Expert teachers have which of the following characteristics

ASSIGNMENT

Biography of Educational Psychologist
For this assignment, you will have to conduct your own research while also using the textbook. You will be creating an eight- to ten-slide PowerPoint presentation, not including the title and reference slides, based on one of the following educational psychologists:
Erik Erickson
Jean Piaget
Lev Vygotsky
John Dewey
Howard Gardner
B.F. Skinner
Ivan Pavlov
Albert Bandura
Jerome Bruner
Benjamin Bloom
Maria Montessori
George Canady
Be creative! You can use PowerPoint or digital tools such as Prezi, Jing, Voicethread, etc. Make sure to attach the PowerPoint presentation or include the URL in your assignment post. Your presentation must follow APA formatting guidelines as outlined in the Ashford Writing Center, and it must include the following:
Cover slide with title, name, course name, and date. (This slide will not count towards the eight- to ten-slide requirement)

Describe your selected educational psychologist including a brief biography of where and when he was born, his educational career, and the theory for which he is known.

Indicate facts about the learning theory constructed by your educational psychologist.

Explain reasons why some oppose or argue against the learning theory.

Summarize whether you agree or disagree with the learning theory and explain why.

Explain how the learning theory is relevant to you as a future educator. In other words, how does the learning theory “look” in your future classroom? Provide at least two scenarios in the classroom to explain how you would apply the learning theory in your teaching.

Your last slide should include an APA formatted list of references used to support your biography. Be sure that these sources are also cited within your presentation. (This slide will not count towards the eight- to ten-slide requirement)

Be sure to include images and at least two scholarly sources for your presentation
Required Resources
Required Text

LeFrançois, G. R. (2018). Psychology for teaching (2nd ed.). Retrieved from https://content.ashford.edu
Chapter 1: Psychology for Teaching
Chapter 2: Socioemotional and Cognitive Development
Articles

Council of Chief State School Officers. (2011, April). Intasc model core teaching standards: A resource for state dialoguePreview the document. Retrieved from http://www.ccsso.org/documents/2011/intasc_model_core_teaching_standards_2011.pdf

1 Psychology for Teaching A young girl looking at a tablet and smiling while her teacher talks to her. Monkeybusinessimages/iStock/Thinkstock Thousands . . . Kiss the book's outside who ne'er look within. —William Cowper, Expostulation Learning Objectives After studying this chapter you will be able to: Explain how psychology and education are related. Describe how teacher competence is evaluated. Identify the differences between quantitative and qualitative research. Define theories, laws, principles, and beliefs, and explain how they are related. Summarize the three basic elements of a useful model of teaching. Identify characteristics shared by expert teachers. Introduction Each chapter in this textbook opens with a list of learning objectives. Learning objectives indicate some of the topics you should know and understand more clearly once you have finished reading. At the end of each chapter, the learning objectives are translated into more practical review questions and assignments. The learning objectives are followed by introductions. These introductions organize and summarize important concepts and increase the meaningfulness of material to be learned—sometimes by stimulating recall of important previous learning, sometimes by providing new information, and sometimes by clarifying concepts. This first chapter is a preview for the remainder of the textbook. Among other things, it points out that there are some important reasons for taking this course other than the fact that it might be compulsory. My teaching career began with John George Scott. He and I started school on the same day up in the wilds of northern Saskatchewan—a one-room school where my father was the teacher. John George, whose family had recently arrived in the area, spoke neither English nor French. The first thing my dad did that morning was underline, in both French and English, some of the rules of the school like where's the cloakroom for boys and the one for girls and don't go into the wrong one and how many fingers to raise for a call of nature depending on the nature of the call. Shortly after that, John George turned, stared at the door for a second or two, and then, as if he'd just made up his mind, pulled himself out of his desk and lurched outside. "He's bolted," I thought, half wishing I had enough courage to do the same. But John George hadn't bolted at all. He had simply felt the call of nature. So, what the hey, he had gotten out of his desk, trotted to the far corner of the school yard, squatted, and was now attending to that call. Watching through the windows, some of us laughed so hard we had to fight a call of nature of our own. My father, a resourceful and cunning teacher, rushed outside immediately. We watched as he tried to explain to John George, using very interesting body language, that the little building in the other corner was equipped to handle problems of the kind John George had already solved. But some gestures are all Greek to frightened six-year-old boys whose pants have settled around their ankles. So my dad came back and made me a teacher. "Show him where it is and what it's for,'' he said. This, in retrospect, colored a big part of my life. I took John George with me and showed him. 1.1 Psychology for Teaching Showing people things is an important part of teaching. In fact, in Spanish the word enseñar means both to teach and to show. Good teachers show students, or help them discover for themselves, all sorts of things like what ideas are and how they can be used, the meanings of numbers, how to operate machines and computers and so on. However, teaching is often more complex than it might appear from straightforward tasks such as showing people about outhouses—my successful assignment with John George notwithstanding. And although this textbook, Psychology for Teaching, might not have been very useful to me that day—hey, I could scarcely read—it would have come in handy many years later when, as a beginning teacher, I tried teaching other less natural things to people whose need to learn was not quite so insistent. You see, contrary to what I had hoped, teaching skills are not hereditary; we can't count on our genes to endow us with teaching ability, or with what is called the "craft knowledge" of teaching—the knowledge that expert teachers seem to have. Fortunately, though, we now have a large body of information to help novice teachers become more expert. This information can contribute dramatically to the effectiveness of teachers and of schools. This textbook is your introduction to that information. Its goal is to make you a better teacher. As its title indicates, it presents a psychology for teaching. Psychology's potential contribution to education becomes clear when viewed in terms of what is involved in teaching. Psychology, after all, is most likely to provide us with answers to important questions such as: How can we use what we know about learning to increase the effectiveness of our instructional procedures? What do we know about people that might be of value to teachers who face student misbehavior or want to avoid being faced with such behavior? How can we motivate learners? And a thousand other related questions. Assessing and Improving Teacher Competence How can you, or anyone else for that matter, know whether you have what it takes to become a competent, perhaps even an outstanding, teacher? How will a college or university decide whether or not to admit you into a teacher training program? How can schools support and help beginning teachers? Pretty important questions, these—so important, in fact, that tests have been developed to help answer them. Most of these tests are based on 10 basic standards that summarize the most important characteristics of competent teachers, the so-called InTASC standards (InTASC Model Core Teaching Standards, 2013). InTASC stands for Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (Table 1.1). Table 1.1: Core InTASC standards mapped to the chapters of this textbook that relate to each principle Broad area of teacher expertise Statement of standard Most relevant chapters Standard 1 Learner development The teacher understands how learners grow and develop, recognizing that patterns of learning and development vary individually within and across the cognitive, linguistic, social, emotional, and physical areas. The teacher can provide learning opportunities that are developmentally appropriate and challenging. 2, 3, 5, 6, 8 Standard 2 Learning differences The teacher uses understanding of individual differences and diverse cultures and communities to ensure inclusive learning environments that enable each learner to meet high standards. 3, 4 Standard 3 Learning environments The teacher works with others to create environments that support individual and collaborative learning, and that encourage positive social interaction, active engagement in learning, and self-motivation. 2, 3, 5, 6, 8 Standard 4 Content knowledge The teacher understands the central concepts, tools of inquiry, and structures of the discipline(s) he or she teaches and creates learning experiences that make the discipline accessible and meaningful for learners to assure mastery of the content. 1, 8 Standard 5 Application of content The teacher understands how to connect concepts and use differing perspectives to engage learners in critical thinking, creativity, and collaborative problem solving related to authentic local and global issues. 3, 6, 7 Standard 6 Assessment The teacher understands and uses multiple methods of assessment to engage learners in their own growth, to monitor learner progress, and to guide the teacher's and learner's decision making. 10 Standard 7 Planning for instruction The teacher plans instruction that supports every student in meeting rigorous learning goals by drawing upon knowledge of content areas, curriculum, cross-disciplinary skills, and pedagogy, as well as knowledge of learners and the community context. 2, 3, 4, 7, 8 Standard 8 Instructional strategies The teacher understands and uses a variety of instructional strategies to encourage learners to develop deep understanding of content areas and their connections, and to build skills to apply knowledge in meaningful ways. 6, 7, 8, 9 Standard 9 Professional learning and ethical practice The teacher engages in ongoing professional learning and uses evidence to continually evaluate his/her practice, particularly the effects of his/her choices and actions on others (learners, families, other professionals, and the community). 1, 8, 10, parts of all chapters Standard 10 Leadership and collaboration The teacher seeks appropriate leadership roles and opportunities to take responsibility for student learning, to collaborate with learners, families, colleagues, other school professionals, and community members to ensure learner growth, and to advance the profession. 10, parts of all chapters Source: Council of Chief State School Officers. (2013, April). Interstate Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium InTASC Model Core Teaching Standards and Learning Progressions for Teachers 1.0: A Resource for Ongoing Teacher Development. Washington, DC: Author. Adapted with permission. The most widely used tests of beginning teacher competence, the Praxis® exams, are based on InTASC descriptions of the skills, the attitudes, and the behavior of competent beginning teachers. Developed by the Educational Testing Service, different forms of these exams are designed to be used before teacher training and for teacher certification and licensing (About the Praxis® Tests, 2016). For example, many teacher training institutions require that students show a minimum level of competence in basic skills such as reading, writing, and arithmetic before they are admitted to a teacher training program. For this, the Praxis® Core Academic Skills for Educators (Core) tests might be used. The Praxis® Subject Assessments, which look at subject-area knowledge as well as specific teaching skills, may be required for acceptance into the student teaching component of a program or for certification. Although the Praxis® exams are widely used, a number of states have developed their own testing programs and instruments. As a teacher candidate, what's important for you is that you develop the knowledge, the skills, and the attitudes embodied in the principles underlying these assessments. One of the goals of this textbook is to help you do that. Teaching and Your Beliefs Much of what the teacher is required to do in the classroom is immediate: There is often little time for careful reflection. Hence, many of the teacher's actions are based on habit and on pre-established beliefs. Even our most impulsive and habitual actions reveal our underlying convictions and implicit theories—in other words, our beliefs. For this reason, suggest Bain and McNaught (2006), getting teachers to change is often a very difficult undertaking. In fact, as politicians well know, getting anybody to change their beliefs is sometimes very difficult. We don't easily discard old beliefs and adopt new ones. What Are Beliefs? Beliefs are personal convictions. Unlike knowledge, which tends to be impersonal and impartial, a belief often has strong emotional components. Thus, beliefs are reflected in attitudes, prejudices, judgments, and opinions. And beliefs based in stereotypes can play an important role in teacher behavior and in student achievement. Some studies indicate that learners for whom teachers have high expectations are more likely to achieve at a high level (the so-called halo effect) than are students for whom teachers have very low expectations (Sorhagen, 2013; Tenenbaum & Martin, 2007). Thus, the effects of teacher expectations, which may be closely related to the beliefs teachers have about how certain groups typically achieve, can have either positive or negative effects on student achievement. Beliefs are often formed early in life and may be maintained even in the face of strong contradiction. Such beliefs act as a sort of filter through which people view the world and interpret information. How teachers teach often reflects the values and beliefs about learning that they developed through their own personal experiences. Fortunately, however, beliefs result not only from personal experiences, but also from information acquired through education and other sources. For example, what we believe about the effects of smoking may reflect what we have read or heard rather than what we have experienced. Similarly, what we believe about the characteristics of children or about human learning may be based partly on our own experiences and partly on what we have learned from more formal educational experiences. How Beliefs Affect Decisions All teachers have beliefs about their work, their students, how learning occurs, and the subjects they teach. Especially important, as Charalambous (2015) points out, are the beliefs a teacher has about knowledge and learning. A teacher who believes students learn best by memorizing assigns memory work; one who is convinced students remember only what they understand takes more pains to explain and clarify. A teacher who believes students cheat when given the opportunity supervises her examinations closely; one who thinks students are basically honest prepares her lessons while students take their tests. As an example, see the case "Last Weekend, Tommy and I. . . ." Note that Mr. Busenius believes, among other things, that: Offenders must be made to stop immediately before misbehavior spreads. It is better to reprimand silently and at close range without disrupting ongoing classroom activities. Cases from the Classroom: Last Weekend, Tommy and I . . . The Situation: Mr. Busenius' sixth-grade language class. The students are generally well behaved; most appear interested and attentive—except for Helena who, in Mr. Busenius' words, is "a bit of a challenge." Today, students are asked to write two paragraphs describing the most interesting thing that happened to them over the weekend. Helena has no interest in the assignment. Instead, she begins to brush her hair. But before she has completed her third stroke, Mr. Busenius has quietly reached her desk, taken the brush from her, and jabbed his finger emphatically on the blank sheet of paper on Helena's desk. She bends to her task. "Last weekend," she writes, "Tommy and I, I don't know if I should write this, but I will, what we did is . . ." Mr. Busenius might have selected other options. For example, he might simply have ignored Helena if he believed that her behavior was designed to get attention and that it would, therefore, be less likely to be repeated if he ignored it. Or he might have used some form of punishment, such as detention, believing that Helena would subsequently change her behavior to avoid punishment. Alternatively, he might have gone over to Roberta and praised her remarkable paragraphs just loudly enough to draw Helena's attention, believing that this might encourage Helena to build her own astonishing paragraphs. Also, he might have taken the time to explain how important it is to learn to express oneself, in the belief that this might motivate Helena to greater efforts. Or he might have explained to Helena that her hair brushing was distracting and upsetting the others, believing that her need for social approval would convince her to put her brush away. Which of these behaviors is best? Is it always best? Which of these beliefs is most accurate and most useful? In this textbook there are answers for some of these questions. This Textbook and Your Beliefs Although some beliefs about teaching and learning are already well established by the time teachers begin their training, and although beliefs are often resistant to change, many beliefs are certainly changeable. For example, Choi (2008) found that teachers who participated in a course that emphasized an inquiry approach to teaching science changed their beliefs significantly about the best ways of teaching science. Most important, their teaching behaviors actually changed. They had developed different beliefs and different expertise. There have traditionally been two rather different sets of beliefs about teaching and learning. One, which might be called a teacher- and content-centered orientation, emphasizes the teacher's role in imparting structured bodies of knowledge. The other orientation is more student- and learning-centered: It emphasizes the student's role in the teaching-learning process. Clearly, if you believe that one of these orientations is highly preferable to the other, that belief will be reflected in your approach to teaching and in your interactions with learners. One of the important aims of this textbook is to encourage you to examine your beliefs—especially those that have to do with learners and with teaching—and to discard or alter them if necessary. This textbook tries to do this in two related ways: first, by providing you with important information about learners of different ages and about the processes involved in learning, organizing, remembering, thinking, solving problems, and being creative; and second, by describing and illustrating practical strategies for facilitating the teaching/learning process. 1.2 Educational Psychology What is Educational Psychology? Why is it important to apply psychological science to the learning process? How might educational psychology support both teacher efforts in the classroom and student success? Psychology is the science that studies human behavior and thinking. It looks at how experience affects thought and action; it explores the roles of biology and heredity; it examines consciousness and dreams; it traces how people develop from infants into adults; it investigates social influences. Basically, psychology tries to explain why people think, act, and feel as they do. Educational psychology is the branch of psychology that studies human behavior in educational settings. It involves applying existing psychological knowledge to educational theory and practice, as well as developing new knowledge and procedures. Accordingly, educational psychology deals with learning processes, human development and motivation, social learning, human personality (especially characteristics such as intelligence and creativity), discipline and other aspects of classroom management, the measurement and evaluation of student development and learning, and other related issues. These broad topics (divided into 10 chapters), are the substance of this textbook. There are two main approaches to research in fields such as educational psychology: quantitative research and qualitative research. Quantitative Research Quantitative research, in its simplest sense, is research that deals with things that can be measured (that can be quantified). The methods of quantitative research are the methods of what we commonly understand as science. Science is an approach that insists on precision, consistency, and replicability. Accordingly, the methods of science are based on rules intended to eliminate subjectivity, bias, and the influence of random factors. Science's most important tool in the quest for understanding has been the experiment. An experiment is a situation where the investigator systematically manipulates aspects of the environment to determine the effect of so doing on some important outcome. What is manipulated or controlled is called the independent variable; the effect of this manipulation is reflected in the dependent variable. Most experiments can easily be worded in terms of an "if-then" statement. The experimenter is saying, in effect, "this particular set of conditions exists, then we should see this outcome." The "if" part of the equation is the independent variable; the "then" part is the dependent variable. As an example, consider the prediction (termed a hypothesis) that rewarding learners will have a positive effect on subsequent learning. Phrased as an if-then statement, this might be translated as "if, learners are rewarded, then there will be an improvement in their subsequent learning." An experiment designed to examine this hypothesis might consist of an arrangement where some learners are paid for their grades and others not, all are later exposed to a learning experience, and the performance of the rewarded group is compared to that of the unrewarded group. In this case, the independent variable (the "if" part of the if-then equation) is the monetary reward; the dependent variable (the "then" part) is the learner's subsequent performance. (See Figure 1.1.) Figure 1.1: Example of an experimental design A simple experiment designed to test a hypothesis. Note that hypotheses can generally be worded as "if-then" statements. The "if" part of the statement is the independent variable (in this case, the payment students in the experimental group receive); the "then" part is the dependent variable (in this case, the grades obtained by members of the experimental group). Figure of boxed representation of an experiment designed to test a hypothesis. Qualitative Research Whereas quantitative research deals with things that are measurable, qualitative research deals with things that are describable in terms of their qualities. The main objectives of qualitative research are not so much to arrive at conclusions that can be replicated and widely generalized, but rather to arrive at an in-depth understanding of how individuals experience the world, of how they feel, and why they react as they do. The most commonly used approaches in qualitative research include in-depth interviews, observation, focus groups, and journals and diaries (Miles, Huberman & Saldana, 2014; Marx, 2016). Interviews and observations, as well as sessions with focus groups, are often recorded. As a result, unlike experiments, which typically yield numbers that can be analyzed and graphed, the methods of qualitative research often produce a vast wealth of detail, the analysis and interpretation of which can be very difficult and which sometimes span enormous periods of time. Many researchers have dismissed qualitative methods as overly subjective and unreliable. In-depth interviews, often of a single individual, typically don't yield results that can easily be shown to be valid and that can be generalized to other individuals or groups. In fact, the results of qualitative research fare very poorly when measured against science's insistence on precision, replicability, and generalizability. But, as Miles, Huberman, and Saldana (2014) note, while these criteria are entirely appropriate for quantitative research, qualitative research needs to be subjected to different methods of analysis and to be judged by other standards—standards such as those of credibility and confirmability. Which method to use, say Palys and Atchison (2013), should depend on the questions being asked and the reasons for asking them, and not on some predetermined notion of which of these two approaches is best. If you want to know how your students feel about your revolutionary approach to accordion lessons, you might want to study their personal journals and diaries, or perhaps meet with them in small focus groups, or use some other qualitative research strategy. But if you want to know whether they achieve better in mathematics when allowed to use colored pencils rather than ordinary ones, an experiment designed to look at the quantifiable outcomes of your teaching might be far more appropriate. Theories Research, whether quantitative or qualitative, is geared toward accumulating facts and increasing our understanding. In this context, however, the word fact is perhaps too strong; it implies a degree of certainty and accuracy that is not always possible in psychology or education. In spite of science's insistence that observations be made under controlled conditions so that they can be replicated, different researchers sometimes observe very different things. Facts (or observations), by themselves, would be of limited value to educators and psychologists if they were not organized, summarized, and simplified. That's where theory comes in. In a simple sense, a theory is a collection of related statements whose principal function is to summarize and explain observations. For example, when I observe that tenth-grader Roland Littlefork repeatedly refuses to join other students for lunch or to be involved in sports, drama, music, or any other extracurricular activity, I might develop a theory about his behavior. "I have a theory about Roland," I might say, and everybody would understand what I meant. "He doesn't like social gatherings," I might continue. "He's probably a very shy person." That, in a nutshell, would be my limited theory. It summarizes and explains my observations admirably. It is a statement that might be described as a naïve theory. Naïve theories differ from more formal theories in one important respect: Naïve theories express personal convictions that need only be believed but not scientifically proven; formal theories must be tested. Some theories are more useful than others. Some, for instance, don't reflect all of the facts. Let's say, for example, that Roland Littlefork socializes regularly with a large group of friends outside of school, that he is choir leader in his church, that he directs the church's annual Christmas pageant, and that he organizes political rallies in his spare time. If this were true, my theory about Roland’s behavior would not fit all the facts and would therefore be highly misleading. That a good theory reflect all important facts is only one requirement. Thomas (2005) suggests several others: A theory is good if it (1) accurately reflects observations, (2) is expressed clearly, (3) is useful for predicting as well as explaining, (4) lends itself to practical applications, (5) is consistent rather than self-contradictory, and (6) is not based on numerous assumptions (unproven beliefs). A good theory should also be thought provoking and should provide satisfying explanations. See Table 1.2 for an example involving fertilizer. This theory holds, in part, that horse manure stimulates potatoes and carrots, that chicken droppings invigorate cabbages, and that dried cow dung excites flowers. Table 1.2: Criteria of a good theory, applied to grandma Francœur's fertilizer theory Criteria of a good theory Grandmother Francœur's fertilizer theory Does it reflect the facts? Yes, if carrots, potatoes, and other plants behave as expected under specified conditions. Is it clear and understandable? It is quite clear. Is it useful for predicting as well as explaining? Very. For example, the theory allows the gardener to predict in the spring what will happen in the fall depending on the fertilizers used. And the predictions are clearly falsifiable. Thus, the theory can be tested directly. Is it practically useful? Clearly, yes, for those engaged in the growing of vegetables. Is it internally consistent? Unfortunately, no. Grandma has sometimes claimed that chicken droppings are better for potatoes than horse manure. Is it based on many unverifiable assumptions? No. The assumptions upon which it is based could be verified—or falsified. Is it satisfying and thought provoking? Oh yes! The most useful theories not only explain observations but also predict events. My naïve theory about Roland Littlefork, for example, allows me to predict that he will be reluctant to accept an invitation to participate in a school play. As we saw, however, in this case the prediction may be quite inaccurate because the theory does not account for certain important facts (specifically, that he is highly involved in church plays). Presumably, a theory that fits the facts better would lead to more accurate predictions. Some of the statements that make up psychological theories may be described as laws, others as principles, and many as beliefs. Laws, Principles, and Beliefs Laws are statements whose accuracy is generally beyond question. Physics, chemistry, astronomy, and other natural sciences have discovered many important laws. One example is Newton's law of gravity. This law states that all objects exert a gravitational pull toward each other and that the strength of this pull is directly proportional to the mass of each object and inversely related to the square of the distance between them. Where laws such as this apply, they can be used to make very precise predictions about the motion of objects, such as falling apples or orbiting planets. As we saw earlier, however, human behavior is rarely characterized by the regularity and unwavering predictability of laws. Principles are statements that are probable rather than certain. Unlike laws, they are always open to a degree of doubt, to a certain level of probability (and improbability). Accordingly, most psychological statements about human behavior and experience take the form of principles rather than laws. For example, as Chapter 5 explains, a learning principle predicts that under certain conditions behaviors that are rewarded are more likely to occur again. This principle can be very useful in a teaching-learning situation. Beliefs are more private and personal than either principles or laws. Beliefs are our individual convictions, our personal attempts to explain observations. Beliefs are often based on personal experience but can also be based on the same sorts of scientific observations that give rise to more formal theories. As we saw earlier, beliefs can reflect stereotypes and biases, and can therefore be either negative or positive. Accordingly, theybeliefs can dramatically influence teacher and learner expectations and interactions. One of the most important goals of Psychology for Teaching is to encourage you to examine and evaluate the consequences of your own beliefs. One key step in that direction is to look at the sorts of models that underlie your thinking. 1.3 Models of Teaching and Learning A model is like a pattern or a blueprint; it's a representation of how things are or of how they can or should be. In a sense, a model is an organized set of beliefs about something important. Models can be very specific and concrete and are often included in, or derived from, theories. For example, there are models of atomic structures, models of the universe, and teaching models. Models can also be very general: They can represent all of our beliefs and assumptions about human nature. In this sense, each of us has implicit models that govern our view of the world and guide our beliefs and our behavior. As we saw earlier, one model of teaching views learning as being largely a process of acquisition by learners—a process of progressively accumulating information. This model emphasizes the teacher's role in presenting well-organized bodies of knowledge to the learner. A second model views participation as the most important basis for learning. It emphasizes the student's role in the teaching-learning process. Perspectives in Teaching: Using Constructivism in the ClassroomPerspectives in Teaching: Using Constructivism in the Classroom 00:00 00:00 Ashford University professor, Celeste Campbell, gives an example of constructivism in action. She describes being the guide-on-the-side, as opposed to a lecturer in front of the class. Which is your own preferred method of learning? Why? Could you learn to adapt to the other? How will your own preferences for learning affect your teaching? Constructivism and Direct Instruction Teachers who subscribe to the acquisition model typically view their role as one of helping students accumulate information and concepts. Those who subscribe to the participation model are more concerned with the student's active participation in learning. These two models lead directly to two basic approaches to instruction. The highly teacher-centered acquisition model says, in effect, that because learning is largely a matter of acquiring information, the teacher's principal role should be one of direct instruction. This view of learning and teaching sees the teacher as the principal source of information and assigns to the teacher the role of organizing and imparting information in the most effective way possible. In contrast, the participation model leads to the view that the learner should be an active participant in the teaching-learning process—that learners are, in fact, responsible for discovering and constructing information for themselves. Accordingly, constructivist approaches to instruction are highly student- rather than teacher-centered. Discovery and cooperative approaches to teaching are good examples of constructivism. Some writers in education believe that teaching has, for some time, been experiencing a revolution—specifically, a constructivist revolution. Thus, the term constructivism is often paired with descriptive terms such as progressive and new. In contrast, direct instruction is more likely to be associated with terms such as status quo, traditional, and old. Others point out that in many ways this is not a revolution at all but simply a continuation—or perhaps a revival—of some century-old ideas first popularized through the writings of John Dewey (1933). What is now labeled constructivism was then called progressive education. One of the recurring conclusions in this textbook is that there is not, and should not be, a clear dichotomy between constructivism and direct instruction. As a teacher, you don't have to select one or the other model and use only its approaches to teaching. The truth is that even in the most progressive, student-centered schools, the methods of direct instruction (for example, lecturing, telling, directing, guiding, and giving information) may well be far more common than the methods of constructivism (for example, discovery learning and cooperative learning). A Model of Teaching To simplify without unduly distorting reality, teaching can be described in terms of three stages: teaching, during teaching, and after teaching (see Figure 1.2). Each of these stages is characterized by different demands on the teacher. And contrary to what we might immediately assume, the teaching stage is no more important than what occurs before or after teaching. Figure 1.2: A teaching model A three-stage teaching model outlines the instructional process in terms of teacher actions and responsibilities. *Indicates chapters containing relevant information. Click here to see a static version of the figure. Before Teaching To be an effective, perhaps even exemplary, teacher, you must make some critical decisions before you even walk into your classroom and actually engage in the business of teaching. First, you must decide on both the long-range and short-term goals of the instructional process. To determine these goals, you need to answer some questions for yourself: What specific learning outcomes do you intend and expect? How do these tie in with the broad goals of the educational process in this subject? This grade? This school? This city or county? How do these goals fit in with your values and beliefs? How important are they? Once you have determined your instructional goals, you need to select a teaching strategy to attain these goals, and you must invent, make, or at least collect materials that are useful for teaching. What is required here is not only knowledge of the strategies themselves but also of the skills required to implement them effectively. And, perhaps most important, you must know whether students are ready for this specific teaching-learning experience. Student readiness involves a variety of factors, including essential prerequisite knowledge and skills and appropriate motivation. Clearly, students who are eager to learn are most likely to profit from instruction, and students who have already mastered prerequisite knowledge and skills are more likely to attain instructional objectives. These considerations highlight the importance of knowing how students learn and develop and what motivates them. Another critical step in the preteaching phase is planning for assessment: How will you determine to what extent instructional goals have been met? By what procedures will you evaluate the instructional process itself and the changes that might occur among learners? How will the results of your evaluation procedures influence subsequent teaching decisions? In summary, the preteaching phase involves at least four steps: setting appropriate goals, determining student readiness, selecting appropriate instructional strategies, and planning for assessment. Teaching The instructional process—commonly called teaching—involves implementing strategies designed to lead learners to attain certain goals. In general, these strategies involve communication, leadership, motivation, and control (discipline or management). As we saw earlier, the precise nature of your teaching strategies will be heavily influenced by your model of learners and learning—for example, whether you view learning as largely a matter of acquiring and accumulating information, or whether you see it mainly as a process where the student's participation is central. Lemov (2014) describes a wide variety of different instructional methods used in schools. Among approaches that reflect a constructivist model are those involving discovery- and problem-based learning, peer-based cooperative learning, and open classroom discussion. The methods of direct instruction are reflected in expository teacher presentations (where the teacher does most of the telling, directing, and guiding), modeling approaches (where written, symbolic, or real-life models are used to show students what they are to learn), and highly structured, small group, teacher guided learning. Which of these methods is most effective? That, of course, depends on the purposes of the instruction as well as on the characteristics of both teacher and learners. However, it's possible to summarize some of the characteristics of effective teachers (and effective teaching). The InTASC standards described in Table 1.1 do just that. Among other things, these standards state that effective teachers understand the subjects they teach, the different characteristics of their learners, and the variety of instructional strategies available to them. The standards also stipulate that effective teachers can motivate and manage students and make effective use of assessment. Some important characteristics of effective teachers include the following, which were derived from InTASC standards. The effective teacher understands the subject(s) being taught; is aware of how children learn and develop; is sensitive to individual differences among learners; has a repertoire that includes a variety of instructional strategies; understands individual and group motivation; communicates effectively to foster inquiry and a positive classroom environment; takes subject matter, learners, and goals into account in planning instruction; uses assessment effectively; actively reflects to evaluate choices and actions in light of his or her efforts; fosters positive relationships with colleagues, community members, and learners. After Teaching The third phase of the teaching process involves assessing the outcomes of instruction in relation to the goals that you set in the preteaching phase. This process of evaluation reveals the effectiveness of your teaching; it might also say a great deal about the appropriateness of your instructional goals, the readiness of your students, the success of your teaching strategies, and even the relevance and fairness of your evaluation procedures. This is the phase during which reflective teachers actively consider the effects of the choices they have made and consider how they might improve aspects of the teaching/learning process. Teaching as a Reflective Activity Reflective teaching implies a process where teachers systematically and actively think about (reflect upon) their teaching activities and the effects of these activities on learners.