.6 Sleep 54 Circadian Rhythms 54 Stages of Sleep 54 Why We Sleep 56 Dreams 58

Why We Dream 58 2.7 Hypnosis 59

Some Facts 60 Is Hypnosis a Different State of Consciousness? 60 Applications of Hypnosis 61

2.8 Drugs and Consciousness 61

Main Points 62 Study Terms 63

chapter 3 Sensation and Perception 65

3.1 Sensation and Perception 67 Functions of the Senses 67

3.2 Vision 69 Structure of the Eye 69 Eye and Brain 71 Light Waves and Vision 72

Wavelength 73 Amplitude 74 Complexity and Color Purity 74

Color Vision 74 Trichromatic Theory: Young-Helmholtz 75 Opponent Process Theory: Hering 76

Vision in Low Light 76 Characteristics of Visual Perception 78

The Visual Constancies 78 Perception of Depth and Distance 81 Perception of Movement 84

Illusions 84

CONTENTS

3.3 Attention and Perception 86

3.4 Hearing 88 Three Functions of the Auditory System 88 Perception of Sound Waves 89

Pitch 89 Loudness 90 Timbre 91

The Auditory Apparatus 92 How the Ear Works 93

3.5 The Body Senses 94 The Vestibular Sense 94 The Skin Senses 94 The Kinesthetic Senses 96

3.6 The Chemical Senses 96 Olfaction 96

The Olfactory Organ 97 Taste 99

3.7 Adding Pieces of the Puzzle 99

Main Points 100 Study Terms 101

chapter 4 Learning 103

4.1 What Is Learning? 105 Approaches to Learning 105

4.2 Behavioristic Approaches 107 Classical Conditioning 107

Pavlov’s Experiments 107 Acquisition 109 Generalization and Discrimination 111 Extinction and Recovery 111 Contiguity 112 Blocking 112 Consequences 114

Operant Conditioning 114 The Skinner Box 114 The Basic Operant Conditioning Model 115 Shaping 116

Schedules of Reinforcement 117 Effects of Different Schedules 117 Types of Reinforcement 119

CONTENTS

Punishment 121 The Ethics of Punishment 121 Operant Conditioning and Human Behavior 122

4.3 A Transition to Cognitivism 123 Problems for Traditional Behaviorism 123 Insight 124

4.4 Cognitive Approaches 126 The Main Beliefs of Cognitive Psychology 127

Learning Involves Mental Representation 127 Learners Are Not Identical 127 New Learning Builds on Previous Learning 127

Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory 127 Models 128 Reciprocal Determinism 128 Effects of Imitation 130 Humans as Agents of Their Own Behaviors 130

4.5 Practical Applications of Learning Principles 131 Applications of Behaviorism 131 Applications of Cognitivism 132

Main Points 133 Study Terms 133

chapter 5 Memory and Intelligence 135

5.1 What Is Memory? 137 The Filing-Cabinet Analogy 138

5.2 Stages of Memory 138 Sensory Memory 139 Short-Term Memory 140

Studying Short-Term Memory 140 Characteristics of Short-Term Recall 140 What Happens in Short-Term Memory: Baddeley’s Model 141

Long-Term Memory 142 Long-Term Memory Is Relatively Stable 143 Long-Term Memory Is Constructive 144 Understanding and Emotion Influence Memory 144 Rehearsal and Intention Influence Long-Term Memory 145 Two Kinds of Long-Term Memory: Explicit and Implicit 145 Two Kinds of Explicit Memory: Semantic and Autobiographical 146

Physiology of Memory 147 Neuroscience 148

Processes in Long-Term Memory 149

CONTENTS

5.3 Forgetting 150 Fading Theory 150 Repression 150 Distortion Theory 151 Interference Theory 151 Retrieval-Cue Failure 152

5.4 Improving Memory 153 Mnemonic Aids 153

Rhymes and Sayings 154 The Link System 154 The Loci System 155 The Phonetic System 155

5.5 What Is Intelligence? 156 Myths about IQ 156

Myth 1 156 Myth 2 156 Myth 3 156 Myth 4 157 Not a Myth 157

Views of Intelligence 158 Successful Intelligence: Sternberg 158 Multiple Intelligences: Gardner 159

5.6 Measuring Intelligence 161 The IQ 161 IQ Tests 161 Misuses and Abuses of Tests 162

5.7 Influences on Intelligence 164 Heredity and Environment 164

The Rubber-Band Hypothesis 165 Main Points 166

Study Terms 167

chapter 6 Motivation and Emotion 169

6.1 What Is Motivation? 171 A Definition 171

6.2 Physiological and Behavioristic Approaches 171 Instincts 171 Psychological Hedonism 173 Needs and Drives 173

CONTENTS

Physiological Needs 173 Psychological Needs 174

6.3 Maslow’s Hierarchy 176

6.4 Cognitive Views 176 Cognitive Dissonance Theory 178 Achievement Motivation 180 Attribution Theory 181

Locus of Control 181 Attributions and Need for Achievement 182

Self-Efficacy 183 Sources of Self-Efficacy Judgments 184 Efficacy and Expectancy-Value Theory 185

6.5 Emotions 187 Arousal 187

The Yerkes-Dodson Law 187 Need for Stimulation 188 Arousal Theory 189 Sources of Arousal 190

What Is an Emotion? 190 Emotional Expression 191

Theories of Emotion 192 The James-Lange Theory 192 The Cannon-Bard Theory 192 Schachter’s Two-Factor Theory 193 Recent Theories 194 The Dual-Pathway Model for Fear 196

Emotional Control 196 The Brain and Emotions 197 Cognitive Control of Emotions 198

6.6 Hunger and Sex Drive 199 Hunger Stimuli 199

Stomach Contractions 199 The Role of the Brain 200 Taste and Smell 200 Metabolic Factors 201

Obesity 201 Anorexia, Bulimia, and Binge Eating Disorder 202

Causes 203 Sexual Motivation 203

Hormonal Factors 204 Cultural and Other Factors 204

Main Points 204 Study Terms 205

CONTENTS

chapter 7 Human Development 207

7.1 The Beginning: Genetics and Prenatal Development 209 Chromosomes and Genes 210

Male or Female 211 The Genetic Code 211 Dominance and Recessiveness 213

Genetic Defects 216 Sex-Linked Defects 216 Non-Sex-Linked Defects 216 Chromosomal Disorders 216 Modifying Genetic Defects 217

Heredity and Environment 218 Prenatal Development 218

7.2 Infants 219 Physical and Motor Development in Infancy 219 Perception in the Newborn 220 Cognitive Development in Infancy 221

Cognition and Language Development 222 Social-Emotional Development in Infancy 223

Erikson’s Stages 223 Infant States 224 Infant-Caregiver Interaction 225 Infant Temperament 225

7.3 Children 227 Cognitive Development in Childhood: Piaget’s Theory 228

Mechanisms of Adaptation 228 Schemas 228 The Stage Theory 229 Evaluation of Piaget’s Theory 234

Children’s Social-Emotional Development 234 Initiative Versus Guilt 234 Industry Versus Inferiority 235 Play 235

7.4 Adolescents 237 Physical and Sexual Changes 237

Early and Late Maturation 238 Adolescent Egocentrism 238

The Imaginary Audience and the Personal Fable 239 Identity Formation 239

Identity Diffusion 240 Foreclosure 240 Moratorium 240 Identity Achieved 240

CONTENTS

7.5 Adults 241 Erikson’s Stages of Adulthood 241

Intimacy Versus Isolation 242 Generativity Versus Self-Absorption 243 Integrity Versus Despair 243

Main Points 243 Study Terms 244

chapter 8 Personality 247

8.1 Personality 249 Personality and Self 249

The Real Person 250 8.2 The Common-Sense Approach 250

8.3 The Trait-Type Approach 252 Early Trait-Type Approaches 254 The Big Five 255

Extraversion 256 Openness 256 Neuroticism 256 Conscientiousness 256 Agreeableness 256

Stability of Personality 257 8.4 Biological Approaches 258

Sheldon’s Body Types 259 Research on Somatotypes 259

Eysenck’s Biological Theory 261 Research Evidence 261 Eysenck’s Organization of Personality 262

8.5 A Psychodynamic Approach: Freud 263 Freud’s Basic Ideas 263

Three Components of Personality 263 Psychosexual Stages 264 Normal and Abnormal Personality 266 Defense Mechanisms 267 Review of Freudian Theory 268

8.6 Learning-Based Approaches 268 Behaviorism 268 Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory 269

Observational Learning 269 Reciprocal Determinism 270

CONTENTS

Personal Agency 270 Relevance of Bandura’s Theory 270

Rotter’s Cognitive Approach 271 Externality-Internality 271

8.7 Humanistic Approaches 272 Abraham Maslow’s Self-Actualized Person 272 Rogers’s Phenomenology 273

8.8 Measuring Personality Variables 274 Projective Measures 274

The Rorschach 274 The Thematic Apperception Test 275

Nonprojective Measures 276 The NEO-PI-R 276 The MMPI-2 276

Some Cautions 277 Main Points 277

Study Terms 278

chapter 9 Psychological Disorders and Therapies 279

9.1 Historical and Current Views of Mental Disorders 281 Historical Views of the Causes of Mental Disorders 282 Current Definitions and Models 282

The Statistical Model 283 Medical/Biological Models 284 Behavioral Models 284 Cognitive Models 284 Psychodynamic Models 285 Which Model? 285 A Definition 286

Classifications of Disorders 286 The Most Common Disorders 289

9.2 Anxiety Disorders 290 Panic Attacks 290 Generalized Anxiety Disorder 291 Phobic Disorders 291

Agoraphobia 291 Social Phobias 292 Specific Phobias 293

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders 293 Posttraumatic Stress Disorder 293

CONTENTS

9.3 Impulse-Control Disorders Usually First Diagnosed in Children 294 Aggression-Based Impulse-Control Disorders 294 Conduct Disorder 294 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 295 Other Impulse-Control Disorders 295

9.4 Mood Disorders 296 Major Depressive Disorder 296 Bipolar Disorder 296 Dysthymic Disorder 297

9.5 Substance-Related Disorders 297 Substance Use Disorders 297

Prevalence and Types of Drug Use 298 9.6 Other Axis I Disorders 300

Dissociative Disorders 300 Dissociative Amnesia 300 Dissociative Fugue 300 Dissociative Identity Disorder 301 Depersonalization Disorder 302

Psychotic Disorders 302 Schizophrenia 302 Causes 303

Sexual and Gender Identity Disorders 303 Gender Identity Disorders 303 Paraphilias 304 Sexual Dysfunctions 304

Somatoform Disorders 304 9.7 Axis II Personality Disorders 305

9.8 Therapies 306 Medical Therapy 306

Drug Therapy 307 Psychosurgery 307

Insight Therapy 307 Learning-Based and Cognitive Therapy 308

Behavior Modification 309 Positive Reinforcement 309 Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy 309

The Effectiveness of Therapies 311 Main Points 311

Study Terms 313

CONTENTS

chapter 10 Social Psychology 315

10.1 Social Psychology 317 What Is Social Psychology? 317

10.2 Attitudes and Attitude Change 317 Compliance and Conformity 319 Social Pressure and Compliance 319 Obedience 321

The Milgram Studies 322 The Prison Experiment 324

Persuasion 325 Importance of Message Characteristics 325 Importance of Message Source 325 Importance of Audience Characteristics 326

Cognitive Dissonance 326 Attribution and Attitude Change 327

Overjustification 327 10.3 Antisocial Behaviors 328

Aggression and Violence 328 Theories of Aggression 328 Violence in Society 333

Bystander Apathy 334 The Bystander Effect 335 An Explanation 336 How Common Is the Bystander Effect? 337

10.4 Prosocial Behaviors 338 Altruism 338

10.5 Interpersonal Relationships 339 The Rules of Attraction 340

Propinquity 340 Similarity 340 Physical Attractiveness 341

Liking and Loving 342 A Model of Love 343 A Last Word to the Poets 346

Main Points 346 Study Terms 347

Glossary 349 References 373 Photo Credits 409

About the Author

Guy R . Lefrançois makes few claims to anything notable . “I’m an obscure French Canadian from a long line of obscure ancestors,” he insists . “Like me,” he says, “most are better remem- bered not for the things they did but for those they never accomplished . Some of the things I haven’t done yet are truly amazing!” He cur- rently holds an appointment at the University of Alberta, where he also received his PhD and where he first started teaching in 1966 . Since then, he has written numerous books in psy- chology, many of which have been translated into other languages, including Chinese, Russian, Italian, Spanish, French, and German (he does not speak all these other languages) . He has been happily married to Marie for more years that he can easily count and loves to fish, watch birds, pick berries, read other people’s words, and go on extended bicycle tours . He has 3 children (Laurier, Claire, and Rémi), and 5 grandchildren, to whom this book is dedicated .

Preface

Dear Reader,

The purpose of Psychology: The Human Puzzle is to explore psychology’s view of one of the most captivating and puzzling of all topics: ourselves . Its content is the story of the search for pieces of this puzzle and an account of how the pieces have begun to fit together . Its purpose is to teach .

But good teaching is more than just telling a story . It isn’t enough simply to gather and organize pieces of the puzzle and squeeze them into a text . Good teaching also requires motivating, illustrating, explaining, relating, evaluating, reviewing, maybe even inspir- ing . Good teachers sometimes have to do awesome somersaults and leap over burning buildings and juggle burning brands while balancing on tall ladders . Really .

Psychology: The Human Puzzle tries to be a good teacher . It illustrates and explains; it evalu- ates and reviews; it tries to inspire . Sometimes it pauses to tell stories about the heart- warming generosity of strangers, to shock with accounts of the misbehavior of violent adolescents, to intrigue with descriptions of mental disorders in other cultures, to amaze with tales of astonishing memories, to move with an analysis of the thing we call love . At least once that I can think of, it nearly does a somersault and even juggles a few things that, from far away, almost look like burning brands .

Characteristics of Psychology: The Human Puzzle

Psychology: The Human Puzzle has a number of characteristics intended to make it as useful a teaching-learning tool as it can be .

The graphic layout and format are designed with the student in mind . Pages are unclut- tered; text material flows with little interruption . All the important stuff is right in the text; there are no boxed inserts, sidebars, marginal notes, or other little gizmos to grab your eye and make you wonder where to go next . All the graphics and photographs are relevant, and definitions of important terms are gathered in the glossary . A brief summary and a list of important study terms follow each chapter .

Although it assembles all the important and essential pieces of the puzzle, this book is deliberately shorter than most other comparable textbooks, so that it can comfortably be covered in a single course .

I hope you enjoy and learn . I suspect that each is necessary for the other .

Sincerely,

Guy R . Lefrançois

PREFACE

Dear People Involved with the Making of this Book,

Most of you know who you are . Sadly, I don’t know many of you . But I deeply appreci- ate everything you have done . The reviews were remarkably intelligent, and I am truly grateful to the instructors who shared their thoughts on the manuscript . I owe a debt of gratitude, as well, to Steve Wainwright, Sponsoring Editor, who initiated the project and guided its first steps, and to Dan Moneypenny, Development Editor, who developed the project astonishingly smoothly and rapidly . Thank you as well to Kim Purcell, Media Edi- tor, the copy editor, Susan Zorn, who cleaned up my mess so effortlessly, and to Shawn Vazinski of Lachina Publishing Services, and Illustrator Maury Aaseng . Finally, thank you to my amazing family, who nurture my work and my leisure, and to the University of Alberta for providing such a rich environment in which to look for pieces of the puzzle .

Sincerely,

Guy R . Lefrançois

Acknowledgments

1

The Science of Psychology

Focus Questions

By the end of the chapter, you should be able to answer the following questions: • How is psychology defined? • What are the principal responsibilities of members of the main divisions in psychology? • What were the key beliefs and contributions of some of the early contributors to

the development of psychology? • What are the identifying characteristics of the scientific method? • What are some key types of descriptive research? • How does descriptive research differ from experiments and ex post facto studies? • What is the correlation fallacy? • What are some of the main sources of error in interpreting the results of psycho-

logical investigations?

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CHAPTER 1The Science of Psychology

1. Boldfaced terms are defined in the glossary.

The purpose of psychology is

to give us a completely different idea of the things we

know best. ­—Paul­Valéry,­Tel Quel,­1943

Chapter Outline

1.1 What Is Psychology? What Psychologists Do

1.2 The Beginnings of Psychology Recent Origins of Psychology

1.3 Principles of Science The Scientific Method

1.4 Sources of Psychological Information Descriptive Research Experiments Ex Post Facto Studies

1.5 Cautions in Interpreting Psychological Research

Experimenter Bias Subject Bias Sampling Bias Other Problems of Psychological Research

1.6 Philosophical Issues and Psychological Controversy

1.7 Psychology’s Relevance

1.8 This Book

My grandmother was convinced she knew best. “Not true,” she would declare when I tried to tell her what I was learning as a novice psychology student. And then, her knitting needles clacking, she would go on to inform me that boys who mature early are always messed up later. She also believed that people use only 10 percent of their brain because that is what she had read somewhere. And she knew that those suffering from mental disorders are like night and day from her and other sane people. Nor did she trust psychologists: “They have sneaky ways of looking into people’s minds,” she informed me. “Except people who have ESP powers.”

“And mark my word,” she said one time; “most geniuses are crazy.” “But you don’t have to worry,” she added.

These and a wide range of similar beliefs make up what is sometimes called bubba psychology1 (bubba or bubbe—or sometimes bubbie—means “grandmother” in some Eastern European lan- guages). Bubba psychology is also labeled naïve psychology or folk psychology.

Psychological research has not been kind to many of my grandmother’s beliefs—which is not to say that all our folk wisdom is untrue or that psychology’s beliefs are always correct. In fact, much of our folk wisdom is correct; and psychology, like most sciences, does occasionally change its mind.

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CHAPTER 1Section 1.1 What Is Psychology?

1.1 What Is Psychology?

My grandmother’s belief that psychologists have devious ways of peering into one’s mind is one reason why it is important to have a clear understanding of what psy- chology is and is not. While it’s true that its goal is to solve the puzzles of human thought and behavior, it is a science and not a collection of special powers.

In its simplest sense, psychology is the science that studies behavior and mental processes. Unfortunately, this definition does little justice to the tremendous variety of activities and interests that make up the field. In fact, members of the American Psychological Asso- ciation divide themselves into 54 different divisions (APA, 2010). These divisions reflect different interests and specializations, such as the study of aging or the application of psychological knowledge and principles in clinical settings.

What Psychologists Do

As Figure 1.1 shows, the vast majority of psychologists are involved in the practical appli- cation of psychological knowledge.

Clinical 52%

11%

Others 19%

Social 2%

Main Specialties in Psychology

Industrial/Organizational 4%

Experimental 1% Educational 2%

Developmental 3%

Counseling

Health 2%

School 4%

Figure 1.1

Main specialties in psychology. Based on a survey of the American Psychological Association’s 90,221 members in 2005. Data from APA Directory Survey 2005, compiled by APA Research Office. Retrieved July 13, 2010, from http://www.apa.org/workforce/publications/05-member/ table-3.pdf.

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http://www.apa.org/workforce/publications/05-member/table-3.pdf
http://www.apa.org/workforce/publications/05-member/table-3.pdf
CHAPTER 1Section 1.1 What Is Psychology?

Clinical Psychologists About half of all psychologists are clinical psychol- ogists. These are typically psychologists working in a hospital or clinical setting. They specialize in helping people with psychological problems such as anxiety, depression, addiction, or relationship problems.

Although psychiatrists and clinical psychologists often treat similar sorts of problems, their training and expertise are quite different. Psychiatrists are medical doctors with specialized training in iden- tifying and treating mental and emotional disor- ders. In addition to the various other interventions they might use, they can prescribe drugs, which are now commonly used to treat many disorders ranging from mild anxiety to severe deviations from normality. In most jurisdictions, clinical psy- chologists cannot write prescriptions.

Counseling Psychologists A significant number of psychologists are coun- seling psychologists. They, too, treat problems related to emotional and mental disorders. In addition, they also deal with issues such as those having to do with vocational choices, learning problems, relationships, and related concerns. Whereas clinical psychologists often work in clinical settings or in private practices, counseling psychologists work mainly in private practices.

Industrial/Organizational Psychologists Roughly 4 percent of psychologists are classified as industrial/organizational psychologists. They are concerned mainly with work-related issues, such as determining how to hire the right person for a job, improving job satisfaction, increasing motivation in the workplace, reducing stress, and managing goals.

School Psychologists School psychologists deal with behavioral and learning problems that affect schoolchil- dren. They are often called upon to administer tests, to diagnose learning and behav- ior problems, and to suggest treatment for these problems. As a result, they are usually

Psychology, like most sciences, occa- sionally changes its mind. We’re no longer certain that the bumps and lumps on our skulls are roadmaps to our personalities.

Psychology hasn’t yet discovered some devious way of peering into our persons and ferreting out all the dark secrets therein.

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CHAPTER 1Section 1.1 What Is Psychology?

trained in both psychology and education and are often required to apply the principles of clinical and counseling psychology, as well as those of educational psychology.

Educational Psychologists Psychologists concerned specifically with improv- ing teaching and learning are educational psychol- ogists. Unlike school psychologists, they are less concerned with individual behavioral and learn- ing problems than with broader questions relating to how people learn in educational settings. Educa- tional psychology applies psychological principles to classroom management, special needs educa- tion, instructional design, and lesson planning.

Developmental Psychologists Developmental psychologists study systematic changes that occur between conception and death. Some specialize in the study of child develop- ment; others are more concerned with adolescent or adult development, or with aging and dying. The findings of developmental psychology are especially important for school and educational psychologists as well as for clinical and counseling psychology.

Experimental Psychologists Much of the content of psychology—and therefore of this text—is based on the work of experimental psychologists. They specialize in the use of experimental methods to inves- tigate the puzzles of psychology. Experimental research requires that the investigator control significant aspects of a situation in an attempt to uncover cause-and-effect rela- tionships. (There is more about experiments shortly.)

Other Divisions There are many other specializations in psychology: Health psychologists look at how psy- chological factors influence health and illness and often work in clinical settings or hospi- tals to promote wellness; social psychologists are concerned with how people relate to and influence each other; sports psychologists use psychological research to improve athletic performance; forensic psychologists are usually experts in criminal law as well as in psy- chology and might be called upon to assist in jury selection or as expert witnesses for assessing the state of mind of the accused at the time of the offense or the defendant’s competency to stand trial; and environmental psychologists look at the relationship between humans and their surroundings, and specifically at the effects of the environment on our well-being (Table 1.1).

About half of all psychologists are clinical psychologists specialized in helping people with psychological problems. Unlike psychiatrists, they’re not usually medical doctors.

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CHAPTER 1Section 1.2 The Beginnings of Psychology

Table 1.1 What Psychologists Do

Some Major Divisions Main Concerns and Activities

Clinical Diagnosis and treatment of emotional illnesses and disorders, frequently in a hospital or clinical setting

Counseling Evaluation of and assistance with behavioral, emotional, and other problems not serious enough to require hospital, clinical, or psychiatric treatment; assistance with important decisions such as those having to do with careers, relationships, adjustment, and stress

Industrial/organizational Applying psychology in business and industry; developing and adminis- tering tests to evaluate aptitudes; dealing with motivational, manage- ment, and interpersonal issues in the workplace

School Identifying individual aptitudes and skills among learners in a school setting; developing and administering tests pertinent to school-related abilities; diagnosing and remediating behavioral and learning problems

Educational Researching the application of psychological principles for improving teaching and learning

Developmental Studying changes that define growth, learning, and maturation from birth to death; applying findings in educational programs and in child guidance and counseling

Experimental Using experimental methods to investigate the puzzles of psychology

Regardless of their specialization, many psychologists write books, teach, do research, conduct private practices, work in business and industry, or are employed in a variety of different professions where knowledge of psychology is useful and sometimes even essential. Many are engaged in combinations of these activities.

All that affects human behavior, thought, and emotion falls within the domain of psychol- ogy. This text, with its 10 chapters and many sections, represents the most common divi- sions and interests in psychology: It is a 120,000-word definition of psychology.

1.2 The Beginnings of Psychology

That definition begins with the history of psychology—a history that goes back at least as far as ancient Greece, when the discipline of philosophy embraced almost all other disci- plines, including what is now psychology. In fact, the term psychology has its roots in the Greek language, where the word psyche means “soul” and logos means “the study or discussion of.”

More recently in psychology’s history, discoveries in medicine had a dramatic influence on our conception of the human being. When William Harvey discovered that the heart pumped blood into tubes throughout the body, many thinkers became convinced that people were nothing more than elaborate pumping machines. Many suspected that the ability to think originates in the blood. Aristotle didn’t merely suspect this—he knew it. If a person’s blood were entirely removed, he argued, no evidence of thinking would remain!

Early physics, too, contributed to the development of psychology. The psychological importance of Sir Isaac Newton’s observation that apples invariably fall earthward lies

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CHAPTER 1Section 1.2 The Beginnings of Psychology

in the fact that it illustrates a different way of looking at natural phenomena. The ancient Greek philosophers undoubtedly knew that apples fall earthward. And had they wanted to know why apples fall, they might have thought long and hard about the problem and held learned discourses with colleagues. But their approach would have made little use of the methods of science as we now know them. Newton, however, felt compelled to demonstrate and verify the phenomena he observed and to investigate them by means of controlled experimentation. We are products of Newton’s generation: Psychology, anthro- pology, sociology, and other related fields are seldom referred to as the social studies; they are the social sciences (Figure 1.2).

Recent Origins of Psychology

Scientific psychology is not much more than a century old. Its founder is generally con- sidered to be Wilhelm Wundt, who founded the first psychological laboratory in Leipzig,

Aristotle Newton Pavlov

Figure 1.2

Contemplation of their own experiences guided the ancient Greeks in learning about people. The result: the theory that the ability to think originates in the blood. Centuries later, Newton used scientific observation and experimentation to test theories about the physical world. By the 20th century, psychologists were applying scientific methods to animals and people to learn about behavior. The result: psychology as it exists today.

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CHAPTER 1Section 1.2 The Beginnings of Psychology

Germany, in 1879. Many of Wundt’s students later established laboratories of their own throughout Europe and North America. Very soon after that, psychology departments opened at all major universities. Typically these began as branches of departments of phi- losophy, but in time the discipline became totally separate. Departments of psychology now claim far more students than do departments of philosophy.

Structuralism The early history of psychology is marked by the rise—and fall—of a number of different “schools” of thought. The first dates back to Wilhelm Wundt and his followers, whose search for pieces of the puzzle relied on introspection. Introspection involves looking inside oneself, examining one’s own thoughts, feelings, and motives and generalizing the resulting insights to understand the thoughts and feelings of others. Stop, for a moment, and think about the words you are now reading. How does a physical stimulus such as a word on a page affect you? As you carefully analyze your current thoughts and feelings, you are introspecting.

The goal of introspection as practiced by Wundt and his followers was to understand the structure of thoughts, emotions, and motives. They reasoned that the conscious mind, like any other natural object, must comprise identifiable elements. In the same way as water is made up of two atoms of hydrogen and one of oxygen, so too must sensations and feel- ings be structured of basic mental elements. One of his followers, Titchener, called this approach structuralism.

Functionalism William James, widely credited with being the founder of American psychology, thought it a waste of time to try to explain the mind by looking at its structure. Heavily influenced by Charles Darwin’s new theories, James argued that it would be far better to try to deter- mine the purposes that drive behavior—that is, its functions; hence the label functionalism. James’s 1,000-page book, The Principles of Psychology (1890), did a great deal to establish what psychology would become. It is James, for example, who first wrote of the “stream of con- sciousness” and of the baby’s world as “one great blooming, buzzing confusion.” Among the topics in his book are will, interest, emotions, sensation, the brain, and, of course, the stream of consciousness. He asks questions such as “How can people strengthen habits?” “How does intention motivate action?” “What is memory, and how does it work?”

Behaviorism James’s functionalism profoundly influenced the subsequent development of psychology. But by the early 1900s, many psychologists, especially in the United States, had begun to reject difficult and subjective topics such as mind and thinking. Led by the psycholo- gist John Broadus Watson, they chose to concentrate on the objective, observable aspects of behavior; hence the label behaviorism. Behaviorism “emphasized publicly observable stimuli (s) and responses (r) and spurned supposedly unobservable, centrally initiated processes like consciousness” (Moore, 2010, p. 143).

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CHAPTER 1Section 1.2 The Beginnings of Psychology

Among the most important behaviorists are Wat- son and Skinner. Behaviorists tend to study reflex- ive behavior and the consequences of behavior. As we see in Chapter 4, many scientific experi- ments can be carried out to investigate these mat- ters. As a result, with the advent of behaviorism, psychology became progressively more scientific. But because of its emphasis on discovering how behavior is controlled by stimuli and by its conse- quences, behaviorism is sometimes interpreted as denying the existence of free will.

Psychodynamic Theory At about the same time that the behaviorists were first popular in American psychology, the Aus- trian neurologist Sigmund Freud was developing startling new ideas about the mind. As explained in Chapter 8, Freud believed that the mind is a little like an iceberg: We see only the very tip, which represents the conscious mind; the bulk of it is hidden, unconscious. Much of our behavior

is driven by unconscious forces: They lie beneath the visible iceberg, beyond our con- scious awareness. Freud believed that many of our emotional disorders stem from these unconscious psychodynamic forces. There are methods of analysis, of psychoanalysis, explained Freud, that can uncover these hidden motives and forces and that can lead to the alleviation of mental disorders.

Cognitivism Other psychologists rejected the narrow emphases of a behaviorism that limited itself to observable events, but relatively few embraced Freud’s psychoanalysis. Many can be described as belonging to the school labeled cognitivism. These are psychologists whose main concerns are with intellectual (cognitive) events such as problem solving, thinking, information processing, and imagining. Cognitivism provides explanations for behavior based on our ability to symbolize, to uncover cause-and-effect relationships, to determine what goes with what, and to anticipate the consequences of our actions.

Humanism Some psychologists object to what they see as the overly limited, mechanistic, and dehumanizing emphases of behavioristic approaches to psychology. They also reject the Freudian notion that we’re driven by dark, unconscious forces over which we have little control. These approaches, they argue, pay too little attention to the positive and healthy aspects of human nature. Humanistic psychology, as we see in Chapter 8, is concerned with the uniqueness, the individuality, the humanity of each person. It

Psychoanalysts are psychiatrists who, like Freud, believe that mental disor- ders result from deep-seated psycho- dynamic conflicts. The purpose of the couch is to allow the patient to relax so as to facilitate uncovering these con- flicts—often through free association or dream analysis.

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CHAPTER 1Section 1.3 Principles of Science

emphasizes the development of the “self” and is represented by psychologists such as Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers.

Humanism arose primarily as a reaction against behavioristic and psychodynamic theo- ries, which Maslow (1998) described as the two great forces in psychology; he labeled the humanistic movement third force psychology. His hope was that this third force would become as powerful as the first two and that it might counter the dehumanizing influence of a rigorous scientific approach to the study of psychology.

Other Orientations There are a number of other important orientations in the study of psychology. Evolution- ary psychology emphasizes biology and genetics as a source of explanations for human learning and behavior. Evolutionary psychologists look at the evolution of human behav- ior and try to explain human characteristics in terms of historical pressures of adaptation.

Neuroscience is another important and highly current, biologically based orientation. Using powerful new brain-imaging techniques, neuroscientists look to the nervous sys- tem, especially the brain, for explanations of consciousness and of mental processes like thinking, imagining, problem solving, and remembering.

Both evolutionary psychologists and neuroscientists make extensive use of genomics, the study of genes and how they relate to human behaviors and characteristics.

1.3 Principles of Science Psychology is a science. What does that mean?

In one sense, science can mean a collection of information in a field of study. For example, the science of physics is a collection of information about the nature of matter and energy and how they interact. And the science of psychology is a collection of information about human thought and behavior and how they interact.

In another very important sense, science is a way of dealing with information. As such, it is both an attitude and a set of guidelines. It is an attitude that insists on objectivity, preci- sion, and consistency. And it is a set of guidelines meant to ensure that this is the case. As a result, science stands in sharp contrast to those ways of knowing that are based princi- pally on subjective analysis or introspection.

Attempts to explain and organize the observations of science take the form of theories. Theories are collections of related statements that clarify observations and permit predic- tions (hypotheses).

In spite of science’s preoccupation with the objective, many topics of interest to psychol- ogy cannot be observed and measured directly, but can only be inferred from behavior or from highly subjective self-reports. Emotions and thoughts, for example, are subjec- tive rather than objective. And even though these might lead to behavior from which

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an observer might guess the underlying emotion or thought, this is not always so. For example, I might be very angry or very sad because I now know for sure that my dog does not much like me; but you would not necessarily know my emotion from my behavior because I can easily pretend I don’t care.

One of psychology’s tasks is to devise ways of examining nonobjective events and states as objectively and scientifically as possible.

The Scientific Method

Studying phenomena objectively and scientifically means using what is often labeled the scientific method—an approach designed to ensure that observations are as accurate and valid as possible, that they can be replicated by other investigators. The sciences have now been using the scientific method for more than a hundred years to find and assemble pieces of the human puzzle. It can be described in terms of five systematic steps:

1. Ask the question. (For example: Would after-school detention be effective in stop- ping a group of boys from stealing iPods, MP3 players, and smartphones?)

2. Develop a hypothesis. On the basis of observation and a careful examination of relevant investigations and theory, make a prediction—a hypothesis. By definition, a scientific hypothesis is unproven and can be falsified (proven incorrect). Hence the outcome of a scientific investigation can lead to the rejection of the hypothesis. (Hypothesis: After-school detention will be effective in curtailing thefts of elec- tronic devices.)

3. Collect relevant observations. As we see in the next section, science suggests many different ways of collecting observations. The nature of the question being asked, as well as constraints related to money, time, instrumentation, and the availability of suitable participants, usually determines which method is best. (Method: Detain the group of thieves after school; monitor subsequent thefts.)

4. Test the hypothesis. Do your observations indicate that the hypothesis should be rejected? And even if they do not, might they be due to chance? Science is very concerned that observations might be just chance happenings—in which case, they don’t mean very much at all. For this reason, investigators often use special sta- tistical procedures to determine whether observations are statistically significant. These procedures allow investigators to

Although psychology probes and mea- sures things not as easily analyzed and quantified as matter in test tubes, it strives for the same precision, objectiv- ity, and replicability—though perhaps with somewhat more restraint than this mad scientist.

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CHAPTER 1Section 1.4 Sources of Psychological Information

determine the likelihood that observations are due to factors other than chance. (How many devices disappeared before the detention? How many disappeared after?)

5. Reach and share a conclusion. If science is to progress, the hypothesis has to be rejected or not rejected. If it is not rejected, it may be accepted as tentatively valid (we can seldom be absolutely certain). (For example: As many electronic devices disappeared after as before detention. Tentative conclusion: Detention is not an effective deterrent in this case.) The conclusions of the research then need to be shared. This means communicating the findings to others so they can apply them and so continue the research and learning process.

1.4 Sources of Psychological Information

The ways psychologists gather observations vary greatly depending on the topic being researched and sometimes on the psychologist’s preferences. What is invariably true, however, is that observation is the source of all psychological knowledge, just as it is the source of knowledge in other sciences. Psychological studies and experiments vary according to who is being observed, when, how, and under what conditions.

Descriptive Research

Descriptive research describes the characteristics of an individual or of a group. It answers the questions who, what, where, when, and how. What is the average age of a group? How common is bipolar disorder? What is current life expectancy in North America?

Descriptive research is often based on the results of archival research—research that depends on secondary sources such as census data, birth certificates, or other forms of past records. It may also be based on the results of observation, which can be naturalistic or nonnaturalistic.

Naturalistic and Nonnaturalistic Observation Naturalistic observation is observation that occurs in natural settings rather than in labora- tories, hospitals, and other surroundings. Naturalistic observation is well illustrated by the research of Jane Goodall, who, since 1960, has lived among chimpanzees in the Gombe Stream Research Centre in Tanzania, simply observing chimpanzees without disturbing them. The assumption of naturalistic observation is that if the investigator does interfere, the behavior under examination may be affected. For example, chimpanzees that would be playful and bold in their natural state might become anxious and furtive when observed too closely.

Naturalistic observation takes place in surroundings that are not altered by the observer or by the requirements of the observation; nonnaturalistic observation occurs in more contrived surroundings such as laboratories. Both are important in psychological investigation. Natu- ralistic and nonnaturalistic approaches to gathering psychological information can be classi- fied in terms of who is observed and how and when the observations are made. Thus, there are case studies (discussed in next section), where single individuals (or single units such as

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a family) are observed, and surveys (discussed after case studies), where large groups of individuals (or larger groups of units such as a number of families) are studied.

Studies may be longitudinal or cross-sectional, depending on when observations are made. When the goal of psychological investigation is to identify changes that occur within individuals or within a group of individuals over time, longitudinal stud- ies may be used. A longitudinal study examines the same individual(s) at different times and makes direct comparisons between the individual at this point in time and the same individual at an earlier time. In contrast, cross-sectional studies examine two or more groups of subjects at the same time.